Chapter Two

Basic Circuit laws, Methods of analysis and Theorems

2.1 Basic Circuit laws
2.1.1 Ohm’s Law
 States that the voltage v across a resistor is directly proportional to the current flowing through the resistor.

• Ohm defined the constant of proportionality for a resistor to be the resistance, R. (The resistance is a material
property which can change if the internal or external conditions of the element are altered, e.g., if there are changes
in the temperature.
• Thus,
𝑣 = 𝑅𝑖 mathematical form of Ohm’s law

2.1.2 Kirchhoff’s Laws

 Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits.
 When it is coupled with Kirchhoff’s two laws, we have a sufficient, powerful set of tools for analyzing a large
variety of electric circuits.
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node (or a closed
boundary) is zero.
=0
Mathematically, KCL implies that
N is the number of branches connected to the node
is the nth current entering (or leaving) the node.

Considering current entering the

node as positive and leaving the
node as negative,
Applying KCL gives

an alternative form
 Rearranging yields of KCL

The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the node.
2. Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL): states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path (or loop) is
zero.
Mathematically, = 0
where M is the number of voltages in the loop (or the number of branches in the loop) and is the voltage. The sign
on each voltage is the polarity of the terminal encountered first as we travel around the loop.

Alternate form
of KVL

 KVL can be applied in two ways: by taking either a clockwise or a counterclockwise trip around the loop.
 Either way, the algebraic sum of voltages around the loop is zero.
 When voltage sources are connected in series, KVL can be applied to obtain the total voltage.
 The combined voltage is the algebraic sum of the voltages of the individual sources.

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Example 1: Determine and i in the circuit shown in Fig. below.

2. Find and in the circuit shown below.

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  The circuit is known as a current divider. Notice that the larger current flows through the smaller
resistance.
Suppose the two extreme cases resistance values,
The current still
flows through the
path of least
resistance,
As
=
 2.2 Methods of Analysis
 Having understood Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws, we are now prepared to apply these laws to develop two
powerful techniques for circuit analysis:

 Nodal analysis, which is based on a systematic application of Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL), and

 Mesh analysis, which is based on a systematic application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).

 With the two techniques to be developed in this section, we can analyze any linear circuit,

 By obtaining a set of simultaneous equations that are then solved using,

 Cramer’s rule, which allows us to calculate circuit variables as a quotient of

determinants.
 2.2.1 Nodal analysis
 Provides a general procedure for analyzing circuits using node voltages as the circuit variables.
 Choosing node voltages instead of element voltages as circuit variables is convenient and reduces the number of
equations one must solve simultaneously.
 Given a circuit with n nodes without voltage sources, the nodal analysis of the circuit involves taking the
following three steps.
1) Select a node as the reference(datum) node. Assign voltages , …, to the remaining n-1 nodes. The voltages are
referenced with respect to the reference node.
2) Apply KCL to each of the n-1 nonreference nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express the branch currents in terms of
node voltages.
3) Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node voltages.
 The reference node is commonly called the ground since it is assumed to have zero potential.

Eqn
1

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• To express branch currents in terms of node voltages , we consider first the way of how to determine the current
 Current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in a resistor.
I=

Substitutin
g in Eqn 1

 The third step in nodal analysis is to solve for the node voltages.
 The number of non reference nodes is equal to the number of independent equations that we will derive.
 To obtain the node voltages and using any standard method, such as
 The substitution method,
 The elimination method, f orm
tr ix ation
 The Cramer’s rule, or matrix inversion. M a se n t
re
rep
 Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources
CASE 1:
 If a voltage source is connected between the reference node and a nonreference node, we simply set the
voltage at the non reference node equal to the voltage of the voltage source. In the figure below = 10 V.
• CASE 2 If the voltage source (dependent or independent) is connected between two nonreference
nodes, the two nonreference nodes form a generalized node or supernode; we apply both KCL and KVL
to determine the node voltages.

A supernode is formed by enclosing a (dependent or independent) voltage

source connected between two nonreference nodes and any elements
connected in parallel with it.
For this circuit:
+ = +.

To apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the supernode in Fig.

-+ 5 + =0
- =5
 Mesh Analysis
 Also called loop analysis or the mesh-current method.
 Mesh analysis provides another general procedure for analyzing circuits, using mesh currents as the circuit
variables. Using mesh currents instead of element currents as circuit variables is convenient and reduces the
number of equations that must be solved simultaneously. Recall that a loop is a closed path with no node
passed more than once.
 A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loop within it.

 For example, paths abefa and bcdeb are meshes, but path abcdefa is not a mesh.
 The current through a mesh is known as mesh current.
 We are interested in applying KVL to find the mesh currents in a given circuit.

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Steps to Determine Mesh Currents:
1. Assign mesh currents , ,… to the n meshes.
2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express the voltages in terms of the mesh currents.
3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents.
We apply KVL to each mesh. Applying KVL to mesh 1, we obtain:

 Note in the first equation that the coefficient of is the sum of the resistances in the first mesh, while the
coefficient of is the negative of the resistance common to meshes 1 and 2. Branch currents as, I, are
algebraic sums of the mesh currents.
Mesh currents as I
The equation can be in
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Matrix form:
 Mesh Analysis with Current Sources
CASE 1 When a current source exists only in one mesh: Consider the circuit in Fig. for example. We set
= -5 A and write a mesh equation for the other mesh in the usual way; that is,

CASE 2 When a current source exists between two meshes: Consider the circuit in Fig below for example, we
create a supermesh by excluding the current source and any elements connected in series with it.
Applying KVL to the super mesh in the
second figure above:

 We apply KCL to a node in the branch

where the two meshes intersect.
Applying KCL to node 0,

06/02/2025 Substituting and solving yields 16

 2.3 Circuit Theorems
2.3.1 Introduction
A major advantage of analyzing circuits using Kirchhoff’s laws
 Analyze a circuit without tampering with its original configuration.
 Major disadvantage:
 For a large, complex circuit, tedious computation is involved.
 To handle the complexity,
 Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems were developed.
 Are applicable to linear circuits.
Linearity Property
 Property of an element describing a linear relationship between cause and effect.
 Is a combination of both the homogeneity (scaling) property and the additivity property.
 The homogeneity property requires that if the input (also called the excitation) is multiplied by a constant, then the
output (also called the response) is multiplied by the same constant.
 For a resistor,, if the current increases by k, then the voltage increases correspondingly by k,
The additivity property requires that the response to a sum of inputs is the sum of the responses
to each input applied separately.

A resistor is a linear element because the voltage-current relationship satisfies both the
homogeneity and the additivity properties.
In general, a circuit is linear if it is both additive and homogeneous.
A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related (or directly proportional) to its input.
 2.3.2 Superposition Principle
States that the voltage across (or current through) an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic
sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that element due to each independent source
acting alone.
To apply the superposition principle, we must keep two things in mind:
1. We consider one independent source at a time while all other independent sources are turned
off. This implies that we replace every voltage source by 0 V (or a short circuit), and every
current source by 0 A (or an open circuit). This way we obtain a simpler and more manageable
circuit.
2. Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by circuit variables.
Steps to Apply Superposition Principle:
1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the
output (voltage or current) due to that active source using the
techniques covered in previous lessons.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the
contributions due to the independent sources.
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 2.2.3 Source Transformation
 Series-parallel combination and wye-delta transformation help simplify circuits.
 Source transformation is another tool for simplifying circuits.
 An equivalent circuit is one whose v-i characteristics are identical with the original circuit.
 In circuit analysis, it is possible to substitute a voltage source in series with a resistor for a current source in
parallel with a resistor, or vice versa, as shown in figure below.
 Either substitution is known as a source transformation. The two circuits are equivalent or have the same voltage
–current relation ship

 A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage source in series with a resistor R by a current source
in parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.
 2.3.4Thevenin’s Theorem
States that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a voltage source in series with a resistor where is the open-circuit voltage
at the terminals and is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the
independent sources are turned off.

Way of
determining &
In finding the Thevenin resistance, we need to consider two cases:
CASE 1 If the network has no dependent sources, we turn off all independent sources. is the input resistance of the network
looking between terminals a and b, as shown in the figure below.

CASE 2 If the network has dependent sources, we turn off all independent sources. As with superposition, dependent
sources are not to be turned off because they are controlled by circuit variables .

A linear circuit with a variable load can be

replaced by the Thevenin equivalent, exclusive of the load.
Consider a linear circuit terminated by a load

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 2.3.5 Norton’s Theorem
• States that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a
current source in parallel with a resistor , where is the short-circuit current through the terminals
and is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are
turned off.
Where =.To find the Norton current we determine the short-circuit
current flowing from terminal a to b in both circuits

==

• The Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits are related by a source transformation.
2.3.6 Maximum Power Transfer
 In many practical situations, a circuit is designed to provide power to a load. There are applications in areas such
as communications, where it is desirable to maximize the power delivered to a load.
 The Thevenin equivalent is useful in finding the maximum power a linear circuit can deliver to a load. We assume
that we can adjust the load resistance .
• If the entire circuit is replaced by its Thevenin equivalent except for the load, as shown in figure below the power
delivered to the load is
For a given circuit, and are fixed. By varying the load resistance the power delivered to the
load varies as sketched below. We now want to show that this maximum power occurs when is
equal to .

Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance equals the Thevenin
resistance as seen from the load (R R ). To prove the maximum power transfer theorem, we
L= Th

differentiate p in the above equation with respect to and set the result equal to zero. We obtain

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This implies that

The maximum power transferred is

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