Lesson 11: Fallacies

of Ambiguity
Chapter 4: Informal Fallacies
 What is a
FALLACY?
 FALLACY
•It is from the latin term “Fallo”
which means “I deceive.”
•It has come to mean a
deceptive argument, that is, an
argument that seems to be
correct but is actually incorrect.
 FALLACY
•A fallacy is an error in reasoning.
Fallacies are deceptive arguments.
The basic point of such arguments
may seem to proceed from a
seamless or organized flow of the
thought process.
 FALLACY
•However, upon close review
and analysis, the arguments
are really bad thinking.
 TYPES OF FALLACY
•Fallacies of Ambiguity
•Fallacies of Presumption
•Fallacies of Relevance
•Fallacies of Weak Induction
 FALLACY OF AMBIGUITY
•May result from syntactical
ambiguity (sentence
structure) or confusion in
the meaning of words
 FALLACY OF AMBIGUITY
•Argument sometimes fail because
their formulation contains
ambiguous words or phrases,
whose meanings shift and change
within the course of the argument,
thus rendering it fallacious.
TYPES OF FALLACY OF AMBIGUITY

•Equivocation
•Amphiboly
•Accent
•Composition
•Division
 EQUIVOCATION
•It refers to the use of
the same word
unrelated sense.
 EQUIVOCATION
Example:
1. Since all Mahoganies
have bark and all dogs bark,
it can be said that all dogs
are Mahoganies.
 AMPHIBOLY
•It is one that results from
the ambiguity of the
grammatical structure of
the sentence.
 AMPHIBOLY
•Meaning becomes
indeterminate because of
the way words are combined
in the sentence. It is due to
syntactical ambiguit
 AMPHIBOLY
Example:
1. The chicken is ready to
eat.
2. Let’s eat grandma
 ACCENT
•The emphasis of a word
in any given statement
can result to some
ambiguity of meaning.
 ACCENT
Example:
1. I didn’t take the test
yesterday.
 COMPOSITION
•It argues that the
property of the
constituent parts is
also true to its whole.
 COMPOSITION
•The fallacy of composition is an
informal fallacy that occurs
when one assumes that
something is true of the whole
from the fact that it is true of
some part of the whole.
 COMPOSITION
Example:
1. “All the players in the team are
the best in their position, so this
is the best team” is based on an
erroneous assumption, because
“the best team”
 DIVISION
•It argues that the
property of the whole
is also true to each
constituent part.
 DIVISION
Example:
1. The university is rich. It has
assets amounting to two billion
pesos. Since I belong to
the university, I am also rich
Verbal Fallacies
 Non-Verbal Fallacies
1. Accident
2. Confusion of Absolute and
Qualified statements
3. Ignoratio Elenchi
a. Argumentum ad Hominem
b. Emotional Appeal
 Non-Verbal Fallacies
C. Emotional Appeal
1. Appeal to pity
2. Appeal to people
3. Appeal to shame
4. Appeal to force
5. Appeal to pride
 Non-Verbal Fallacies
4. Begging the question
a. Vicious circle
b. question-begging expressions
c. The loaded question or many
questions.
 Non-Verbal Fallacies
5. False Cause
6. Consequent
 ACCIDENT

•Is the fallacy that equates

Example:
1. All men are equal; but
John is blond while that of
Cesar is jet black; therefore
not all men are equal.
Confusion of Absolute and Qualified
Statement
•What is true or false of
particular instances only as
true as false of all its instances.
•Totally true or false what is true
or false of particular instances.
Confusion of Absolute and Qualified
Statement

Example:
1. The Japanese are
technologically oriented;
therefore, Yokoshita, a
Japanese is a tech expert.
Confusion of Absolute and Qualified
Statement
Example:
2. Charito is a Pampaguena
and she is a good cook,
therefore, all Pampaguenas
are good cooks.
 Ignoratio Elenchi
•Is the fallacy that proves
some other conclusion
that the one at issue.
Referred to as Missing the
point.
Forms of Ignoratio Elenchi

1. Argumentum ad
Hominem (attack against
the man)- the attack is
label again a man, not
against his argument.
 Forms of Ignoratio Elenchi

2. Emotional Appeals:
2.1. Appeal to pity
(argumentum ad
misericordiam)
 Emotional Appeals
1. Appeal to pity (argumentum
ad misericordiam)
Ex: Vote for him because he has
already put in a lot of money and
heartache in the campaign.
 Emotional Appeals
2. Appeal to people
(argumentum ad populum)
Ex: in 1800, most people
believed slavery was OK. So,
slavery really was OK back then.
 Emotional Appeals
3. Appeal to Shame
(Argumentum ad veracundiam)
Ex: How dare you doubt the
word om poetry of the great
science genius Einstein?
 Emotional Appeals

4. Appeal to Force
(Argumentum ad baculum)
Ex: agree with me or I shall
hit you with this stick.
 Emotional Appeals

5. Appeal to pride
Ex:
1. Of course, the painting is
beautiful. I did it, didn’t I?
 Begging the Question
•is the fallacy of using the
conclusion as a premise
and using it to prove the
same conclusion.
 Begging the Question

1. Vicious Circle
Ex:
Why are standing?
Because I am not sitting.
 Begging the Question
2. Both Premise and Conclusion
Argument
Ex:
He is a person of impeccable
character because he is
irreproachable.
 Begging the Question

3. The Loaded Question