Semiconductor Physics

Energy Band Gap Theory

• It is a theory which explains the quantum state that an electron takes inside metal solid. Every molecule consists of
numerous discrete energy levels. This theory explains in detail the way electrons behave inside a molecule.
• In atoms, electrons fill in respective energy orbits which follow Pauli’s exclusion principle. In molecules, two atomic
orbitals combine for forming a molecular orbit with two separate energy levels.
• Further, in solids, 1023 stacked up lines confined in a tiny space will look like a band. Thus, it forms an energy
continuum which we refer to as energy bands. With this theory, we get a very useful way of visualizing the
difference between conductors, insulators and semiconductors.
Energy Band Gap Theory
 Energy Band Gap Theory
According to Bohr’s theory, every shell of an atom contains a discrete amount of energy at different levels.
Energy band theory explains the interaction of electrons between the outermost shell and the innermost shell.
Based on the energy band theory, there are three different energy bands:
1. Valence band 2. Forbidden band 3. Conduction band

• Valence Band
The electrons in the outermost shell are known as valence electrons. These valence electrons contain a series of energy levels
and form an energy band known as the valence band. The valence band has the highest occupied energy.

• Conduction Band
The valence electrons are not tightly held to the nucleus due to which a few of these valence electrons leave the outermost
orbit even at room temperature and become free electrons. The free electrons conduct current in conductors and are
therefore known as conduction electrons. The conduction band is one that contains conduction electrons and has the lowest
occupied energy levels.

• Forbidden Band
The gap between the valence band and the conduction band is referred to as the forbidden gap. As the name suggests, the
forbidden gap doesn’t have any energy and no electrons stay in this band.
Types of electronic materials: conductors, semiconductors,
and insulators
• Conductors- Overlap of the valence band and the conduction band so that at the valence electrons can mov through the
material.
• Insulators- Large forbidden gap between the energies of the valence electrons and the energy at which
the electrons can move freely through the material (the conduction band).
• Semiconductors- Have almost an empty conduction band and almost filled valence band with a very narrow energy
gap (of the order of 1 eV) separating the two.
 Fermi energy
Fermi energy refers to the energy difference between the highest and lowest occupied single-particle states in a
quantum system of non-interacting fermions at absolute zero temperature.
The value of the Fermi level at absolute zero temperature (−273.15 °C) is known as the Fermi energy. It is also
the maximum kinetic energy an electron can attain at 0K.
Fermi Level:
• The highest energy level that an electron can
occupy at the absolute zero temperature is
known as the Fermi Level.
• The Fermi level lies between the valence band
and conduction band because at absolute zero
temperature, the electrons are all in the
lowest energy state.
• Due to the lack of sufficient energy at 0 Kelvin,
the Fermi level can be considered as the sea
of fermions (or electrons) above which no
electrons exist.
Types of Semiconductors
 Intrinsic semiconductors
• A Semiconductor which does not have any kind of impurities, behaves as an Insulator at 0 K and behaves as Conductor at
higher temperature is known as Intrinsic Semiconductor or Pure Semiconductors.
• Germanium and Silicon (4th group elements) are the best examples of intrinsic semiconductors and they possess diamond
cubic crystalline structure.
 Carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductors
• When a suitable form of Energy is supplied to a Semiconductor then electrons take transition from Valence band to Conduction
band.
• Hence a free electron in Conduction band and simultaneously free hole in Valence band is formed. This phenomenon is known
as Electron - Hole pair generation.
• In Intrinsic Semiconductor the Number of Conduction electrons will be equal to the Number of Vacant sites or holes in the
valence band.
 Extrinsic semiconductors

The Extrinsic Semiconductors are those in which impurities of large quantity are present. Usually, the impurities can be either 3rd
group elements or 5th group elements.
Based on the impurities present in the Extrinsic Semiconductors, they are classified into two categories.
1. N-type semiconductors
2. P-type semiconductors
 N-type semiconductors

• When any pentavalent element such as Phosphorous, Arsenic or Antimony is added to the intrinsic Semiconductor, four
electrons are involved in covalent bonding with four neighboring pure Semiconductor atoms.
• The fifth electron is weakly bound to the parent atom. And even for lesser thermal energy it is released Leaving the parent atom
positively ionized.
 N-type semiconductors
• The Intrinsic Semiconductors doped with pentavalent impurities are called N-type Semiconductors.
• The energy level of fifth electron is called donor level.
• The donor level is close to the bottom of the conduction band most of the donor level electrons are
excited in to the conduction band at room temperature and become the Majority charge carriers.
• Hence in N-type Semiconductors electrons are Majority carriers and holes are Minority carriers.
 P-type semiconductors
• When a trivalent elements such as or Indium have three electrons in their outer most orbits, added to the intrinsic
semiconductor all the three electrons of Indium are engaged in covalent bonding with the three neighboring Si atoms.
• Indium needs one more electron to complete its bond. this electron maybe supplied by Silicon, there by creating a vacant
electron site or hole on the semiconductor atom.
• Indium accepts one extra electron, the energy level of this impurity atom is called acceptor level and this acceptor level lies just
above the valence band.
• These type of trivalent impurities are called acceptor impurities and the semiconductors doped the acceptor impurities are
called P-type semiconductors.
 P-type semiconductors
• Even at relatively low temperatures, these acceptor atoms get ionized taking electrons from
valence band and thus giving rise to holes in valence band for conduction.
• Due to ionization of acceptor atoms only holes and no electrons are created.
• Thus holes are more in number than electrons and hence holes are majority carriers and electros
are minority carriers in P-type semiconductors.
 p-n Junction
A p–n junction is a combination of two types of semiconductor materials, p-type and n-type, in a single crystal.
The "n" (negative) side contains freely-moving electrons, while the "p" (positive) side contains freely-moving
electron holes. Connecting the two materials causes creation of a depletion region near the boundary, as the
free electrons fill the available holes, which in turn allows electric current to pass through the junction only in
one direction.

Solar cells and light-emitting diodes

(LEDs) are essentially p-n junctions
where the semiconductor materials are
chosen.

The p-n junction can be formed by

different methods.
They are (i) Grown junction method,
(ii) Alloying method and
(iii) Diffusion method.
 p-n Junction diode
p–n junctions represent the simplest case of a semiconductor electronic device; a p-n junction by itself, when
connected on both sides to a circuit, is a diode.

• In PN junction diode, N is at right and P is at left.

• Majority carriers
N region – electrons
P region -- holes
 Formation of depletion layer
NO external connections:
The excess electrons in the N region cross the junction and combine with the excess holes in the P region.
N region loses its electrons ….. becomes + vly charged
region accepts the electrons ….. becomes -vly charged
At one point , the migratory action is stopped.

• An additional electrons from the N region are repelled by the negative charge of the p region.
Similarly,
• An additional holes from the P region are repelled by the net positive charge of the n region.
• Net result a creation of thin layer of each side of the junction. Which is depleted (emptied) of mobile
charge carriers. This is known as Depletion Layer
• The depletion layer contains no free and mobile charge carriers but only fixed and immobile ions.
• Its width depends upon the doping level
• Heavy doped – thin depletion layer
• Lightly doped – thick depletion layer
Formation of depletion layer
 Biasing in diodes

The process of applying the external voltage to a p-n junction semiconductor diode is called biasing.
External voltage to the p-n junction diode is applied in any of the two methods:
 forward biasing
 reverse biasing.
 Forward biasing of PN junction
If the p-n junction diode is forward biased, it allows the electric current flow. Under forward biased condition, the p-
type semiconductor is connected to the positive terminal of battery whereas; the n-type semiconductor is connected
to the negative terminal of the battery.
 Reverse biasing of PN junction

If the p-n junction diode is reverse biased, it blocks the electric current flow. Under reverse biased condition, the p-
type semiconductor is connected to the negative terminal of battery whereas; the n-type semiconductor is connected
to the positive terminal of the battery.
Biasing of PN junction
 VI characteristics of PN Junction
• The curve drawn between voltage across the junction along X-axis and current through the circuits along the Y-axis.
• They describe the d.c behavior of the diode.
 VI characteristics of PN Junction
Forward bias Reverse bias

• When it is in forward bias, no current flows until the barrier • With reverse bias, potential barrier at the junction
voltage for Ge) is overcome. increased. ... junction resistance increase...and prevents
current flow.
• Then the curve has a linear rise and the current increases,
with the increase in forward voltage like an ordinary • However, the minority carriers are accelerated by the reverse
conductor. voltage resulting a very small current (REVERSE
CURRENT) in the order of micro amperes.
• Above 3 V , the majority carriers passing the junction gain
sufficient energy to knock out the valence electrons and raise • When reverse voltage is increased beyond a value, called
them to the conduction band. breakdown voltage, the reverse current increases sharply and
the diode shows almost zero resistance. It is known as
• Therefore, the forward current increases sharply .
avalanche breakdown.
• Reverse voltage above 25 v destroys the junction
permanently.
 Applications of junction diode

• As rectifiers to convert AC into DC

• As an switch in computer circuits.

• As detectors in radios to detect audio signals.

• As LED to emit different colors.

 Zener diode : Introduction
Zener diodes are semiconductor devices that allow current to flow in both directions but specialize in current
flowing in reverse.
In forward-biased conditions, the Zener Diode works like any normal diode but in the reverse-bias condition, a small
leak current flows through the diode. As we keep increasing the reverse voltage it reaches a point where the reverse
voltage equals the breakdown voltage. The breakdown voltage is represented as V z and in this condition the current
start flowing in the diode. After the breakdown voltage the current increase drastically until it reaches a stable value.

Circuit of Zener: One Zener diode connected with one resistance and battery
 V-I Characteristics of Zener diode
Forward Characteristics of Zener Diode
Forward characteristics of the Zener Diode are
similar to the forward characteristics of any normal
diode.
Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode
In reverse voltage conditions a small amount of
current flows through the Zener diode. This current
is because of the electrons which are thermally
generated in the Zener diode. As we keep increasing
the reverse voltage at any particular value of
reverse voltage the reverse current increases
suddenly at the breakdown point this voltage is
called Zener Voltage and is represented as Vz.
 Principle of Zener diode
 The working principle of Zener diode lies in the cause of breakdown for a diode in reverse biased condition.
Normally there are two types of breakdown.
1. Avalanche Breakdown. 2. Zener Breakdown.
Avalanche Breakdown
The phenomenon of Avalanche breakdown occurs both in the ordinary diode and Zener Diode at high reverse voltage. For
a high value of reverse voltage, the free electron in the PN junction diode gains energy and acquires high velocity and
these high-velocity electrons collide with other atoms and knock electrons from that atoms. This collision continues and
new electrons are available for conducting current thus the current increase rapidly in the diode.
This phenomenon of a sudden increase in the current is called the Avalanche breakdown. This phenomenon damages the
diode permanently whereas the Zener diode is a specific diode that is made to operate in this reverse voltage area.

Zener Breakdown
Zener breakdown happens in heavily doped PN junction diodes. In these diodes, if the reverse bias voltages reach closer
to Zener Voltage, the electric field gets stronger and is sufficient enough to pull electrons from the valance band. These
electrons then gain energy from the electric field and get free from the atom.
Thus, for these diodes in the Zener breakdown region, a slight increase in the voltage causes a sudden increase in the
current.
 Principle of Zener diode
Zener Breakdown Avalanche Breakdown

• This type of breakdown occurs for a reverse bias voltage • This type of breakdown occurs at the reverse bias voltage
between 2 to 8 V. above 8 V and higher.
• Even at low voltage, the electric field intensity is strong • It occurs for lightly doped diode with large breakdown
enough to exert a force. voltage.
• The valence electrons of the atom such that they are separated • As minority charge carriers (electrons) flow across the
from the nuclei. device.
• This type of break down occurs normally for highly doped • They tend to collide with the electrons in the covalent bond
diode with low breakdown voltage and larger electric field. and cause the covalent bond to disrupt.
• As temperature increases, the valence electrons gain more • As voltage increases, the kinetic energy (velocity) of the
energy to disrupt from the covalent bond and the less amount electrons also increases.
of external voltage is required.
• The avalanche breakdown voltage increases with
• Thus Zener breakdown voltage decreases with temperature. temperature.
 Zener diode as voltage regulator
Why is Zener Diode used as a regulator?
When the reverse voltage is applied to it, the voltage remains constant for a wide range of currents. Due to
this feature, it is used as a voltage regulator. The primary objective of the Zener diode as a voltage regulator
is to maintain a constant voltage.
 Zener diode as voltage regulator
A voltage regulator is a device that regulates the voltage level. It essentially steps down the input voltage to the desired
level and keeps it at that same level during the supply.
The voltage regulator is used for two main reasons, and they are:
•To regulate the output voltage
•To keep the output voltage constant at the desired value in spite of variations in the supply voltage.
Voltage regulators are used in computers, power generators, alternators to control the output of the plant.

The Zener voltage regulator consists of a current limiting resistor RS

connected in series with the input voltage VS with the Zener diode
connected in parallel with the load RL in this reverse biased condition.
The load is connected in parallel with the Zener diode, so the voltage
across RL is always the same as the Zener voltage, ( VR = VZ ).
When selecting the Zener diode, be sure that its maximum power rating is
not exceeded.
Imax = Maximum current for Zener diode

Imax = Power / Zener voltage.

 Rectifier
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts the alternating current (AC) , which periodically
reverses direction, into the direct current (DC), which flows only in one direction. This process
is known as Rectification.
Physically, rectifiers take a number of forms, including vacuum tube diodes, mercury-are valves,
copper and selenium oxide rectifiers, semiconductor diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers and other
silicon based semiconductor switches.

There are two types of rectifiers namely:

1. Half wave rectifier

2. Full wave rectifier
Half Wave Rectifier
• The process of removing one-half of the input
signal to establish a dc level is called half-
wave rectification.
• In half wave rectification, the rectifier
conducts current during positive half cycle of
input ac signal only.
• Negative half cycle is suppressed.
• Output frequency of HWR is equal to input
frequency.
• This means when input ac completes one
cycle, rectified wave also completes one cycle.

fout = fin
 Half Wave Rectifier
Half Wave Rectifier Circuit
A half-wave rectifier is the simplest form of the rectifier and requires only one diode for the construction of a
halfwave rectifier circuit.
A halfwave rectifier circuit consists of three main components as follows:
•A diode
•A transformer
•A resistive load
 Half Wave Rectifier
Working of Half Wave Rectifier
1. A high AC voltage is applied to the primary side of the step-down transformer. The obtained secondary low
voltage is applied to the diode.
2. The diode is forward biased during the positive half cycle of the AC voltage and reverse biased during the
negative half cycle.
3. The final output voltage waveform is as shown in the figure below:
 Half Wave Rectifier
For the positive half cycle of the AC source voltage, the circuit effectively becomes as shown below in the diagram:

When the diode is forward biased, it acts as a closed switch.

But, during the negative half cycle of the AC source voltage, the equivalent circuit becomes as shown in the figure below

When a diode is reverse biased, it acts as an open switch. Since no current can flow to the load, the
output voltage is equal to zero.
 Half Wave Rectifier
Half Wave Rectifier Waveform
The halfwave rectifier waveform before and after rectification is shown below in the figure.

A half-wave rectifier is used in soldering iron types of circuits and is also used in mosquito repellent to drive
the lead for the fumes.
It is used in Pulse generated circuits, for demodulation, in voltage multiplier.
Full Wave Rectifier

• In Full wave rectification current flow through

the load in same direction for both half cycle of
input ac.
• This can be achieved with two diodes working
alternatively.
• For one half cycle one diode supplies current to
load and for next half cycle another diode works.
Centre tap full wave rectifier

• Circuit has two diodes D1, D2 and a center

tap transformer.
• During positive half cycle, Diode D1
conducts and during negative half cycle,
Diode D2 conducts.
• It can be seen that current through load RL is
in the same direction for both the cycles.
Full wave bridge rectifier
• In full wave bridge rectifier, four diodes are
arranged in the form of a bridge.
• The main advantages of this bridge circuit is that it
does not requires a special center taped
transformer.
• The input signal is applied across terminals A and
B, and the output DC signal is obtained across the
load resistor RL connected between terminals C
and D.
• The four diodes are arranged in such a way that
only two diodes conduct electricity during each
half cycle.
• D1 and D3 are pairs that conduct electric current
during the positive half cycle.
• Likewise, diodes D2 and D4 conduct electric current
during a negative half cycle.
 Full wave bridge rectifier
Working
When an AC signal is applied across the bridge rectifier, terminal A
becomes positive during the positive half cycle while terminal B
becomes negative. This results in diodes D1 and D3 becoming forward
biased while D2 and D4 becoming reverse biased.
The current flow during the positive half-cycle is shown in the Fig. 1:

Fig. 1

During the negative half-cycle, terminal B

becomes positive while terminal A becomes
negative. This causes diodes D2 and D4 to
become forward biased and diode D1 and D3 to
be reverse biased.
The current flow during the negative half cycle is
Fig. 2
shown in the Fig. 2:
 Full wave bridge rectifier
It is observed that the current flow across load resistor R L is the same during the positive and negative
half-cycles. The output DC signal polarity may be either completely positive or negative. In our case, it is
completely positive. If the diodes’ direction is reversed, we get a complete negative DC voltage.
Thus, a bridge rectifier allows electric current during both positive and negative half cycles of the input
AC signal.
The output waveforms of the bridge rectifier are shown in the below figure.
Output frequency of full Wave Rectifier
• Output frequency of FWR is equal to
double of input frequency.
• This means when input ac completes one
cycle, rectified wave completes two cycle.

fout = 2fin
Full wave bridge rectifier
Full wave bridge rectifier
 Transistors : Introduction
• Transistors is an electronic device made of three layers of semiconductor material that can act as an insulator and a
conductor.
• The three layered transistor is also know as the bipolar junction transistor.
Definition:
Transistor is a three terminal device which allows current to flow from high resistance region to low resistance
region. A transistor is a type of semiconductor device that can be used to conduct and insulate electric current or
voltage. A transistor basically acts as a switch and an amplifier. In simple words, we can say that a transistor is a
miniature device that is used to control or regulate the flow of electronic signals.
 Transistors : Introduction
Parts of a Transistor
A typical transistor is composed of three layers of semiconductor materials or, more specifically, terminals which
help to make a connection to an external circuit and carry the current. A voltage or current that is applied to any
one pair of the terminals of a transistor controls the current through the other pair of terminals. There are three
terminals for a transistor. They are listed below:
•Base: This is used to activate the transistor.
•Collector: It is the positive lead of the transistor.
•Emitter: It is the negative lead of the transistor.
 Transistors
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
The three terminals of BJT are the base, emitter and collector. A very small current flowing between the base
and emitter can control a larger flow of current between the collector and emitter terminal.
Furthermore, there are two types of BJT, and they include:

•P-N-P Transistor: It is a type of BJT where one n-type material is introduced or placed between two p-type
materials. In such a configuration, the device will control the flow of current. PNP transistor consists of 2 crystal
diodes which are connected in series. The right side and left side of the diodes are known as the collector-base
diode and emitter-base diode, respectively.

•N-P-N Transistor: In this transistor, we will find one p-type material that is present between two n-type
materials. N-P-N transistor is basically used to amplify weak signals to strong signals. In an NPN transistor, the
electrons move from the emitter to the collector region, resulting in the formation of current in the transistor.
This transistor is widely used in the circuit.
Transistors
 Transistor Configurations
There are three types of configuration, which are common base (CB), common collector (CC) and common
emitter (CE).

In common base (CB) In common collector (CC) In common emitter (CE)

configuration, the base terminal configuration, the collector configuration, the emitter terminal is
of the transistor is common terminals are common between common between the input and the
between input and output the input and output terminals. output terminals.
terminals.
 Numerical

Q1. Given the intrinsic carrier concentration of silicon at 300 K Q2. For an intrinsic semiconductor, the intrinsic carrier
is 1.5 × 1010 cm−3, calculate the number of charge carriers per concentration (ni) at 300 K is 1.5 × 1010 cm−3. Calculate the
cubic meter. number of free electrons and holes.
A) 1.5 × 1016 m−3 A) 1.5 × 1010 cm−3, 1.5 × 1010 cm−3
B) 1.5 × 1020 m−3 B) 3 × 1010 cm−3, 3 × 1010 cm−3
C) 1.5 × 1014 m−3 C) 1.5 × 1020 cm−3, 1.5 × 1020 cm−3
D) 1.5 × 1018 m−3 D) 0, 0
Answer: B) 1.5 × 1016 m−3 Answer: A) 1.5 × 1010 cm−3, 1.5 × 1010 cm−3
Explanation: To convert cm−3 to m−3, multiply by 106. Therefore, Explanation: In an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of free
1.5 × 1010 cm−3 = 1.5 × 1010 × 106 = 1.5 × 1016 m−3. electrons (n) and holes (p) are equal to the intrinsic carrier
concentration (ni).
 Q4. A Zener diode has a breakdown voltage of 5.6 V and is used
in a voltage regulator circuit. If the input voltage is 12 V and the
Q3. A silicon diode has a forward voltage drop of 0.7 V when a series resistance is 100 Ω, what is the current through the Zener
current of 10 mA is passing through it. What is the resistance of diode when the load current is 20 mA?
the diode in this condition? A) 20 mA
A) 70 Ω B) 16 mA
B) 7 Ω C) 36 mA
C) 0.07 Ω D) 56 mA
D) 0.7 Ω Answer: B) 16 mA
Answer: A) 70 Ω Explanation: The total current through the series resistor is:
Explanation: The resistance R is given by .

The current through the Zener diode: