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IntroToAutomataTheory

Automata Theory is the study of abstract computing devices and explores what different models of machines can and cannot do, focusing on computability and complexity. Key concepts include alphabets, strings, languages, and the Chomsky hierarchy, which categorizes formal languages. The document also discusses various proof techniques used in the field, such as deductive proofs and induction.

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IntroToAutomataTheory

Automata Theory is the study of abstract computing devices and explores what different models of machines can and cannot do, focusing on computability and complexity. Key concepts include alphabets, strings, languages, and the Chomsky hierarchy, which categorizes formal languages. The document also discusses various proof techniques used in the field, such as deductive proofs and induction.

Uploaded by

salihking090912
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Introduction to Automata

Theory
Reading: Chapter 1

1
What is Automata Theory?
 Study of abstract computing devices, or
“machines”
 Automaton = an abstract computing device
 Note: A “device” need not even be a physical
hardware!
 A fundamental question in computer science:
 Find out what different models of machines can do
and cannot do
 The theory of computation
 Computability vs. Complexity
 computability theory is concerned with what can be computed versus what cannot;
complexity is concerned with the resources required to compute the things that are
computable.
2
(A pioneer of automata theory)

Alan Turing (1912-1954)


 Father of Modern Computer
Science
 English mathematician
 Studied abstract machines called
Turing machines even before
computers existed
 Heard of the Turing test?

3
Theory of Computation: A
Historical Perspective
1930s • Alan Turing studies Turing machines
• Decidability
• Halting problem
1940-1950s • “Finite automata” machines studied
• Noam Chomsky proposes the
“Chomsky Hierarchy” for formal
languages
1969 Cook introduces “intractable” problems
or “NP-Hard” problems
1970- Modern computer science: compilers,
computational & complexity theory evolve
4
Languages & Grammars
 Languages: “A language is a
Or “words” collection of sentences of
finite length all constructed
from a finite alphabet of
symbols”
 Grammars: “A grammar can
be regarded as a device that
enumerates the sentences
of a language” - nothing
more, nothing less

Image source: Nowak et al. Nature, vol 417, 2002


5
The Chomsky Hierachy
• A containment hierarchy of classes of formal languages

Regular Context-
(DFA) Context-
free Recursively-
sensitive
(PDA) enumerable
(LBA)
(TM)

6
The Central Concepts of
Automata Theory

7
Alphabet
An alphabet is a finite, non-empty set of
symbols
 We use the symbol ∑ (sigma) to denote an

alphabet
 Examples:
 Binary: ∑ = {0,1}
 All lower case letters: ∑ = {a,b,c,..z}
 Alphanumeric: ∑ = {a-z, A-Z, 0-9}
 DNA molecule letters: ∑ = {a,c,g,t}
 …

8
Strings
A string or word is a finite sequence of symbols
chosen from ∑
 Empty string is  (or “epsilon”)

 Length of a string w, denoted by “|w|”, is


equal to the number of (non- ) characters in the
string
 E.g., x = 010100 |x| = 6
 x = 01  0  1  00  |x| = ?

 xy = concatentation of two strings x and y


9
Powers of an alphabet
Let ∑ be an alphabet.

 ∑k = the set of all strings of length k

 ∑* = ∑0 U ∑1 U ∑2 U …

 ∑+ = ∑ 1 U ∑ 2 U ∑ 3 U …

10
Languages
L is a said to be a language over alphabet ∑, only if L  ∑*
 this is because ∑* is the set of all strings (of all possible
length including 0) over the given alphabet ∑
Examples:
1. Let L be the language of all strings consisting of n 0’s
followed by n 1’s:
L = {, 01, 0011, 000111,…}
2. Let L be the language of all strings of with equal number of
0’s and 1’s:
L = {, 01, 10, 0011, 1100, 0101, 1010, 1001,…}
Canonical ordering of strings in the language

Definition: Ø denotes the Empty language


 Let L = {}; Is L=Ø?
NO
11
The Membership Problem
Given a string w ∑*and a language L
over ∑, decide whether or not w L.

Example:
Let w = 100011
Q) Is w  the language of strings with
equal number of 0s and 1s?

12
Finite Automata
 Some Applications
 Software for designing and checking the behavior
of digital circuits
 Lexical analyzer of a typical compiler
 Software for scanning large bodies of text (e.g.,
web pages) for pattern finding
 Software for verifying systems of all types that
have a finite number of states (e.g., stock market
transaction, communication/network protocol)

13
Finite Automata : Examples
action
 On/Off switch state

 Modeling recognition of the word “then”

Start state Transition Intermediate Final state


state
14
Structural expressions
 Grammars
 Regular expressions
 E.g., unix style to capture city names such
as “Palo Alto CA”:

[A-Z][a-z]*([ ][A-Z][a-z]*)*[ ][A-Z][A-Z]

Start with a letter


A string of other
letters (possibly Should end w/ 2-letter state code
empty)

Other space delimited words


(part of city name) 15
Formal Proofs

16
Deductive Proofs
From the given statement(s) to a conclusion
statement (what we want to prove)
 Logical progression by direct implications

Example for parsing a statement:


 “If y≥4, then 2y≥y2.”
given conclusion

(there are other ways of writing this).


17
Example: Deductive proof
Let Claim 1: If y≥4, then 2y≥y2.

Let x be any number which is obtained by adding the squares


of 4 positive integers.
Claim 2:
Given x and assuming that Claim 1 is true, prove that 2 x≥x2
 Proof:
1) Given: x = a2 + b2 + c2 + d2
2) Given: a≥1, b≥1, c≥1, d≥1
3)  a2≥1, b2≥1, c2≥1, d2≥1 (by 2)
4) x≥4 (by 1 & 3)
5)  2x ≥ x 2 (by 4 and Claim 1)
“implies” or “follows”
18
On Theorems, Lemmas and Corollaries
We typically refer to:
 A major result as a “theorem”

 An intermediate result that we show to prove a larger result as a

“lemma”
 A result that follows from an already proven result as a

“corollary”

An example:
Theorem: The height of an n-node binary
tree is at least floor(lg n)
Lemma: Level i of a perfect binary tree has
2i nodes.
Corollary: A perfect binary tree of height h
has 2h+1-1 nodes.
19
Quantifiers
“For all” or “For every”
 Universal proofs
 Notation=
“There exists”
 Used in existential proofs
 Notation=
Implication is denoted by =>

E.g., “IF A THEN B” can also be written as “A=>B”

20
Proving techniques
 By contradiction
 Start with the statement contradictory to the given
statement
 E.g., To prove (A => B), we start with:

(A and ~B)

… and then show that could never happen

What if you want to prove that “(A and B => C or D)”?

 By induction
 (3 steps) Basis, inductive hypothesis, inductive step
 By contrapositive statement
 If A then B ≡ If ~B then ~A
21
Proving techniques…
 By counter-example
 Show an example that disproves the claim

 Note: There is no such thing called a


“proof by example”!
 So when asked to prove a claim, an example that

satisfied that claim is not a proof

22
Different ways of saying the same
thing
 “If H then C”:
i. H implies C
ii. H => C
iii. C if H
iv. H only if C
v. Whenever H holds, C follows

23
“If-and-Only-If” statements
 “A if and only if B” (A <==> B)
 (if part) if B then A ( <= )
 (only if part) A only if B ( => )
(same as “if A then B”)
 “If and only if” is abbreviated as “iff”
 i.e., “A iff B”
 Example:
 Theorem: Let x be a real number. Then floor of x =
ceiling of x if and only if x is an integer.
 Proofs for iff have two parts
 One for the “if part” & another for the “only if part”
24
Summary
 Automata theory & a historical perspective
 Chomsky hierarchy
 Finite automata
 Alphabets, strings/words/sentences, languages
 Membership problem
 Proofs:
 Deductive, induction, contrapositive, contradiction,

counterexample
 If and only if

 Read chapter 1 for more examples and exercises

25

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