CHAPTER:ONE

DIRECT STRESS AND

STRAIN
 1.1 STRESS
Resistance offered by the material per unit cross-
sectional area is called STRESS.
Direct Stress() = Resisting Force (P)
Cross Sectional Area (A)

 Unit of Stress:
 Pascal = 1 N/m2 kN/m2 , MN/m2 ,
GN/m2

 1 MPa = 1 N/mm2 = 1 MN/m2

Volumetric stress Volumetric strain
Direct Stress Contd.
Direct stress may be tensile, or compressive, and
result from forces acting perpendicular to the plane of
the cross-section

Tension

Compression
 Direct or Normal Strain
When loads are applied to a body, some deformation will
occur resulting to a change in dimension.

The ratio of change of dimension of a body to the original

dimension of a body is called strain.

Strain is dimensionless.

Consider a bar, subjected to axial tensile loading force, F.

If the bar extension is dl and its original length (before
loading) is L, then tensile strain is:
 F F
L dl

Direct Strain 
or tensile strain = Change in Length
Original Length
i.e.  = dl/L
As strain is a ratio of lengths, it is
dimensionless.
Similarly, for compression by amount,
dl: Compressive strain = - dl/L
Note: Strain is positive for an
increase in dimension and negative for
a reduction in dimension.
Shear Stress and Shear Strain
Shear stresses are produced by equal and
opposite parallel forces.

 The forces tend to make one part of the

material slide over the other part.

Shear stress is tangential to the area over

which it acts.
Shear Stress and Shear Strain Contd.
x C’
C D D’
F

L P Q

 S R

A B
Shear strain is the distortion produced by shear stress on an

element or rectangular block as above. The shear strain,
(gamma) is given as:
 = x/L = tan 
Shear Stress and Shear Strain Concluded
For small  ,  

 It is dimensionless and is measured in

radians.
 Complementary Shear Stress

P 1
Q
2

2 S R
1 b
Consider a small element, PQRS of the material in the last
diagram. Let the shear stress created on faces PQ and RS be,
1
Complimentary Shear Stress Contd.
The element is therefore subjected to a couple and for
equilibrium, a balancing couple must be brought into
action.
 This will only arise from the shear stress on faces QR
and PS.

Let the shear stresses on these faces be ,

2
Complimentary Shear Stress Contd.
Let t be the thickness of the material at right
angles to the paper and lengths of sides of
element be a and b as shown.
For equilibrium, clockwise couple =
anticlockwise couple
i.e. Force on PQ (or RS) x a = Force on QR
(or PS) x b

1 x bt x a  2 x at x b
i. e. 1  2
Complimentary Shear Stress Concluded
Thus: Whenever a shear stress occurs on a plane within
a material, it is automatically accompanied by an equal
shear stress on the perpendicular plane.

 The direction of the complementary shear stress is such

that their couple opposes that of the original shear stresses.
 Volumetric Strain/cubical
dilatation
Ratio between the change in volume and the
original volume is known as volumetric
strain.

Denoted by Ɛv.

Ɛv = dv/v

Ɛv = Ɛxx+ Ɛyy+ Ɛzz

Volumetric strain of a rectangular bar which is subjected
to an axial load P in the direction of its length.
y

z
Linear strain in x direction
Ɛx =
Lateral strain in y direction
Ɛy = =
Lateral strain in z direction
Ɛz = =
Strain In x- In y- direction( In z-direction(
direction()

Due
to σx

Total
strai
n
Volumetric strain of a rectangular body subjected to bi-axial loading or
stresses
y Py
y -
𝜀𝑦
Px Px -
x
𝜀𝑥 x
-
z Py z -
Strain In x- direction() In y- direction( In z-direction(

Due to σx -
Due to σy - -

Total (-) ) (--)

strain
Volumetric strain is given by,
Ɛv = Ɛxx+ Ɛyy+ Ɛzz
 Ɛv =
 Ɛv = -2
 Ɛv = (1-2)
Ɛv = (1-2)
Volumetric strain is given by,
Hence, Volumetric strain in when stress/load is applied in x and y direction:
Hence, Volumetric strain in when stress/load is applied in y and z direction:

 (1-2)

 (1-2)
Hence, Volumetric strain in when stress/load is applied in x and z direction:
Volumetric strain
For triaxial loading
Volumetric strain
For triaxial loading
We known that,

Put
 (1-2)
 Elasticity and Hooke’s Law
All solid materials deform when they are stressed, and
as stress is increased, deformation also increases.
If a material returns to its original size and shape on
removal of load causing deformation, it is said to be
elastic.
 If the stress is steadily increased, a point is reached
when, after the removal of load, not all the induced
strain is removed.
This is called the elastic limit.
 Hooke’s Law
States that providing the limit of proportionality of a
material is not exceeded, the stress is directly
proportional to the strain produced.

If a graph of stress and strain is plotted as load is

gradually applied, the first portion of the graph will be a
straight line.

 The slope of this line is the constant of proportionality

called modulus of Elasticity, E or Young’s Modulus.
Modulus of Elasticity(E/Y) and Modulus of
Rigidity(G/N/C)
Modulus of elasticity E = =

Modulus of rigidity or shear modulus(G) = =

Bulk modulus(K)
Within elastic limit, the ratio of direct stress/volumetric
stress to the corresponding volumetric strain in a body is
always constant, which is called as Bulk modulus of elasticity.

 It is denoted by letter 'K’.

Its Unit is N m-2 or Pa (pascal)

 /  v K
 Poisson’s Ratio(1/m or μ)
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5.2 Stress strain diagram/curve for steel
(Ductile material)
Stress strain curve is a behavior of
material when it is subjected to load.
Standard tensile test involves subjecting
a circular bar of uniform cross section to
a gradually increasing tensile load until
the failure occurs
Tensile test is carried out to compare the
strengths of various materials.
Universal Testing machine(UTM)
Change in length of a selected gauge length
of bar is recorded by extensometer.
A graph is plotted with load vs extension or
stress vs strain
In this diagram stresses are plotted along
the vertical axis and as a result of these
stresses, corresponding strains are plotted
along the horizontal axis.
 As shown below in the stress strain curve.
From the diagram one can see the different mark points
on the curve.
 It is because, when a ductile material like mild steel is
subjected to tensile test, then it passes various stages
before fracture.
These stages are;
Proportional Limit
Elastic Limit
Yield Point
Ultimate Stress Point
Breaking Point
PROPORTIONAL LIMIT
Proportional limit is point on the curve up to which
the value of stress and strain remains proportional.
From the diagram point A is the called the
proportional limit point or it can also be known as
limit of proportionality.
The stress up to this point can be also be known as
proportional limit stress.
Hook’s law of proportionality from diagram can be
defined between point OA.
It is so, because OA is a straight line which shows
that Hook’s law of stress strain is followed up to
point A.
 ELASTIC LIMIT
Elastic limit is the limiting value of stress
up to which the material is perfectly
elastic.
 From the curve, point B is the elastic
limit point. Material will return back to its
original position, If it is unloaded before
the crossing of point B.
This is so, because material is perfectly
elastic up to point B.
 YIELD STRESS POINT
Yield stress is defined as the stress after
which material extension takes place
more quickly with no or little increase in
load.

Point C and D is the yield point on the

graph and stress associated with this point
is known as yield stress.
ULTIMATE STRESS POINT
Ultimate stress point is the maximum strength
that material have to bear stress before
breaking.

 It can also be defined as the ultimate stress

corresponding to the peak point on the stress
strain graph.

 On the graph point E is the ultimate stress

point. After point E material have very minute
or zero strength to face further stress.
BREAKING STRESS (POINT OF
RUPTURE)
Breaking point or breaking stress is point
where strength of material breaks.

The stress associates with this point known as

breaking strength or rupture strength.

 On the stress strain curve, point F is the

breaking stress point.
Ultimate stress
It is the maximum stress which a material can
withstand without failure .
 It is defined as ratio of ultimate load to the
initial cross sectional area.
Mathematically,
Ultimate stress =
Allowable stress/ working stress/permissible
stress/Design stress
It is the maximum stress allowed to set up in a
material in actual practice.

It is much lesser than ultimate stress.

Allowable stress = ultimate stress/ factor of Safety


It is the maximum safe stress a material can carry.
Factor of Safety
It is the ratio of maximum stress/ultimate stress to the working
stress of any material.

It is denoted as F.O.S.

F.O.S =

F.O.S is a number which is always greater than 1.

F.O.S is used to indicate the reserve strength of the

component/structure.
For ductile material,
F.O.S = =

For brittle material,

F.O.S = =
Nominal and true stress
When the initial area of the specimen is used
in calculation, the stress is called nominal
stress or engineering stress.

When actual area of specimen of cross

section where failure occur is used in
calculation, the stress is called true stress.
Percentage elongation
It is defined as the ratio of final extension at rupture to
original length expressed as percentage.
Thus ,
Percentage elongation = ((L1 – L)/L) * 100%
Where L1= length at rupture
L = original length
Percentage reduction in area
It is defined as ratio of maximum change in cross
sectional area to original cross sectional area,
expressed as percentage.
Thus,
Percentage reduction in area = ((A-A 1)/A)*100%
Where A = original cross sectional area
A1= minimum cross sectional area
Stress strain relation in brittle material

In this material, there is no appreciable change

in rate of strain.
There is no yield point and no necking takes
place.
Ultimate point and breaking point are one and
same.
The strain at failure is very small.
Expression for Young’s modulus( E ) in terms of
Bulk Modulus ( K )
Relation between modulus of elasticity(E)
and modulus of rigidity(C)
Let us consider a square block of length “l” subjected to a
shear stress of τ as shown in fig.

Due to these stresses, the block is subjected to some distortion

such that the diagonal BD will experience tensile stress of
magnitude τ and will be elongated and diagonal AC will
experience a compressive stress of magnitude τ and will be
shortened.

Let this shear stress τ cause shear strain as shown in fig.

The diagonal BD is now distorted to BD 1.

φ
Ф
Due to tensile stress τ along diagonal BD,
there will be a tensile strain in diagonal BD.

Due to compressive stress τ along the

diagonal AC, there will be a tensile strain in
the diagonal BD due to lateral strain.
Let,
 = Poisson’s ratio
E=………..
Now tensile strain in diagonal BD due to
tensile stress along BD.
=

Tensile strain in diagonal BD due to

compressive stress τ along AC,
=
Total tensile strain along diagonal BD
= +
=

 Total compressive strain in diagonal AC

=
Due to shear stressed acting on the faces,the
square block ABCD will be deformed to
position ABC1D1 as shown in fig above.
Increase in the length of diagonal BD = BD1-
BD
Tensile strain in the diagonal BD =
=
From D,draw a perpendicular DE on BD1.
Since distortion DD1 is very small and angle
DBD1 will be very small.

In
Derive an expression for the elongation
due to axial load in a bar.
Derive an expression for the elongation due to
self-weight of a bar.
Let,
A = Uniform cross sectional area of
the bar
E = Young’s modulus for the bar
L = Length of the bar
ρ or γ =Specific Weight of the bar ,
for the material of the bar (i.e wt
/vol)

Consider an element of length ‘dy’

at a distance of ‘y’ from the bottom
of the bar being elongated due to the
force ‘P’, at section x-x, as shown in
the figure.
Weight of the portion below x-x = P = ρ × A × y

Change in the length of the element ‘dy’=

For total change in the length of the bar, we need to integrate

along the length
Total change in length =
On integrating, we get,

dL =
This is the expression for the elongation of a uniform bar under
self weight.
In term of weight we have,
P = ρ × A × L
ρ=
We have,
 dL =
Elongation of conical bar due to self
weight.
Principle of superposition
Sometimes a body is subjected to a number
of forces acting on its outer edges as well as
in some other sections along the length of
the body.
In such case the forces are split up and their
effects are considered on individual
sections.
The resulting deformations of the body is
equal to the algebraic sum of the
deformation of the individual sections.
Such a principle of finding out the resultant deformation
is called the “ principle of superposition”.
 figure
Note: Direction +
 -

A B C D
P1 P2 P3
P4
L1 L2 L3
 A B C D
P2 P3
P1 P4
L1 L2 L3
A B
Note
P1 P1=P4+P2-P3 + Tension
- Compression
B C
P2-P1 P4-P3

C D
P4=P2-P1-P3 P4


Stresses in the bars of uniformly tapering
section
Bars of uniformly tapering circular sections
Bars of uniformly tapering rectangular sections(Do it
yourself)
Elongation of Bars of uniformly tapering circular sections
Notes:

Area keep on varying wrt L

Diameter keep on varying wrt x.
Change of diameter with respect to L or
change in diameter per unit length i.e.
Moving from left to right about x, what will
be change i.e = x

Total change in diameter Dx = D1 -x

 COMPOUND BAR

Material(2)
L1 L2
Material(1)

W
A compound bar is one which is made of two or more than
two materials rigidly fixed, so that they sustain together an
externally applied load. In such cases
(i) Change in length in all the materials are same.
(ii) Applied load is equal to sum of the loads carried by each
bar.
 (dL)1 = (dL)2
L1 =L2

σ1 = σ2 × x …... (1)

is called modular ratio.

Total load = load carried by material (1) + load carried by

material(2)

W = σ1 A1 + σ2 A2 ………. (2)

From Equation (1) & (2) σ1 and σ2 can be calculated

 Q.7.4 Two copper rods and one steel rod together
supports as shown in figure. The stress in copper and
steel not to exceed 60MPa and 120MPa respectively.
Find the safe load that can be supported. Take Es = 2Ecu

W
Copper
(30mm×30mm) Copper
(30mm×30mm)
120mm
Steel
(40mm×40mm)

80mm
Q.7.5 A rigid bar AB 9m long is suspended by two vertical rods
at its end A and B and hangs in horizontal position by its
own weight. The rod at A is brass, 3m long, 1000mm2 c/s
and Eb = 105N/mm2. The rod at B is steel, length 5m,
445mm2 c/s and Es = 200GPa. At what distance x from A,
if a vertical load P = 3000N be applied if the bar remains
horizontal after the load is applied.

Steel
Brass
5m
3m 9m

A B

x 3000N
Q.7.6 A mild steel bar of c/s 490mm2 is surrounded by
a copper tube of 210mm2 as shown. When they are
placed centrally over a rigid bar, it is found that steel
bar is 0.15 mm longer. Over this unit a rigid plate
carrying a load of 80 kN is placed. Find the stress in
each bar, if the length of the compound bar is 1m.
Take Es = 200 GPa, Ecu = 100 GPa.

80kN

0.15mm Steel bar

Copper tube
1000mm
Temperature stress and strain
These stresses are induced in
body due to change in
temperature.

It is set up on body ,when the

temperature of body is raised or
lowered and the body is not
allowed to expand and contract
Here,
AB = original length
BB’ = increase in length due to
temperature rise.

Now, compressive load P is

applied at B’ so that the rod is
decreased in length from (L+as
shown in figure.
If the ends of the body are fixed
to rigid supports ,so that the
expansion is prevented ,then
compressive stress and strain
will be set up in the rod.

These stress and strain are

known as thermal stress and
strain.
If a gap δ is provided for expansion then
Temperature strain = (αTL – δ) / L
Temperature stress = [(αTL – δ)/L] E
 Temperature stress in compound bars:-

x
α1TL
P1
Material(1)

Material(2) (dL)2 (dL)1

P2
α2TL
∆ x
When a compound bar is subjected to change in temperature,
both the materials will experience stresses of opposite nature.
Compressive force on material (1) = tensile force on material (2)
σ1A1 = σ2A2 (there is no external
load)
σ1=( σ2A2)/A1 (1)
As the two bars are connected together, the actual position of the
bars will be at XX.

Actual expansion in material (1) = actual expansion in material (2)

α1TL – (dL)1 = α2TL + (dL)2
α1TL – (σ1 / E1) L =α2TL + (σ2 / E2) L
αT – (σ1 / E1) = α2T + σ2 / E2 --------------------------(2)
From (1) and (2) magnitude of σ1 and σ2 can be found out.
Stress concentration
A stress concentration is the location in an
object where stress is concentrated.
It is also known as stress raisers or stress
risers.
If the change in cross section occur or holes
occurs along the length of the members, the
stress will no longer be uniform and cannot
be calculate normally.
The stress develop near the hole or change in
cross section will be higher than the other
sections.
Stress Concentration
If we section a bar near an end which is subjected to a
concentrated force F(Fig. 1.2a, section c−c) we find
that the normal stress is not distributed uniformly over
the cross-sectional area.

The concentrated force produces high stresses near its

point of application (Fig. 1.2b).

This phenomenon is known as stress concentration.