BA LL.

B ( Hons)
Logical Reasoning & Critical
Thinking
 Unit 2: Proposition
• Introduction
• Classification
• Type
• Logical Structure
• Application
• Challenges
• Difference between Preposition and Proposition,
Proposition and Sentence, Proposition and Fact &
Proposition and Judgement
• Importance of Proposition in Law
 Introduction
• A proposition is a declarative statement that asserts a
fact or expresses a judgment. It is a fundamental
concept in Logic. It is a statement that can either true or
false, but not both. It is a declarative sentence that
conveys a complete thought or assertion.
• Illustration- “ The Earth orbits the Sun” It is proposition
because it makes a claim that can be evaluated as true
or false.
 Classification
Simple proposition Compound Proposition

It expresses a simpl;e fact and it It contains two or more simple

cannot be analyzed into further proposition as its components.
proposition . It makes an This proposition is a single
assertion about an individual,a proposition. Simple propositions
person, a place, a thing, a are combined by various ways to
country etc. form a compound proposition

Illustration- No Dogs whistle Illustration- If dogs cannot

whistle, they can bark
 Types
Categorical- They are foundational in classical logic and
are used to establish syllogistic reasoning. They can
further be classified into 1.Universal affirmative- All S are
P
2.Universal Negative- No S are P
3.Particular affirmative- Some S are P
4. Particular Negative- Some S are not P
Illustration- All Humans are Mortal
No Dogs are Cat
 Types
Conditional- It express a Conditional relationship,
typically structured as “ If P, then Q” .They consist of an
antecedent ( P) and a Consequent ( Q) Its validity
assessed through truth tables and logical inference.
Disjunctive proposition- It involve a choice between
alternatives, usually structured as “P” or “Q” They play a
significant role in decision – making and probability
theory.
Illustration- “ It will either rain or Snow”
Complex- It involve combination of simple propositions
connected by logical operators such as “and”,”or,”not”
and “if….then”.
 Logical Structure
• Truth Table: A truth table is a tool used to determine the
truth value of propositions based on all possible
combinations of truth values for their components. It is
essential for evaluating the validity of logical arguments
and propositions.
• Logical Equvivalence: Two Propositions are logically
equvivalent if they have the same truth in all possible
scenarios.
• Validity and Soundness: An argument is valid if the
conclusion follows logically from the premises.It is
sound if it is both Valid and its premises are true.
 Applications
• Philosophical Implications: It helps in understanding
concepts like truth, belief, and justification
• Practical Application:
a) Business and Communication- Used in business
proposals, negotiations and communication strategies.
b) Science and Research- It is tested through
experiments and observations.
• Legal and Ethical Considerations: In legal Context
propositions are used to construct legal arguments &
interpret laws.
 Challenges
• Ambiguity and Vaguness: It leads to difficulties in
interpretation and analysis.
• Context Dependance: The truth Value of proposition can
depend on the context in which it is expressed.
Understanding the context is crucial for accurate
analysis and interpretation.
• Complexity and Computation: Analyzing complex
propositions and arguments can be computationally
intensive. Advances in logic and computer science help
in addressing these challenges through automated
reasoning and formal methods.
 Difference
Proposition Preposition

It is a declarative statement that is either A preposition is a word that shows a

true or false, but not both. Propositions relationship between noun or pronoun
are the basic building blocks of logic, and and other words in Sentence. It is used to
the study of propositions is called provide additional context and detailed
propositional logic. information.

Illustration- All men are mortal Illustartion-

Socrates is a man At,on,In,During,Before,under,over,betwe
Therefore Socrates is a mortal en etc.
The meeting starts at 10 AM
She was born in January
 Difference
Proposition Sentence

It is a declarative statement that is either A linguistic expression or grammatical

true or false, but not both. Propositions construct.Not all sentences can be true or
are the basic building blocks of logic, and false ( e.g. questions, Commands)
the study of propositions is called
propositional logic.

Illustration- All men are mortal Illustartion- a) What is your name?

Socrates is a man b) Clean the Room and wash
Therefore Socrates is a mortal the clothes.
 Difference
Proposition Fact

It is a declarative statement that is either A concrete reality or state of affairs that is

true or false, but not both. Propositions true. Always true it cannot be false; It is
are the basic building blocks of logic, and the reality that the proposition describes
the study of propositions is called
propositional logic.

Illustration- All men are mortal Illustration- Water boiling at 100℃

Socrates is a man
Therefore Socrates is a mortal
 Difference
Proposition Judgment

It is a declarative statement that is either A mental act of affirming or denying a

true or false, but not both. Propositions proposition.It is subjective in nature
are the basic building blocks of logic, and involves an individuals belief or
the study of propositions is called assessment. It is the act of agreeing or
propositional logic. disagreeing with proposition’s truth
value.
Illustration- All men are mortal Illustration- “ I judge that Socrates is a
Socrates is a man mortal.
Therefore Socrates is a mortal
 Importance of Proposition in Law
• Propositions are the buildingblocks of legal reasoning;they
help an individual go through a step by step analytical
procerss of legal issues and interpret them accordingly.
• Propositions are usually made by lawyers whaen interpreting
statutes on what such legislative text means and covers.
• In Legal drafting, whether it is a contract or a statute,
propositions are used to capture what the parties intend in
terms and provisions.
• Judicial opininons are made during the course of argument
contain the proposition that follow from the fact finding in
the case and draw vconclusions of law.
Thank you
Thank you
 Unit 3: Evaluating Inference
• Deductive validity
• Assumptions and other relevant arguments
 Unit 4: Inductive Reasoning
• Inductive Generalizations
• Induction and Analogy
• Induction and Casual Arguments
• Need of induction
• Problem of induction
 Unit 5:Categorical Syllogism
• Syllogism- Rules and Fallacies
• Figures andMoods – Testing the Validity of
arguments
• Reduction= Aristotle’s Dictum de omni et
Nullo and the First Figure.
• Direct Reduction and Indirect Reduction
• Structure and General rules & their violation
leading to Fallacies.
 Unit 6: Language and Law
• Uses of Language- Emotive words-
Emotively Nautral lamguage- Kinds of
agreement and disagreement.
• Fallacies- Its kinds- Fallacies of Ambiguity,
Fallacies of Relevance, Fallacies of Defective
Iduction, Fallacies of Presumption,
Impediments to good reasoning.