Anatomy and Physiology II

The Endocrine System

Raritan Valley Community College
Ahmed Katsha
[email protected]
 Disclosure
• This course is using Open Education Resources (OER) mainly
from OpenStax.
• This OpenStax ancillary resource is © Rice University under a
CC-BY 4.0 International license; it may be reproduced or
modified but must be attributed to OpenStax, Rice University
and any changes must be noted.
• Images in these slides are from OpenStax textbook unless
otherwise noted.
• Text is mix of text from OpenStax and Dr. Ahmed Katsha own
explanation.
 Learning Objects
• Identify the contributions of the endocrine system to homeostasis
• Discuss the chemical composition of hormones and the mechanisms of hormone action
• Summarize the site of production, regulation, and effects of the hormones of the pituitary,
thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and pineal glands
• Discuss the hormonal regulation of the reproductive system
• Explain the role of the pancreatic endocrine cells in the regulation of blood glucose
• Identify the hormones released by the heart, kidneys, and other organs with secondary
endocrine functions
• Discuss several common diseases associated with endocrine system dysfunction
 Group discussion I
1. What are the functions of endocrine system?
2. Define hormones, paracrines, and autocrines.
3. How hormone alter target cells?
4. What are the endocrine gland stimuli mechanisms that
triggering hormone production? Mention the name and give
an example.
5. What are the posterior pituitary hormones? What are their
effects?
Easy concepts

Overview of the Endocrine System

• Endocrine system regulate activity of
body cells
• Important in maintaining homeostasis.
• Important in communication through
hormones
Easy concepts

Overview of the Endocrine System

• Comparing to nervous system, endocrine
signaling requires more time to prompt a
response in target cells.
• Also, less specific.
– The same hormone may affect different
physiological processes.
Easy concepts

Overview of the Endocrine System

Endocrine System Nervous system
Signaling mechanisms Chemical Chemical and Electrical
Primary chemical signal Hormones Neurotransmitters
Distance traveled Short or long Always short (neurotransmitters only
in synapses)
Response time Fast or short Always fast
Responds to changes in Internal environment Internal or external
Easy concepts
Functions
• Endocrine system can affect the
following processes:
– Reproduction
– Growth and development
– Maintenance of electrolyte, water,
and nutrient balance of blood
– Regulation of cellular metabolism
and energy balance
– Mobilization of body defenses
 Endocrine glands
– The secretions of endocrine glands are
called hormones.
– Hormones are released into the Blood vessel
interstitial fluid, diffused into the
bloodstream, and delivered to targets.
– A examples of endocrine glands include
the anterior pituitary, thymus, adrenal
cortex, and gonads.
 Exocrine glands

– Exocrine glands release their contents

through a duct that leads to an epithelial
surface.
– Mucous, sweat, saliva, and breast milk are
all examples of secretions from exocrine
glands.
Easy concepts

Types of Chemical Signals

• Hormones: secreted into the extracellular fluid diffuse into the blood
or lymph and can then travel great distances throughout the body.
• Autocrines: a chemical that elicits a response in the same cell that
secreted it.
• Paracrines: chemical that induces a response in neighboring cells.
• Glands of endocrine system release hormones only. The other types of
chemical signals are produced by cells belong to other systems.
Easy concepts
Hormones
The hormones of the human body can be divided into two
major groups on the basis of their chemical structure:
1. Amino acid–based hormones
• Amines, peptides, and proteins
2. Steroids
• Derived from cholesterol
Easy concepts
Hormones Actions
– Target cells must have receptors specific to a given hormone
if that hormone is to trigger a response
– Hormones alter target cell activity by:
• Stimulation of protein synthesis.
• Activation or deactivation of enzymes
• Alteration in the permeability of the cell membrane
• Altered rates of mitosis and cell growth
• Stimulation of the secretion of products.
 Regulation of Hormone Secretion
• To prevent abnormal hormone levels and a potential
disease state, hormone levels must be tightly
controlled.
• The body maintains this control by balancing hormone
production and degradation.
• Regulation of hormone secretion happens in two ways:
• Feedback Loops
• Endocrine Gland Stimuli
 Role of Feedback Loops
• Two ways: negative and
positive
– Negative feedback: inhibit further
secretion of a hormone when
adequate levels are reached.
– Positive feedback release additional
hormone in response to an original
hormone release. Only few
examples.
 Endocrine Gland Stimuli
Hormones production is stimulated by chemical and neural
stimuli. Stimulation comes in either one or more of three ways
1. Humoral stimuli
2. Neural stimuli
3. Hormonal stimuli
 Humoral stimuli
Glucose
Humoral stimuli are changes in Pancreas

blood levels of non-hormone

chemicals which cause the
release or inhibition of a
hormone to maintain Insulin
homeostasis. By: Ahmed Katsha

• Example: Regulation of blood glucose. High blood glucose

levels cause the release of insulin from the pancreas.
Neural stimuli
•Hormones can also be released in
response to neural stimuli
– Example: activation of the fight-or-flight
response.
– Sympathetic neurons signal the adrenal
glands to secrete norepinephrine and
epinephrine, thereby improving the body’s
ability to fight or flee.
 Hormonal stimuli
– An endocrine gland may secrete a
hormone in a response to the
presence of another hormone
produced by a different endocrine
gland.
• The hypothalamus, which controls
pituitary hormones that control the
secretion of a variety of
other hormones.
Easy concepts
Major Endocrine Glands
• Pituitary Gland
• Thyroid Gland
• Endocrine glands are ductless
• Parathyroid Gland
glands that empty their
hormonal products directly into • Adrenal Gland
blood • Pancreas
• The Gonads
• Pineal Glands
• Thymus Gland
 The Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
• The “command center” of the endocrine system.
• This complex secretes several hormones that directly produce
responses in target tissues, as well as hormones that regulate
the synthesis and secretion of hormones of other glands.
• Coordinates the messages of the endocrine and nervous
systems.
• The pituitary gland is connected to the hypothalamus through
a stem called the infundibulum.
The Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
 The Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
• Pituitary gland has two
lobes:
– Posterior pituitary
(neurohypophysis) is a
neural tissue.
– Anterior pituitary
(adenohypophysis) is
a glandular tissue.
 Posterior Pituitary

• Extension of the neurons of the

hypothalamus.
• The cell bodies rest in the
hypothalamus, but their axons
descend within the
infundibulum, and end in axon
terminals that comprise the
posterior pituitary.
 Posterior Pituitary

• Does not produce hormones, but

rather stores and secretes
hormones produced by the
hypothalamus.
• The hormones are released into the
bloodstream.
• Secretes two hormones (oxytocin
and Antidiuretic hormone “ADH”)
Easy concepts
Posterior Pituitary Hormones
• Oxytocin
– Stimulates uterine contractions and
dilation of the cervix.
– Released through a positive feedback
mechanism.
– Necessary for the milk ejection reflex in
breastfeeding women.
 Posterior Pituitary Hormones
• Antidiuretic hormone “ADH”
– Blood osmolarity (concentrations of solutes) is constantly monitored
within the hypothalamus (particularly sodium ions).
– In response to high blood osmolarity, the hypothalamus signal the
posterior pituitary to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
– Targets cells of the kidneys and increases their permeability to water,
allowing increased water reabsorption.
– This leads to less urine formation.
 Posterior Pituitary Hormones
• Antidiuretic hormone “ADH”
– Release is controlled by a negative feedback loop.
– At high concentrations, it causes constriction of blood vessels, which
increases blood pressure, a situation know as vasopressin.
– Alcohol inhibits the release of ADH, resulting in increased urine
production that can eventually lead to dehydration
– Diabetes insipidus is a disease characterized by chronic
underproduction of ADH that causes chronic dehydration.
– Patients feel always thirsty, so they drink and urinate a lot of fluid.
 Group discussion II
1. What are the anterior pituitary hormones? What are their
effects?
2. What are the abnormalities of growth hormone?
3. How corticosteroids are linked to the anterior pituitary
hormones?
4. What are the effects of FSH, LH and Prolactin?
Easy concepts

Anterior Pituitary Hormones

• Anterior pituitary hormones are regulated by two classes of
hypothalamus hormones.
– Releasing hormones that stimulate the secretion of anterior pituitary
hormones
– The inhibiting hormones that inhibit secretion of anterior
pituitary hormones.
 Anterior Pituitary Hormones

Hypothalamic hormones are

secreted by neurons but
enter the anterior pituitary
through blood vessels within
the infundibulum which
allows them to be
transported to the anterior
pituitary without first
entering the systemic
circulation.
Easy concepts
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
• The anterior pituitary produces six main hormones.
– Growth hormone (GH)
– Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
– Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
– Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
– Luteinizing hormone (LH)
– Prolactin.
• TSH, ACTH, FSH, and LH are tropic hormones (trope- =
“turning”) because they turn on or off the function of other
endocrine glands.
 Growth Hormone (GH)
• A major hormone in the body that regulates its growth, protein
synthesis, and cellular replication.
• Its primary function is anabolic; it promotes protein synthesis
and tissue building through: direct and indirect mechanisms
– Direct mechanism known as Glucose-sparing effect
– Indirect mechanism: producing insulin-like growth factors (IGFs)
 Growth hormone (GH)
• Glucose-sparing effect:
• GH stimulates lipolysis (breakdown of adipose tissue) releasing fatty
acids into the blood. As a result, many tissues switch from glucose to
fatty acids as their main energy source, which means that glucose is
spared.
• GH stimulates the liver to break down glycogen to glucose, which is
then deposited into the blood. Which leads also to increase glucose
levels in blood.
• Glucose in blood stimulates cell proliferation and enhances protein
synthesis
Growth hormone (GH)
directly accelerates the
rate of protein
synthesis in skeletal
muscle and bones.
Insulin-like growth factor
1 (IGF-1) is activated by
growth hormone and
indirectly supports the
formation of new
proteins in muscle cells
and bone.
 Growth hormone (GH)
• Indirect actions on growth and protein synthesis:
– GH targets liver and other organs to produce proteins called insulin-
like growth factors (IGFs)
– IGFs stimulate:
• Cellular proliferation and inhibit apoptosis, or programmed cell death.
• Cells to increase their uptake of amino acids from the blood for protein
synthesis.
– Cartilage cells and skeletal muscle are particularly sensitive to
stimulation from IGFs.
 Abnormalities of GH
• Hypersecretion of GH:
– In children results in gigantism
(excessive growth)
– In adults, results in
acromegaly; growth in bones in the
face, hands, and feet in individuals
who have stopped growing.
• Hyposecretion of GH
– In children results in growth
impairment—a disorder called
pituitary dwarfism
By John McKeon - Flickr, CC BY-SA 2.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=19785623
 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Regulates the secretion of
thyroid hormones by the thyroid
gland. TRH

• TSH is released in response to

thyrotropin-releasing hormone
TSH
(TRH) from the hypothalamus.
• Elevated levels of thyroid
hormones trigger a drop in
production of TRH and
subsequently TSH.
Easy concepts

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

• Stimulates the adrenal cortex (the most superficial reigon of
the adrenal glands) to secrete corticosteroid hormones such as
cortisol.
• A variety of stressors can also influence its release, and
therefore ACTH (and corticosteroid) plays a role in the stress
response.
Easy concepts
Gonadotropins (FSH and LH)

• Puberty is initiated by gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

from the hypothalamus.
• GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete
gonadotropins—hormones that regulate the function of the
gonads.
Easy concepts
Gonadotropins (FSH and LH)
• The gonadotropins include two hormones:
– Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates the production and
maturation of sex cells, or gametes, including ova in women and
sperm in men. Also, promotes follicular growth; these follicles then
release estrogens in the female ovaries.
– Luteinizing hormone (LH) triggers ovulation in women, as well as the
production of estrogens and progesterone by the ovaries. LH
stimulates production of testosterone by the male testes.
Easy concepts

Prolactin (PRL)
• Promotes lactation (milk production) in women.
• During pregnancy, it contributes to development of the
mammary glands, and after birth, it stimulates the mammary
glands to produce breast milk. Sucking stimulates PRL
production.
 Group discussion III
1. List some functions of the thyroid hormone.
2. What is the relationship between PTH and Ca +2?
3. What are the three types of corticosteroids produced by
adrenal cortex?
4. How pancreas regulates the glucose blood levels?
 Thyroid Gland
• Anterior to the trachea and
inferior to the larynx
• Left and right lobes connected
with isthmus.
• Parathyroid glands located on the
posterior surface.
• The tissue of the thyroid gland is
composed mostly of thyroid
follicles.
 Thyroid Hormone (TH)
• Thyroid gland produces thyroid hormone.
• The thyroid hormone come in two forms T3 and T4.
• Both hormones share the same protein, thyroglobulin, but
triiodothyronine (T3), has three iodines. Thyroxine
(tetraiodothyronine-T4), a thyroid hormone with four iodines,
which is more common.
• T3 is more potent than T4, and many cells convert T4 to T3
through the removal of an iodine atom.
 Effects of Thyroid Hormone (TH)
• Influence the body’s basal metabolic rate, the amount of
energy used by the body at rest.
• Initiate the transcription of genes involved in glucose oxidation
(getting ATP from glucose)
• Required for protein synthesis and for fetal and childhood
tissue development and growth.
 Effects of Thyroid Hormone (TH)
• Critical for normal development of the nervous system both in
utero and in early childhood, and they continue to support
neurological function in adults.
• Have a complex interrelationship with reproductive hormones,
and deficiencies can influence libido, fertility, and other aspects
of reproductive function.
• Increase the body’s sensitivity to catecholamines (epinephrine
and norepinephrine) from the adrenal medulla.
 Iodine Deficiency
• Dietary iodine is required for the
synthesis of T3 and T4.
• When T3 and T4 cannot be
produced, TSH is secreted in
increasing amounts.
• Thyroglobulin accumulates in the
thyroid gland follicles.
• This increases the overall size of the
thyroid gland, a condition called a
goiter
 Iodine Deficiency
• In infants and during pregnancy it leads to impaired growth
and development, decreased fertility, and prenatal and
infant death.
• Moreover, iodine deficiency is the primary cause of
preventable mental retardation worldwide.
• Neonatal hypothyroidism (cretinism) is characterized by
cognitive deficits, short stature, and sometimes deafness and
muteness in children and adults born to mothers who were
iodine deficient during pregnancy.
 Hypothyroidism and Hyperthyroidism
• Hypothyroidism: Low blood levels of thyroid hormones.
• Characterized by a low metabolic rate, weight gain, cold extremities,
constipation, reduced libido, menstrual irregularities, and reduced mental
activity.
 Hypothyroidism and Hyperthyroidism
• Hyperthyroidism: Elevated blood
levels of thyroid leading to
Graves’ disease.
• Lead to an increased metabolic
rate, excessive body heat and
sweating, diarrhea, weight loss,
tremors, and increased heart
rate.
• The person’s eyes may bulge
By AVRO - Beeld en Geluidwiki - Gallery: Mies en scène,
(called exophthalmos). The CC BY-SA 3.0 nl,
person may also develop a goiter. https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?
curid=10295613
 Calcitonin
• Produced by parafollicular (C) cells in response to a rise in
blood calcium levels.
– Inhibiting the activity of osteoclasts
– Increasing osteoblastic activity (as a drug it can be used to treat
osteoporosis)
– Decreasing calcium absorption in the intestines
– Increasing calcium loss in the urine
• These functions are usually not significant in maintaining
calcium homeostasis
 Parathyroid Gland
• Tiny, round structures located
on the posterior surface of
the thyroid gland.
• Epithelial cells produce and
secrete the parathyroid
hormone (PTH).
• PTH is the major hormone
involved in the regulation of
blood calcium levels.
 Parathyroid Gland Hormone

• PTH secretion causes the release of calcium from the bones

by:
– Stimulates osteoclasts activity and inhibits osteoblasts.
– Causes increased reabsorption of calcium (and magnesium) in the
kidney tubules from the urine filtrate.
– PTH initiates the production vitamin D3 in the kidneys.
– Vitamin D3 stimulates increased absorption of dietary calcium by
the intestines.
 Ca+2 Homeostasis
• Parathyroid hormone increases
blood calcium levels when they
drop too low.
• Conversely, calcitonin, which is
released from the thyroid gland,
decreases blood calcium levels
when they become too high.
• These two mechanisms constantly
maintain blood calcium
concentration at homeostasis.
 Imbalances of PTH
• Hyperparathyroidism: caused by an overproduction of
PTH.
– Results in excessive calcium reabsorption from bone.
– Can significantly decrease bone density, leading to spontaneous
fractures or deformities.
– As blood calcium levels rise, cell membrane permeability to
sodium is decreased, and the responsiveness of the nervous
system is reduced.
 Imbalances of PTH
• Hypoparathyroidism: abnormally low blood calcium levels
caused by parathyroid hormone deficiency.
– Low blood calcium increases membrane permeability to sodium,
resulting in muscle twitching, cramping, spasms, or convulsions.
– Severe deficits can paralyze muscles, including those involved in
breathing, and can be fatal.
 Adrenal Gland
• The adrenal glands are made of glandular and neuroendocrine
tissue adhering to the top of the kidneys by a fibrous capsule.
• Consists of an outer cortex of glandular tissue and an inner
medulla of nervous tissue.
– The cortex itself is divided into three zones: the zona glomerulosa,
the zona fasciculata, and the zona reticularis. Each region secretes its
own set of hormones.
 Adrenal Gland
• One of the major functions of the adrenal gland is to respond
to physical or psychological stress.
• Physical stresses include exposing the body to injury, walking
outside in cold and wet conditions without a coat on, or
malnutrition.
• Psychological stresses include the perception of a physical
threat, a fight with a loved one, or just a bad day at school with
your anatomy professor.
Adrenal Gland
 Adrenal Gland: Adrenal Cortex
• Component of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis.
• Hormone release is stimulated by the adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH) from the pituitary by the hypothalamus.
• Secretes steroid hormones (including cortisol) important for
the regulation of the long-term stress response, blood pressure
and blood volume, nutrient uptake and storage, fluid and
electrolyte balance, and inflammation.
 Adrenal Cortex

The adrenal cortex

consists of three
structurally distinct
regions. Each of
these regions
produces different
hormones.
 Hormones of the Zona Glomerulosa
• Produces a group of hormones referred to as
mineralocorticoids because of their effect on body minerals.
– These hormones are essential for fluid and electrolyte balance.
• Aldosterone is the major mineralocorticoid.
• It is important in regulating sodium and potassium ions
concentration in extra cellular fluid.
• It increases the excretion of K+ and the retention of Na+, which
in turn increases blood volume and blood pressure.
 Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
• Aldosterone is also a key component of the renin-angiotensin-
aldosterone system (RAAS) in maintaining blood pressure.
• Specialized cells of the kidneys secrete the enzyme renin in
response to low blood volume pressure.
• Renin then catalyzes the conversion of the blood protein
angiotensinogen, produced by the liver, to the hormone
angiotensin I.
• Angiotensin I is converted to angiotensin II by angiotensin-
converting enzyme (ACE).
 Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
• Angiotensin II has three major functions:
1. Initiating vasoconstriction of the arterioles, increasing resistance
2. Signaling the adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone, which stimulate
kidney tubules to reabsorb Na+ and water, increasing blood volume.
3. Induce ADH production by pituitary gland to retain water.
• Individuals with hypertension use drugs that block the
production of angiotensin II by inhibiting ACE activities.
Low blood pressure
Angiotensinogen Renin-
Angiotensin-
Renin release
from kidneys
Angiotensinogen I Aldosterone
System
Angiotensinogen II

vasoconstriction of
adrenal cortex
the arterioles
Increase ADH

aldosterone

reabsorb Na+ and

water
Increase Blood
Pressure
 Hormones of the Zona Fasciculata
• Produce glucocorticoids because of their role in glucose metabolism in
response to long-term stressors under the influence of ACTH.
• The most important one is cortisol, which converted by the liver to
cortisone.
• In conditions of long-term stress, cortisol promotes the breaking down
of the polymers of carbohydrates, proteins, and triglycerides into
monomers.
• Cortisol also downregulate of the immune system, which inhibits the
inflammatory response.
 Hormones of the Zona Reticularis
• Produces a class of steroid sex hormones called androgens.
• During puberty and most of adulthood, androgens are produced in
the gonads.
• The androgens produced in the zona reticularis supplement the
gonadal androgens.
• Produced in response to ACTH from the anterior pituitary and are
converted in the tissues to testosterone or estrogens.
– In adult women, they may contribute to the sex drive, but their function in
adult men is not well understood.
– Zona reticularis is the main source of estrogen in post-menopausal women
 Disorders Involving the Adrenal Glands
– Hypersecretion of cortisol leads
to Cushing’s disease. A disorder
characterized by high blood
glucose levels and the
accumulation of lipid deposits
on the face and neck.
– Might result from pituitary
tumor that secretes cortisol or
ACTH in abnormally high
amounts.

https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/cushing-disease Public domain

 Disorders Involving the Adrenal Glands
– Other common signs of Cushing’s disease include the development of
a moon-shaped face, a buffalo hump on the back of the neck, rapid
weight gain, and hair loss.
– Chronically elevated glucocorticoids compromise immunity,
resistance to infection, and memory, and can result in rapid weight
gain and hair loss.
 Disorders Involving the Adrenal Glands
– Hyposecretion of corticosteroids can result in Addison’s disease, a
rare disorder that causes low blood glucose levels and low blood
sodium levels.
– Symptoms of Addison’s disease include general weakness, abdominal
pain, weight loss, nausea, vomiting, sweating, and cravings for salty
food.
 Adrenal Medulla
• Neuroendocrine tissue considered as an extension of the
autonomic nervous system.
• Adrenal medulla releases its hormones in response to acute,
short-term stress mediated by the sympathetic nervous system
(SNS).
• Produce epinephrine (also called adrenaline) and norepinephrine
(or noradrenaline).
• Epinephrine is more powerful and abundant hormone.
• Both released into the systemic circulation, where they exert
effects on distant cells.
 Adrenal Medulla
• Effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine:
– Signal the liver and skeletal muscle cells to convert glycogen into
glucose, resulting in increased blood glucose levels.
– Increased heart rate, pulse, and blood pressure to prepare the body
to fight the perceived threat or flee from it.
– Dilates the airways, raising blood oxygen levels
– Prompts vasodilation
– Triggers vasoconstriction to blood vessels serving less essential
organs
 Adrenal Medulla (cont.)
• Both hormones have basically same effects, but:
– Epinephrine is more a stimulator of metabolic activities
• Example: bronchial dilation, and blood flow to skeletal muscles and heart
– Norepinephrine has more of an influence on peripheral
vasoconstriction and blood pressure
• Responses to stressors are brief, unlike adrenal cortical hormones
Adrenal Gland
Easy concepts

Pineal Gland
• Located inferior and posterior to the thalamus .
• Produce and secrete melatonin, which is derived from
serotonin.
• Melatonin production is inhibited by light and promoted by
darkness.
• Melatonin:
– Influence the body’s circadian rhythms (the sleep cycle)
– Prevent the release of gonadotropins from the anterior pituitary,
preventing early puberty.
 Pancreas
• The pancreas is a long, slender
organ, located posterior to
the stomach
• Serve as exocrine and
endocrine gland
– Pancreatic islets secrete the
hormones glucagon, insulin,
somatostatin, and pancreatic
polypeptide (PP).
– Will focus on glucagon and
insulin
 Glucagon
– Produced by alpha cells to increase glucose blood levels by:
• Stimulating the liver to convert glycogen into glucose. This
response is known as glycogenolysis.
• Stimulating the liver to take up amino acids and convert them into
glucose. This response is known as gluconeogenesis.
• It stimulates lipolysis, the breakdown of stored triglycerides into
free fatty acids and glycerol. Some of the free glycerol travels to
the liver, which converts it into glucose. This is also a form of
gluconeogenesis.
 Insulin
• Lowers glucose blood levels though:
– Facilitate the uptake of glucose by body cells. Skeletal muscle cells
and adipose cells are the primary targets of insulin.
– Stimulating glycolysis, the metabolism of glucose for generation of
ATP.
– Stimulates the liver to convert glucose into glycogen for storage, and
it inhibits enzymes involved in glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.
– Insulin promotes triglyceride and protein synthesis.
 Diabetes mellitus (DM)
• Dysfunction of insulin production and secretion, as well as the
target cells’ responsiveness to insulin, can lead to a condition
called diabetes mellitus.
• Two main forms of diabetes mellitus.
• Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease affecting the beta
cells of the pancreas. The beta cells do not produce insulin.
This form of diabetes accounts for less than five percent of all
diabetes cases.
 Diabetes mellitus (DM)
• Type 2 diabetes accounts for approximately 95 percent of all
cases.
• It is acquired, and lifestyle factors such as poor diet, inactivity,
and the presence of pre-diabetes greatly increase a person’s
risk. About 80 to 90 percent of people with type 2 diabetes are
overweight or obese.
• In type 2 diabetes, cells become resistant to the effects of
insulin.
 Gonadal and Placental Hormones
• Ovaries produce two major hormones
• Estrogen:
– Plays an important role in the development of the female reproductive
system.
– Regulation of the menstrual cycle
– The development of female secondary sex characteristics
– The maintenance of pregnancy.
• Progesterone:
– Contributes to regulation of the menstrual cycle and is important in
preparing the body for pregnancy as well as maintaining pregnancy.
 Gonadal and Placental Hormones
• Male testes produce testosterone.
– Important in the development of the male reproductive system.
– Important in maturation of sperm cells, and the development of male
secondary sex characteristics such as a deepened voice, body hair,
and increased muscle mass.
• In addition, the testes produce inhibin which inhibits the
secretion of FSH from the anterior pituitary gland. FSH
stimulates spermatogenesis.
 Gonadal and Placental Hormones
• The placenta produces and secretes estrogens and
progesterone. Also produces:
– Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) which promotes progesterone
synthesis and reduces the mother’s immune function to protect the
fetus from immune rejection.
– Human placental lactogen (hPL), which plays a role in preparing the
breasts for lactation.
– Relaxin, which is thought to help soften and widen the pubic
symphysis in preparation for childbirth.
Easy concepts

Thymus
• An organ of the immune system that is larger and more active
during infancy and early childhood and begins to atrophy as we
age.
– Its endocrine function is the production of a group of
hormones called thymosins that contribute to the
development and differentiation of T lymphocytes, which
are immune cells.
Easy concepts

Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions

• Heart:
– Secrete atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) in response to
high blood pressure.
– ANP reduces sodium reabsorption from kidney which
decrease the amount of water reabsorbed which reduce
blood volume.
– Therefore, ANP aids in decreasing blood pressure, blood
volume, and blood sodium levels.
Easy concepts

Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions

• Kidney:
– Produce renin in response to low blood flow to kidneys which
trigger the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone (RAAS) system. This
increases blood flow and blood pressure.
– Produce vitamin D3 in response to the secretion of parathyroid
hormone (PTH). This helps in regulating blood calcium levels.
– Produce erythropoietin (EPO) in response to low oxygen levels.
EPO stimulates the production of red blood cells thereby
increasing oxygen delivery to tissues.
Easy concepts

Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions

• Adipose tissue
– Adipose cells produce leptin which hormones involved in lipid
metabolism and storage. It controls the appetite as well.