Environmental Engineering – 1 (CE339)

Lecture-2: Water resources and quality parameters

Outlines

Water cycle and classification

Water quality parameters

Terminologies

Turbidity concept and measurements

Water quality standards

The water cycle
 Raw water source
The various sources of water can be classified into
two categories:
• Surface sources, such as
– Ponds and lakes;
– Streams and rivers;
– Storage reservoirs; and
– Oceans, generally not used for water supplies, at
present.
(Do you agree with the statement?)
• Sub-surface sources or underground sources, such as
– Springs;
– Wells and Tube-wells.
 Why source of water supply is important
• The selection of a source of supply will be based on water
availability, adequacy, quality, cost of development
and operation and the expected life of the project to be
served. The selection of a suitable source or combination
of sources of water is one of the initial steps in designing a
water supply scheme.
• The source or sources of water must be capable of supplying
sufficient water of acceptable quality for the application or
end user. Sources which require little or no treatment of
raw water such as springs, wells and boreholes should be
given the highest selection priority provided their yields
are sufficient to meet the water demands of the end user or
final application.
 Distribution of the water on
Earthwater: 97.2 percent
• Ocean
• Glaciers and other ice: 2.15
percent
• Groundwater,: 0.61 percent
• Fresh water lakes: 0.009 percent
• Inland seas: 0.008 percent
• Soil Moisture: 0.005 percent
• Atmosphere: 0.001 percent
• Rivers: 0.0001 percent.
(Reference figure: http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/earthwherewater.html)
Inland seas
 Surface waters
• Surface waters can be simply described as the
water that is on the surface of the Earth. This
includes the oceans, rivers and streams, lakes,
and reservoirs.
• Surface waters are very important. They
constitute approximately 80 percent of the water
used on a daily basis.
 Class discussion

1. Oceans, generally not used for water supplies,

at present. (Do you agree with the statement?

2. Producing fresh drinking water from the sea

- desalination - has always seemed to be the
most obvious answer to water shortages.
Explain?
San Diego's desalination plant will be the largest in the
US
Saudi Arabia's Ras al-Khair plant will produce a
billion litres of drinking water a day
How desalination works
 Please check

1. Fujairah 2 Reverse Osmosis Desalination

Plant – YouTube
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bfr82RB
72U8
 Two important definitions

• Improved source of water

• Safe drinking water
 Improved source

• The percentage of people using drinking

water from an improved source that is
accessible on premises, available when needed
and free from contamination. Improved water
sources include piped water, boreholes or
tubewells, protected dug wells, protected
springs, and packaged or delivered water
 Safe drinking water-WHO
Definition

Defines safe drinking water as water that “does not

represent any significant risk to health over the
lifetime of consumption, including different
sensitivities that may occur between life stages.”

Understand the meaning of the underline

words

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• Are we drinking clean water from an
improved source

• The answer is …for most of the people

Unfortunately
NO
 Facts and figures-Pakistan
• Various research studies are conducted for drinking water
quality status of different areas of Pakistan by
taking into account the physicochemical properties
of drinking water as well as the presence of
various pathogenic microorganisms. About 20% of the
whole population of Pakistan has access to safe drinking
water. The remaining 80% of population is forced to use
primarydrinking
unsafe source
waterof contamination
due to the scarcity (fecal) whichand
of safe is
is extensively
healthy sewerage discharged
drinking water sources. into
The drinking water
Secondary source of pollution is the disposal systemsupplies.
of toxic
industrial
chemicals fromeffluents, pesticides,
fertilizers from
and agricultureactivities
sources
waterborne into
diseases the water bodies.
that constitute about 80% cause
of all
Anthropogenic
diseases and are responsible for 33% of deaths.

Source :Mr K Daud et al, 2 017, “Drinking water quality status and contamination in
Pakistan” Biomed Research International
Per capita availability vs Population
Cleanest drinking water in the
world
• DENMARK. Denmark has better tap water than
bottled water. ...
• ICELAND. Iceland has stringent quality control,
ensuring that they have a consistently high quality
of water. ...
• GREENLAND. ...
• FINLAND. ...
• COLOMBIA. ...
• SINGAPORE. ...
• NEW ZEALAND. ...
• SWEDEN.
 Water Quality
The raw or treated water is analyzed by testing
their physical, chemical and bacteriological
characteristics.

Physical Characteristics:
• Turbidity
Colour
Taste and Odour
Temperature
 Water Quality
• Chemical Characteristics:
• pH
Acidity
Alkalinity
Hardness
Chlorides
Sulphates
Iron
Nitrates
 Water
Quality
• Bacteriological Characteristics:
Bacterial examination of water is very important, since it
indicates the degree of pollution. Water polluted by sewage
contain one or more species of disease producing pathogenic
bacteria. Pathogenic organisms cause water borne diseases, and
many non pathogenic bacteria such as E.Coli, a member of
coliform group, also live in the intestinal tract of human beings.
 Assignment

• Explain the physical, chemical and

biological water quality parameters.
• Also include WHO standards.
• Turbidity: It is caused due to presence of suspended and
colloidal matter in the water. Ground waters are generally
less turbid than the surface water. The character and
amount of turbidity depends on the type of soil over
which the water has moved.
• Turbidity is a measure of the resistance of water to the
passage of light through it.
• Turbidity was previously determined by Jackson candle
Turbidity units (JTU). This unit is now replaced by more
appropriate unit called Nephelometric Turbidity unit
(NTU) which is the turbidity produced by one milligram of
formazin polymer in one litre of distilled water.
 Turbidity
It’s a measurement of suspended solids
Directly proportional to the number of particles
Depends on shape, size, and color of the particle
Bio-indicators also affect turbidity
Varies with wavelength
 Turbidity Sensor
• Use of a dynamic turbidity instrument, or turbidity sensor, is
becoming more and more popular for use in water quality
monitoring. Turbidity sensors are also known as submersible
turbidimeters.
• Dynamic measuring means that a turbidity sensor is submerged in a
body
of water, taking measurements under natural conditions.

35
 Turbidity
Highly affected by temperature (density,
viscosity, solubility, rate of biochemical
activities)
Depends on seasonal variations
Turbidity measures the apparent color, while
true color is caused by dissolved species

Directly proportional to absorbance (not

always)
 Salinity and water clarity
• Salinity also affects water clarity. This is due to the effect of salt
on the aggregation and settling velocity of suspended
particles. In other words, salt ions collect suspended
particles and bind them together, increasing their weights
and thus their likelihood of settling to the bottom. Due to
this mechanism, oceans tend to have a higher clarity (and
lower average turbidity) than lakes and rivers.

37
 Turbidity and photosysnthesis
• Turbidity also
can
photosynthesis
sunlight. inhibit by
Halted
photosynthesis means a
decrease in plant
decreased
survival and blocking or
dissolved
output. The oxygenhigher the
turbidity levels, thereducedless
light that can reach the lower
levels of water. This reduces
plant productivity at the
bottom of an ocean, lake or
river.
38
39
 Why are Turbidity and Total Suspended Solids
Important?
• Turbidity and TSS are the most visible
indicators of water quality. These suspended
particles can come from soil erosion, runoff,
discharges, stirred bottom sediments or algal
blooms. While it is possible for some streams
to have naturally high levels of suspended
solids, clear water is usually considered an
indicator of healthy water .
• A sudden increase in turbidity in a previously
clear body of water is a cause for concern.
Excessive suspended sediment can impair
water quality for aquatic and human lives, and
increase flooding risks.

40
41
 Turbidity-2
• Turbidity can come from suspended sediment
such as silt or clay, inorganic materials, or
organic matter such as algae, plankton and
decaying additionto
material.
suspended In turbidity
these can
solids, colored also include organic
dissolvedis producedmatter
CDOM from decaying
(CDOM).plants and
leaves underwater.
• CDOM can cause water to appear red or
brown, depending on the type of plants
or leaves present. These dissolved substances
may be too small to be counted in a
suspended solids concentration, but they
are still part of a turbidity measurement
as they affect water clarity.
42
 Erosion and disinfection

• An increase in turbidity can also indicate increased erosion of

stream banks, which may have a long-term effect on a body
of water.
• Pollutants such as dissolved metals and pathogens can attach to
suspended particles and enter the water. This is why an
increase in turbidity can often indicate potential pollution,
not just a decrease in water quality.
• Turbid water, whether due to organic or inorganic material,
cannot be easily disinfected, as the suspended particles will
“hide” these microorganisms.

43
 Physical parameters
Suspended solid (SS)
–Small solid particles which remain in suspension in
water
–SS particles include inorganic particles (e.g., sand
and clay), plant, microbial and animal debris and
SS can be measured using:
sewage
– Gravimetric separation
– Turbidity measurement
Dissolved Solids (DS): that are completely
dissolved (size <0.2 microns)
Color
–Caused by SS and Natural Organic Matter (NOM)
– NOM is a mixture of organic compounds
– Formed through chemical and biological
transformations
 Water quality parameters

Absorbance: The amount of light

absorbed by water constituents at specified
wavelength

Turbidity: Reduction in clarity of water

Alkalinity: resistance to change in pH

Conductivity: Concentration of dissolve

solids

Hardness: concentration of Ca and Mg

 Natural Organic Matter (NOM)

NOM
Contain lipids, carbohydrates, amino acids and
nucleic acids
Stable (not volatile)
Soluble and degrade water quality (Table 2.6)
Negatively charged
Measured in terms of Total Organic Carbon (TOC)
NOM= 2 times of TOC
Biological parameters (pathogens)
Pathogens
Virus
Bacteria
E.coli
Fungi
48
49
 Dissolved Oxygen
• Dissolved Oxygen is amount
gaseous the of
(O2) dissolved
oxygen
water. Oxygen enters water in direct
the
the from the atmosphere,
absorption by rapid
movement, or as a result of by
photosynthesis.
 Key Points
• Dissolved oxygen is the amount of oxygen
present in the water which affects
industrial settings, animal life, fish
farming, and corrosion control.
• Dissolved oxygen depends on wave action,
air pressure, temperature, oxygen creation
and use balance.
• It is important to evaluate dissolved
oxygen to understand water quality and
what treatments may be necessary.
Water pollution- Nutrients
 Water pollution
• Water pollution refers to the introduction of a substance to the
environment at levels leading to the lost of beneficial use of a
resource or degradation of the health of humans, wild life or
ecosystems.
• Pollution may be caused by point sources at stationary
locations such as an effluent pipe or nonpoint sources (also
called diffuse sources) such as land runoff and the atmosphere.
The mass flux of a pollutant is expressed as a load.
 Water pollution-Main Pollutants

• Organic Organic mattersin composed of

waste: water are include natural compounds
compounds. Organic compounds organic
(e.g., living organism) which are capable of decay and
synthetic compounds (e.g., plastics) which may not be
biodegradable.
• Certain organic matters in water are a source of food for
aquatic microorganisms that use dissolved oxygen to
convert the organic matters into energy for growth and carbon
dioxide & water. The microorganism population increases
in proportion to the amount of organic matters.
 Water pollution-Main
• Pollutants
If microbial
atmospheric
metabolism consumes dissolved oxygen faster than
oxygen can dissolve into the water, oxygen deficit will
occur and aquatic life may die when oxygen is depleted by microbial
metabolism. In rivers, oxygen depletion follows a special form as
illustrated in Figure named the dissolved oxygen sag curve. The
oxygen concentration in the river drops rapidly following organic
waste pollution.
 The different
zones
The different zones of a stream in this case are:
• - the clean zone as the river enters the point of contamination;
• - the decomposition zone where the wastes are decomposing
and using the water's O2;
• - the septic zone where there are limited life forms found due to
the
lack of O2;
• - the recovery zone, where the stream begins to recover some
O2, and
• - the clean zone, where again game fish and diverse life
forms can be found.
 Water pollution-Main Pollutants
• Suspended solids: Solids in water may come from mining
activities, river dredging, construction (e.g., road and bridge)
and soil erosion. The increased turbidity reduces light
penetration and depresses photosynthesis process.
• Nutrients: nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur,…) in water
encourages plant growth (usually in the form of algae). Those
nutrients come from domestic, industrial and agricultural waste.
Effluent from wastewater treatment plants may still contain
large concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus albeit
sufficient treatment processes have been carried out. Diffuse
pollution from agricultural waste is a major source of nutrients,
especially nitrogen.
 Thermal pollution-Temperature and DO
• In terms of water quality, high levels of total suspended solids
will increase water temperatures and decrease dissolved
oxygen (DO) levels. This is because suspended
particles absorb more heat from solar radiation than
water molecules will. This heat is then transferred to the
surrounding water by conduction. Warmer water cannot
hold as much dissolved oxygen as colder
• water,
In soaddition,
DO levels willthe
drop. increased surface
stratification,
temperature or canlayering,
causeof a body of water. When water
stratifies, the upper and lower layers do not mix. As
decomposition and respiration often occur in the lower
layers, they can become too hypoxic (low dissolved oxygen
levels) for organisms to survive.
77
 Water pollution- Toxic metals

• Arsenic. Arsenic (As) is a toxic element and remains a

significant human health concern as As and its compounds
(inorganic) are carcinogenic to humans and are classified as
Group 1, whereas organic. Arsenic exposure causes a markedly
elevated risk for developing a number of cancers, most notably
skin cancer and cancers of the liver, lung, bladder, and possibly
the kidney.
 Toxic metals- Pakistan
situation
concentration of As in drinking water is 10 𝜇g/L;
• According to the WHO in developed countries the maximum
admissible

guideline value (50 𝜇g/L) due to the

however, the developing countries, where arsenic is more widespread,
are still using the previous
lack of facilities to analyze smaller concentrations precisely.
• The Public Health Engineering Department of Pakistan, in collaboration
with UNICEF, conducted a survey for As concentration in drinking
water supply wells in 2001 and disclosed some hotspots of As-
enriched groundwater occurring in parts of the Indus basin.
Muzaffargarh district was one of the As-enriched hotspots also
identified. The same was confirmed later in another study from

concentration as high as 906 𝜇g/L was present

Muzaffargarh district, which revealed that the As
 Water pollution-Main Pollutants
• Pathogens and carcinogens: those are disease-causing microorganisms
or cancer-causing substances including bacteria, viruses,
protozoa, dioxins, etc. Domestic wastewater is responsible
for many of the pathogens, and industrial and
agricultural wastes are the usual sources for carcinogens.

• Radioactive contamination: Radioactive contamination refers

to unintended or undesirable presence of radioactive
substances in water, usually from the leakage of stored
radioactive materials or release from nuclear power plant
accidents, etc.
 COLLECTION OF WATER SAMPLES
• For physical examination, water can be collected in fully cleaned bottles or
plastic cans.
• If the water is to be collected for chemicals tests, the container, usually
glass bottles of more than 2 liter capacity should be thoroughly
washed and cleaned; and then the water should be collected in it.
• For the collection of water for bacteriological tests, the person who
collects
the water must be free from any disease.
• The containers and bottles must be cleaned, should be thoroughly rinsed
with distilled water and finally sterilization should be done.
• Immediately after collection of the samples, bottles should be closed and
covered to prevent accumulation of dirt, etc
• The testing of water samples should be done as early as possible.
 Collecting the
• If the water samples
is to be collected from a tap, sufficient quantity of
wastewater should be allowed to pass through the tap, before
collecting sample from because it will eliminate the stagnant water.
• If the water is to be collected from the surface stream or river, it should be
collected about 40-50 cm below the surface to avoid the collection of
surface impurities oils, tree leaves, etc. which should also removed by
strainers while collecting the water through intakes.
• In case the water is being collected from the ground sources i.e. through
well or tube well, sufficient quantity of water should be pumped out before
collecting the samples.
Principal constituents of
concern
 PHYSICAL PARAMETERS
• Temperature: The temperature of water is measured
by means of ordinary thermometers.

• For drink water,

• The aesthetic objective for water temperature in the

Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality
is 15°C. This is because most consumers
complain about tap water at 19°C or higher.
 DO and temperature
• DO has an inverse relation with temperature.

• Did you know

“Turbidity, Temperature and Dissolved Oxygen
are inter-related”
 Temperature and DO
• In terms of water quality, high levels of total suspended solids
will increase water temperatures and decrease dissolved
oxygen (DO) levels. This is because suspended
particles absorb more heat from solar radiation than
water molecules will. This heat is then transferred to the
surrounding water by conduction. Warmer water cannot
hold as much dissolved oxygen as colder
• water,
In soaddition,
DO levels willthe
drop. increased surface
stratification,
temperature or canlayering,
causeof a body of water. When water
stratifies, the upper and lower layers do not mix. As
decomposition and respiration often occur in the lower
layers, they can become too hypoxic (low dissolved oxygen
levels) for organisms to survive.
89
 Colour
• Colour: The colour of water is usually due to presence
of organic matter in colloid condition, and due to the
presence
mineral of dissolved organicand inorganic
Transparent
and impurities. accumulation of
materials appears
water blue.
with Dissolved
a low
organic matter
dissolved
such as
decaying plant matter, etc. produce a brown color. Water rich in
phytoplankton and other algae usually appears green. Soil runoff
water has a variety of yellow, red, brown and gray colors
 Apparent and true
colour
• The color in water is not harmful but it is objectionable. The
color of a water sample can be reported as Apparent or
True color. Apparent color is the color of the whole water sample
and consists of color from both dissolved and suspended
components. True color is measured after filtering the water
sample to remove all suspended material.
 Guidelines vs.
Standards
• Guideline: a recommended limit that should not be
exceeded
• Standard: a mandatory limit that must not be
exceeded (often reflects legal duty or obligation)

• WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality (2006)

– Guideline values to ensure safety of drinking
water
• Standards vary among countries and regions

74
Categories of Contaminants

Chemicals

Microbiological

Physical

75
Classification of water sources
 Available water sources
Saline water: 97% of total water on earth
-Brackish groundwater
-Sea water
Freshwater: 3% of total water on
earth
-Surface water from lakes and rivers
-Groundwater
-Water released by melting of snow
Wastewater: Agriculture, industry
and humans are responsible for 90%
of the total wastewater generation
Water Problems
 Need of the Day

•Provide safe drinking water

•Provide enough water for daily life
•Manage the water resources
•Use water judiciously
•Treat water
•Recycle the water
•Set treatment criteria—define parameters
Water chemistry
 Hardness
The concentration of multivalent ions (particularly Ca and Mg)
present in the water is termed as Hardness

-Threat to industrial processes (low efficiency, high energy input,

high detergent requirement)
-Interfere with coagulation process

Type Concentration, mg/L as

CaCO3

Soft 0- 50
Moderately hard 50-100
Hard 100-150
Very hard >150
•Carbonate hardness: due to carbonate and bio-
carbonate
•Non-carbonate hardness: due to chlorine, sulphate
-In water softening a balance between carbonate and
non-carbonate hardness is desired
-The cations should be equal to anion concentration to
pH electro neutrality
satisfy

The concentration of hydrogen ions

-It is a measurement to calculate the dosage of
chemicals added to reduce the hardness and
coagulate the particles
Alkalinity
•Its ability to neutralize water
•It’s an ability to resist in pH change
-The pH of a solution will not change if alkalinity is
high
-The pH of a solution will change abruptly if alkalinity
is too low (have to add carbonate/bicarbonate)
•The sum of carbonate, bicarbonate, hydroxide, and
other weak acids.
•Measured as a concentration of CaCO3 (mg/L)
pH and alkalinity are the same .?
 Aesthetic
Health

NEQs of Pakistan:
https://environment.gov.pk/Detail/MDUzMDI1OGItYWYzZC00NzQ0LTlhZWItZjYzY2RkOTkyZ
GVh
 Home assignment !!!
Water quality parameters (primary
and secondary) in USA and
Pakistan
 Take Home Message
•Freshwater (3% of total water on Earth)
•Salty Water (97% of total water on Earth)
•Freshwater contains
–Suspended solids
–Dissolved solids
–Natural organic matter
–Synthetic organic chemicals
–Dissolved gases
–Bacteria and Viruses

•Primary and secondary drinking water standards in

the USA)