Wakgari Chapter One Introduction
Wakgari Chapter One Introduction
Course Inst. Wakgari Tasisa (Asst. Prof and PhD Cand. Educational Policy and Leadership
studies, AAU
Statistics in Education
Collection of Data
Organization (classification) of
Data
Presentation of Data
Analysis of Data
Interpretation of Data
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1.3. Basic Terms in Statistical Methods in Education
1. Population and Sample
i. Population (universe)
is the collection of all items (individuals, objects, measurements)
in a particular study.
A population is the set of all measurements of interest to the
sample collector.
Population may be finite or infinite.
ii. Sample
A sample is any subset of measurements selected from the
population.
numerical characteristic of the sample
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calculated using the sample
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2. Statistic and Parameter
i. Statistic (not to be confused with statistics)
is a measure used to describe some characteristics of a sample
(that is numerical values obtained from a sample).
Such values are denoted by Latin letters such as:
X Arithmetic mean of a sample.
S2 Variance of a sample.
S Standard deviation of a sample
ii. Parameter
is a numerical value (measure) used to describe from
some
May 29, 2025 characteristics of a population.
numerical characteristic of the population
calculated using the whole population
Such value are denoted by Greek letters such as
Arithmetic mean of a population
2 variance of a population
Standard deviation of a population
3. Census and Sample survey
i. Census
is a complete enumeration of the entire population.
It is the method of collecting information from the population.
ii. Sample survey
is an investigation that consists of only a portion of the population
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(sample).
a) Population and sample refer to the objects that are sources of
information.
b) Census and sample survey are methods or approaches employed
to collect data.
c) Statistic and parameter are results.
Univariate data set
Consists of observations on a single attribute
Multivariate data
Consists of observations on several attributes
Special case: Bivariate data
the relationship or association between two variables (‘variate’ is
another word for variable.)
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4. Sample Frame
is a list of entire population from which items can be selected to
form a sample.
listing of all the units in the population
5. Variables and Attributes
i. Variables
The term variable is derived from the word ‘vary’ that means to
differ or change.
Hence, variable means the characteristic that varies, differs, or
changes from person to person, time to time, place to place, etc.
A variable refers to a quantity or attribute whose value varies from
one investigation to another.
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Types of variables
(a). Discrete variable data
Variables that are capable of taking only an exact value and not any
fractional value are termed as discrete variables.
is a variable, which assumes only specified values (usually integral
values) on its individual observation.
That is those results from counts.
All qualitative (categorical) variables are discrete.
Example- Number of customers, family size, number of inhabitants,
etc.
(b) Continuous variable data
is a variable which can theoretically assume any real number (as a
value) such as decimals.
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A continuous variable can assume all values between any two given
Examples of continuous variables are the heights of adult men, body
temperatures of rats, and cholesterol levels of adults.
b. Attributes
are those which cannot be described numerically
these are qualitative (or categorical) characteristics.
Example 1.6. Color of eye, color of hair, nationality, sex, marital status,
etc. are attributes (or attribute values).
1.4. Pilot Study (Test)
A pilot study is a mini-version of a full-scale study or a trial run done in
preparation of the complete study.
called a ‘feasibility’ study.
It can also be a specific pre-testing of research instruments, including
May 29, 2025 questionnaires or interview schedules.
Wolman and Kruger (1999:146) listed the following three values
of a pilot study:
1.To detect possible flaws in measurement procedures (including
instructions, time limits, etc) and in the operationalisation of
independent variables.
2. to identify unclear or ambiguous items in a questionnaire
3. The non-verbal behaviours of participants in the pilot study
may give important information about any embarrassment or
discomfort experienced concerning the content or wording of items
in a questionnaire.
rxx=s2t/S2o……… 3
Estimates of Reliability
1. Measure of Stability
2. Measure of Equivalence
3. Measure of Internal Consistency
Split half
Kuder Richardson Estimates
Coefficient of Alpha
1. Reasons-1:
• Statistics is deeply intertwined with research design.
• If you want to be good at designing psychological
studies, you need to at least understand the basics
of stats.
2. Reason-2:
• Understand reports of results presented in statistical
analyses in psychological literature/article.
• Understanding a certain amount of statistics crucial
for psychologists.
•
3. Reason-3:
• There is a big practical problem with being
dependent on other people to do all your statistics.
• Basic statistics knowledge and skills demanded in
almost any real life situation.
Basic terms in statistics
1)Data (plural) are measurement or observations. A
data set is a collection of measurement or
observations.
2)Datum (singular) is a single measurement or
observation and is commonly called as score or row
score.
3)Parameter is a value, usually a numerical value that
describes a population. A parameter is usually derived
from measurements of the individuals in the population.
4)Statistic is a value, usually a numerical value that
describes a sample. A statistic is usually derived from
measurements of the individuals in the sample.
5)Discrete variable consists of separate, indivisible
categories. No values can exist b/n two neighboring
categories.
6)Continuous variable, there are an infinite number of
possible values that fall b/n any two observed values. A
Scales of Measurement in Statistics
1.Nominal Scale
• Nominal means “having to do with names.”
• Classifying individuals into categories that have different
names but are not related to each other in any systematic
way.
• E.g. Classifying students according to his or her
major[sociology, Psychology, etc.]
• Allow us to determine whether two individuals are different,
but they do not identify either the direction or the size of
the difference.
• Classifying people by race, gender, or occupation is also
example of nominal scale measured variables.
• The room numbers are simply names and do not reflect any
quantitative information. Room 109 is not necessarily
bigger than Room 100 and certainly not 9 points bigger.
• The use of numerical values as a code for nominal
categories E.g. Male=0, Female=1 [the numerical values
are simply names and do not represent any quantitative
difference]
Scales of Measurement
Continued…..
2. Ordinal Scale
• Ordinal scale categories not only have different names but
also are organized in a fixed order corresponding to differences
of magnitude.
• Consists of a series of ranks (first, second, third, and so on)
• Categories are identified by verbal labels like small, medium,
and large drink sizes at a fast-food restaurant
• There is a directional relationship between categories.
• Helps to determine whether two individuals are different and
you can determine the direction of difference.
• Ordinal measurements do not allow you to determine the size of
the difference between two individuals.
• If Birhanu is placed in the low-reading group and Eyerus is
placed in the high-reading group, you know that Eyerus is a
better reader, but you do not know how much better.
Scales of Measurement
Continued…..
3. Interval Scale
• Used when the distance b/n observations is
measurable, equal, and ordinal, but a true zero point is
unnecessary.
• What is a true zero point? A true zero point occurs when
a scale cannot measure any observations
• Is quantitative, contains measurably equal distances
between observations, but lacks a true zero point.
• Basic mathematical operations[+, -, X, and division can
be performed on data collected from interval scales.
• Placement of zero on this scale does not mean that
information stops at that point; Temperature of 0°
Fahrenheit.
• Each degree entry on a thermometer is equally far
apart from every other degree,
• A temperature of 62° is objectively higher (and warmer)
than 60°, and the same 2° differences exists between
53° and 55°-temperatures that are in turn cooler than
the first pair.
Scales of Measurement---Interval
scale contd…
• Many personality scales, intelligence (IQ) measures,
educational tests, and rating scales use an interval scale.
• All tests, quizzes, and exams are based on an interval scale of
some type
• Obtaining a score of zero on a test of verbal skills, such
performance does not necessarily imply the complete absence
of relevant verbal ability?
• By interval data one cannot claim that one measure is twice or
three times the magnitude of another.
• 20° winter day in Ambo is not 3 times colder than a 60° day in
Adama,
• A score of 50 on a scale that measures depressive symptoms is
at greater risk for depression than a score of 25, but it would be
incorrect to say that one is twice as depressed as the other.
Scales of Measurement
Continued…..
4. Ratio Scale
• Incorporates all of the properties found in the previous
three scales, as well as an absolute zero point.
• It ranks observations, contains equal and meaningful
intervals, and has a true zero point.
• A zero point is meaningful because it indicates a true
absence of information.
• E.g. measurement on a ruler, miles reading on
speedometer/automobile no in motion
• Existence of a true zero point on a ratio scale enables
users to describe measurements in terms of numerical
ratios.
• Weight is a ratio scale, so that a 2-ton object is to a I-
ton object as a 4-ton object is to a 2-ton object (i.e.,
each is twice the weight of the other).
• Similarly, where height is concerned, a 6-ft person is
twice as tall as a 3-ft person.
Scales of Measurement---Summary
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