Basic Principles

Of
Forensic Science
Principles Of Forensic Science…
• The principles of forensic science guide the disciplines and methodologies of science in
analysing the evidence to answer certain questions.

• These principles of forensic science have an impact upon criminal proceedings which start
from the point of investigation upon the occurrence of a crime till the conviction of the
accused in the court of law.

• The principles of forensic science have a straight impact on criminal proceedings.

• The principles of forensic science which are significant in criminal proceedings are as follows:
Seven (7) Principles Of Forensic Science…
• Law of Individuality

• Principle of Exchange (Locard’s principle of Exchange)

• Law of Progressive change

• Principle of Comparison

• Principle of Analysis

• Law of Probability

• Law of Circumstantial facts.

• This law states that, “Every object whether natural or man-made has a distinctive
quality or characteristic in it which is not duplicated in any other object,”
• In other words, no two things in this universe are alike.
• Most common example is the human fingerprints; they are unique, permanent and
prove individuality of a person. Even the twins did not have the same fingerprints.
• Consider grains of sand, salt, seeds or man-made objects such as currency notes,
laptop, typewriter, etc. they may look similar but a unique characteristic is always
present between them.
• This principle is considered as the most basic elementary unit of Forensic Science.
Fingerprints, footprints, tool marks, obtained from the crime scene are studied and
analyzed on the principle of individuality.
2. Locard’s principle of Exchange (Law of exchange) …
• This principle was stated by French scientist -Edmond Locard (a pioneer in criminology and
forensic science).
• Law of exchange states that, “As soon as two things come in connection with each other,
they mutually interchange the traces between them.”
• Whenever criminal or his weapon/instrument made connection with the victim or the things
surrounding him he left some traces at crime scene and also picked up the traces from the
area or person he has been in contacted with (mutual exchange of matter).
• These traces are very helpful for investigation purposes as these traces are identified by the
expert and linked to its original source resulted in the decisive linkage of the criminal with
the crime scene and the victim.
• This law forms the basis of scientific crime investigation.
2. Locard’s principle of Exchange (Law of exchange) …
• This principle is validated in all cases where there is a contact such as fingerprints, tyre
marks, bullet residues, foot marks, hair sample, skin, muscles, bodily fluids, blood, pieces of
clothing etc.

• DNA analysis is a straight application of this principle, where any such items are under
analysis which was believed to be held by the perpetrator.

• Basic requirement of this law is the correct location of the physical evidence -

• i) What are the areas and things with which the perpetrator or tool actually came in contact
during the crime?

• ii) Investigating officer should establish the correct points of contact, its lead the
investigation in correct direction.
3. Law of Progressive Change …
• This principle emphasizes that, “Everything changes with the passage of time and nothing
remains constant. “

• The changing frequency varies from sample to sample and on different objects.

• The crime scene must be secured in time otherwise a change in weather (rain, heat, wind),
presence of animals/humans, etc. affects the crime scene.

• For example, a road accident on a busy highway may lose all essential evidence if not
properly secured on time.

• A bullet fragments may grow rust, firearm barrels loosen, shoes suffer wear and tear marks,
wooden objects may suffer due to presence of termite, etc.

• Longer the delay, greater the changes.

• When samples are not much durable, several complications occur in an investigation as the
process of identification is affected due to the variations in the main features of
identification.

• Without an appropriate preservative, tissue samples start degrading immediately and they
need immediate analysis.

• The criminals undergo progressive changes with time.

• If he is not apprehended in time he becomes unrecognizable except his fingerprints or other

• For laboratory Investigation this law is very important. The law state that “Only the likes can
be compared”.

• It highlights the requirement of providing like samples and specimens for evaluation with
the questioned items’.

• For example, if the murder is done by a firearm weapon then it is useless to send a knife for
comparison.

• So, the important condition of this principle is to supply specimen/samples of like nature for
proper assessment with the questioned sample discovered from the crime scene.
4. Principle of Comparison…
• In case it is a blood sample from the crime scene, it has to be clinically compared whether it
belongs to a human or any other organism.

• If there is some close proximity among the accused or the victim, their DNAs can be
compared to get a confirmation.

• If the investigating agency finds traces of skin in the victim’s nails who suffered some kind of
abuse or assault, the sample skin might belong to the perpetrator.

• In such a case, scientifically comparing the DNA of sample skin with that of the accused
person may bring some clarity.

• Similarly, cyber crimes lawyer may help identify cyber criminals with the style of chats and
prove it as strong evidence in the courtroom.
5. Law of Circumstantial Facts …
• There is a popular statement that “Facts cannot be wrong, they cannot lie, and can not be
wholly absent. But men can, and do.”

• When it comes to statements given by the accused persons, or witnesses, or even the victims,
might be a lie.

• The actual facts might be guarded for personal interests. But the circumstances may not lie
confirming with the people’s statements.

• Corroboration of facts of the case with the help of circumstantial evidence is the ultimate task
during the 27 stages of criminal cases
5. Law of Circumstantial Facts …

• Suppose the accused brings before the court a plea of alibi stating that he/ she was not
present at the crime scene, supposedly at Kolkata, but at some other place.

• To confirm with his/ her statements, documentary evidence is also attached.

• But if someone among the witnesses of crime purports his/ her presence and the person’s
location history also confirms, it becomes an integral circumstantial fact.

• The criminal lawyer in Kolkata of the opposite counsel will surely point this out, only if
sufficient evidence is available.
5. Law of Circumstantial Facts …

• In this scenario, the accused may lie regarding his/ her presence, the document produced
might also be forged.

• But the phone’s location might be defective only if the person’s mobile phone was stolen and
put at the crime scene deliberately.

• The burden of proof again lies with the accused who may rely on initiation of police complaint
process for lost cell phone.
6. Law of Probability…
• We all have feared the chapter of probability while studying Mathematics in school.

• From calculating the probability of six in a dice, to suspecting the probability of facts around us,
we all grew up.

• The essence lies with the chances of occurrence of something. The occurrence is identified
based on the forensic application of probabilistic inference and reasoning.

• Taking assistance of an example, the chances of someone onboard travelling from Delhi to
Mumbai at a particular time, committing a crime like murder in Punjab are null.

• On the other hand, the same person onboard with an active internet connection has a higher
probability to commit one of the types of cyber crime at any place, if proved with other
evidence.
7. Principle of Analysis...

• The basic principles of forensic science hold relevance when accuracy is maintained during
investigation.

• The principle of analysis lays that “The quality of any analysis would be better by collection
of the correct sample and its correct preservation in the prescribed manner”.

• In other words, if the concerned person is not vigilant enough while investigating the crime
scene, loss of accurate analysis of evidence is inevitable.

• Taking an example, if the murder weapon is a knife which has been manhandled directly
without using any gloves or handkerchief will interfere with the perpetrator’s handprints.

• This slight ignorance will lead to loss of a forthright piece of evidence.