2.

0 Introduction to Networking
and Transmission
2.1 LAN, WAN, MAN
a. LAN Topologies
2.2 Ethernet
a. Ethernet Cabling System, Fast Ethernet,
Switch Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet
2.3 Transmission Media
a. Guided and Unguided
• There are various types of computer networks
available. We can categorize them according
to their size as well as their purpose.
• The size of a network should be expressed by
the geographic area and number of
computers, which are a part of their networks.
• It includes devices housed in a single room to
millions of devices spread across the world.
What is PAN (Personal Area Network)?
• PAN is a computer network formed around a
person. It generally consists of a computer,
mobile, or personal digital assistant. PAN can
be used for establishing communication
among these personal devices for connecting
to a digital network and the internet.
• Characteristics of PAN
• It is mostly personal devices network equipped within a limited area.
• Allows you to handle the interconnection of IT devices at the
surrounding of a single user.
• PAN includes mobile devices, tablet, and laptop.
• It can be wirelessly connected to the internet called WPAN.
• Appliances use for PAN: cordless mice, keyboards, and Bluetooth
systems.
• Advantages of PAN
• Here, are important pros/benefits of using PAN network:
• PAN networks are relatively secure and safe
• It offers only short-range solution up to ten meters
• Strictly restricted to a small area
• Disadvantages of PAN
• Here are important cons/ drawback of using PAN network:
• It may establish a bad connection to other networks at the same
radio bands.
• Distance limits.
 What is LAN?

• A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computer and

peripheral devices which are connected in a limited area
such as school, laboratory, home, and office building. It
is a widely useful network for sharing resources like
files, printers, games, and other application. The
simplest type of LAN network is to connect computers
and a printer in someone's home or office. In general,
LAN will be used as one type of transmission medium.
• It is a network which consists of less than 5000
interconnected devices across several buildings.
• Characteristics of LAN
• It is a private network, so an outside regulatory body never controls it.
• LAN operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other WAN systems.
• There are various kinds of media access control methods like token ring and
ethernet.
• Advantages of LAN
• Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can share local area
networks. This significantly reduces the cost of hardware purchases.
• You can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing the licensed
software for each client in the network.
• Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server computer.
• You can easily transfer data and messages over networked computers.
• It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more secure.
• Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet connection among all
the LAN users.
• Disadvantages of LAN
• LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer resources, but the initial cost
of installing Local Area Networks is quite high.
• The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user, so it does not offer
good privacy.
• Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in case LAN admin is
not able to secure centralized data repository.
• Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as there are issues
 What is WAN?
• WAN (Wide Area Network) is another important computer
network that which is spread across a large geographical area.
WAN network system could be a connection of a LAN which
connects with other LAN's using telephone lines and radio
waves. It is mostly limited to an enterprise or an organization.
• Characteristics of LAN:
• The software files will be shared among all the users;
therefore, all can access to the latest files.
• Any organization can form its global integrated
network using WAN.
• Advantages of WAN
• Here are the benefits/ pros of using WAN:
• WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area.
Therefore business offices situated at longer distances
can easily communicate.
• Contains devices like mobile phones, laptop, tablet,
computers, gaming consoles, etc.
• WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and
receivers built into client devices.
• Disadvantage of WAN
• Here are drawbacks/cons of using WAN:
• The initial setup cost of investment is very high.
• It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need
skilled technicians and network administrators.
• There are more errors and issues because of the wide
coverage and the use of different technologies.
• It requires more time to resolve issues because of the
involvement of multiple wired and wireless technologies.
• Offers lower security compared to other types of
networks.
 What is MAN?
• A Metropolitan Area Network or MAN is
consisting of a computer network across an
entire city, college campus, or a small region.
This type of network is large than a LAN,
which is mostly limited to a single building or
site. Depending upon the type of
configuration, this type of network allows you
to cover an area from several miles to tens of
miles.
• Characteristics of MAN
• Here are important characteristics of the MAN network:
• It mostly covers towns and cities in a maximum 50 km range
• Mostly used medium is optical fibers, cables
• Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.
• Advantages of MAN
• Here are pros/benefits of using MAN system:
• It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic
cables.
• It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and greater
access to WANs.
• The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data in both
directions concurrently.
• A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.
• Disadvantages of MAN
• Here are drawbacks/ cons of using the MAN network:
• You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one place to
another.
• In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers
 Network Topology

Network Topology is the schematic

description of a network arrangement,
connecting various nodes(sender and
receiver) through lines of connection.
 Bus Topology
• The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected
through a single cable known as a backbone cable.
• Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly
connected to the backbone cable.
• When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message
over the network. All the stations available in the network will receive the
message whether it has been addressed or not.
• The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 (Token Bus)
standard networks.
• The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other
topologies.
• The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the
message is broadcast to all the stations.
• The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access).
Advantages of Bus topology:
• Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable
without passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
• Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-
based networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
• Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation
and troubleshooting techniques are well known, and hardware components
are easily available.
• Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.
Disadvantages of Bus topology:
• Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of
cabling.
• Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine
the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the
communication for all the nodes.
• Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the
signals of both the nodes collide with each other.
• Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow
down the network.
• Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues.
Repeaters are used to regenerate the signal.
 Ring Topology
• Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.
• The node that receives the message from the previous computer will
retransmit to the next node.
• The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
• The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
• It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node
and having no termination point.
• The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
• The most common access method of the ring topology is token
passing.
– Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from
one node to another node.
– Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Advantages of Ring topology:
• Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the
network without bringing the network down.
• Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network
operation and monitoring are available.
• Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available.
Therefore, the installation cost is very low.
• Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication
system is not dependent on the single host computer.
Disadvantages of Ring topology:
• Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to
determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it
would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
• Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the
overall network.
• Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would
slow down the network.
• Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number
of nodes. Adding new devices increases the communication delay.
 Star Topology
• Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every
node is connected to the central hub, switch or a central
computer.
• The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral
devices attached to the server are known as clients.
• Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the
computers.
• Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in
a physical star topology.
• Star topology is the most popular topology in network
implementation.
Advantages of Star topology
• Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star topology as
compared to bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager has to inspect the
kilometers of cable. In a star topology, all the stations are connected to the
centralized network. Therefore, the network administrator has to go to the single
station to troubleshoot the problem.
• Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in
the star topology. Any changes made in the star topology are automatically
accommodated.
• Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable,
therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
• Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost-
effective.
• Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open
ports on the hub.
• Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive
coaxial cable.
• High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT
is one of the most popular Star topology networks.
Disadvantages of Star topology
• A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the
connected nodes will not be able to communicate with each other.
• Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount of
 Tree topology

• Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology

and star topology.
• A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the
computers are connected with each other in hierarchical
fashion.
• The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root
node, and all other nodes are the descendants of the root
node.
• There is only one path exists between two nodes for the
data transmission. Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.
Advantages of Tree topology
• Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to provide
broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances without
being attenuated.
• Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network.
Therefore, we can say that tree topology is easily expandable.
• Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into
segments known as star networks which can be easily managed and
maintained.
• Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree
topology.
• Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire
network.
• Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
Disadvantages of Tree topology
• Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes
difficult to troubleshoot the problem.
• High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
• Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main
bus cable will damage the overall network.
• Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult
 Mesh topology
• Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which
computers are interconnected with each other through various
redundant connections.
• There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
• It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which
acts as a central point of communication.
• The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
• Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where
communication failures are a critical concern.
• Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
• Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;
• Advantages of Mesh topology:
• Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any
link breakdown will not affect the communication between
connected computers.
• Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the
nodes.
• Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt
the communication between other devices.
• Disadvantages of Mesh topology
• Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected
devices such as a router and more transmission media than
other topologies.
• Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very
difficult to maintain and manage. If the network is not
monitored carefully, then the communication link failure goes
undetected.
• Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that
reduces the efficiency of the network.
 Hybrid Topology

• The combination of various different topologies is known

as Hybrid topology.
• A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and
nodes to transfer the data.
• When two or more different topologies are combined together
is termed as Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are
connected with each other will not result in Hybrid topology.
For example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of
ICICI bank and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank,
connecting these two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
• Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect
the functioning of the rest of the network.
• Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new
devices without affecting the functionality of the existing network.
• Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed
according to the requirements of the organization.
• Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in
such a way that the strength of the network is maximized and
weakness of the network is minimized.
Disadvantages of Hybrid topology
• Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the
design of the Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design the
architecture of the Hybrid network.
• Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very
expensive as these hubs are different from usual Hubs used in other
topologies.
• Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid
network requires a lot of cabling, network devices, etc.
 2.2 Ethernet
At present, the most frequently used physical layer LAN
technology is Ethernet. Ethernet meaning is a system that is
used to connect a number of computers to make a LAN (local
area network). This system uses protocols for controlling data
transmission by avoiding immediate transmission using a
number of systems.
• At present, this has become an ideal networking
technology for computer users.
• Ethernet can be defined as a method of connecting
computers as one in a LAN (local area network). It is
the most frequently used technique from the past
many years for connecting computers jointly in local
area networks.
• The basic design of this can be done by connecting
many computers by allowing it and the main function
of this network is to transmit the data at any time.
• The IEEE (Institute for Electrical and Electronics
Engineers) implemented an IEEE Standard 802.3 is
called an Ethernet standard.
• This standard describes policies for arranging a
network & also states that how the elements
within the network system communicate with
others.
• By using the IEEE standard, the communication
network device as well as network protocols can
interact very efficiently.
 Wired and Wireless
• Wired Ethernet Network
• This technology mainly works with the cables that connect
devices.
• A computer network interface card (NIC) is installed in each
computer and is assigned to a unique address.
• An Ethernet cable runs from each NIC to the central switch or
hub.
• The switch and hub act as a relay though they have significant
differences in the manner in which they handle network traffic
– receiving and directing packets of data across the LAN.
• Thus, this networking creates a communications system that
allows the sharing of data and resources including printers, fax
machines, and scanners.
• Wireless Ethernet
• Rather than using Ethernet cable to connect the
computers, wireless NICs use radio waves for two-
way communication with a wireless switch or hub.
• It consists of Ethernet ports, wireless NICs,
switches, and hubs.
• Wireless network technology can be more flexible
to use but also require extra care in configuring
security.
 Types of Ethernet cabling
• There are three cable types commonly used
for Ethernet cabling: coaxial, twisted pair, and
fiber-optic cabling. In today’s LANs, the
twisted pair cabling is the most popular type
of cabling, but the fiber-optic cabling usage is
increasing, especially in high performance
networks. Coaxial cabling is generally used for
cable Internet access.
 Coaxial cabling

• A coaxial cable has an inner conductor that runs down the

middle of the cable.
• The conductor is surrounded by a layer of insulation which
is then surrounded by another conducting shield, which
makes this type of cabling resistant to outside
interference.
• This type of cabling comes in two types – thinnet and
thicknet.
• Both types have maximum transmission speed of 10
Mbps.
• Coaxial cabling was previously used in computer networks,
but today are largely replaced by twisted-pair cabling
 Twisted-pair cabling

• A twisted-pair cable has four pair of wires. These wires are

twisted around each other to reduce crosstalk and outside
interference. This type of cabling is common in current LANs.
• Twisted-pair cabling can be used for telephone and network
cabling. It comes in two versions, UTP (Unshielded Twisted-
Pair) and STP (Shielded Twisted-Pair). The difference
between these two is that an STP cable has an additional
layer of insulation that protects data from outside
interferences.
• A twisted-pair cable uses 8P8C connector, sometimes
wrongly referred to as RJ45 connector
 Fiber-optic cabling
• This type of cabling uses optical fibers to transmit data in the
form of light signals. The cables have strands of glass
surrounded by a cladding material (Photo credit: Wikipedia):
• This type of cabling can support greater cable lengths than
any other cabling type (up to a couple of miles). The cables
are also immune to electromagnetic interference. As you can
see, this cabling method has many advantages over other
methods but its main drawback is that it is more expensive.
• There are two types of fiber-optic cables:
• Single-mode fiber (SMF) – uses only a single ray of light to
carry data. Used for larger distances.
• Multi-mode fiber (MMF) – uses multiple rays of light to
carry data. Less expensive than SMF.
 Types of Ethernet Networks

• There are several types of Ethernet networks,

such as Fast, Gigabit, and Switch.
• A network is a group of two or more computer
systems connected together.
 Fast Ethernet
• The fast Ethernet is a type of network that can transfer data at
a rate of 100 Mbps using a twisted-pair cable or a fiber-optic
cable.
• The older 10 Mbps Ethernet is still used, but such networks do
not provide the necessary bandwidth for some network-based
video applications.
• Twisted pair cable Fast type network is based on the proven
CSMA/CD Media Access Control (MAC) protocol and uses
existing 10BaseT cabling.
• Data can move from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps without any
protocol translation or changes to the application and
networking software.
 Gigabit Ethernet
• The Gigabit s a type of network capable of
transferring data at a rate of 1000 Mbps based on a
twisted-pair or fiber optic cable, and it is very
popular. The type of twisted-pair cable that
supports Gigabit Ethernet is the Cat 5e cable,
where all the four pairs of twisted wires of the
cable are used to achieve high data transfer rates.
The 10 Gigabit Ethernet is the latest-generation,
capable of transferring data at a rate of 10 Gbps
using twisted-pair or fiber optic cable.
 Switch Ethernet
• Multiple network devices in a LAN require network
equipment such as a network switch or hub. When using
a network switch, a regular network cable is used instead
of a crossover cable. The crossover cable consists of a
transmission pair at one end and a receiving pair at the
other end.
• The main function of a network switch is to forward data
from one device to another device on the same network.
Thus a network switch performs this task efficiently as
the data is transferred from one device to another
without affecting other devices on the same network.
Switch Ethernet
 Ethernet Port
• An Ethernet port is also called a socket or a jack
on a computer network device used to connect
the cables. The main function of this port is to
connect the hardware of a wired network
within MAN (metropolitan area network), an
Ethernet LAN, or WAN (wide area network).
• Ethernet Port In computers or laptops, these
network connections are available at the
backside.
 Transmission Media
• In data communication terminology, a
transmission medium is a physical path
between the transmitter and the receiver i.e it
is the channel through which data is sent from
one place to another. Transmission Media is
broadly classified into the following types:
 1. Guided Media:
• It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded
transmission media. Signals being transmitted
are directed and confined in a narrow pathway
by using physical links.
Features:
• High Speed
• Secure
• Used for comparatively shorter distances
• There are 3 major types of Guided Media:
• (i) Twisted Pair Cable –
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each
other. Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a protective
sheath. They are the most widely used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of
two types:
• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend
on a physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.
– Least expensive
– Easy to install
– High-speed capacity
– Susceptible to external interference
– Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
– Short distance transmission due to attenuation
• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external interference. It
is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of
telephone lines.
– Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
– Eliminates crosstalk
– Comparatively faster
– Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
• (ii) Coaxial Cable –
It has an outer plastic covering containing 2 parallel conductors each
having a separate insulated protection cover. The coaxial cable transmits
information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth)
and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges).
Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.
• Advantages:
• High Bandwidth
• Better noise Immunity
• Easy to install and expand
• Inexpensive
• Disadvantages:
• Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
• (iii) Optical Fibre Cable –
It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core
made up of glass or plastic. The core is surrounded by a less
dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It is used
for the transmission of large volumes of data.
• The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional.
• Advantages:
Increased capacity and bandwidth
• Lightweight
• Less signal attenuation
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference
• Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages:
• Difficult to install and maintain
• High cost
• Fragile
 2. Unguided Media:
• It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded
transmission media.No physical medium is required
for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
• Features:
• The signal is broadcasted through air
• Less Secure
• Used for larger distances
• There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through
unguided media:
• (i) Radiowaves –
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings.
The sending and receiving antennas need not be aligned.
Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless
phones use Radiowaves for transmission.
• Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite.
• (ii) Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving
antennas need to be properly aligned with each other. The
distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the
height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These
are majorly used for mobile phone communication and television
distribution.
• (iii) Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication.
They cannot penetrate through obstacles. This prevents
interference between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz –
400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard,