MOTOR CONTROL

THIS CHAPTER’S CONCEPT

 Theories about how we control

coordinated movement
 These theories differ in terms of the
roles of central and environmental
features of a control system
 What is motor control?
 Study nature and cause of
movement

 Study what, why and how of

movement
 Issues/ factors under consideration

Balance Movement
Stabilizing body Moving body
in space in space

Therefore, Motor control is control of

posture as well as movement
Study of motor control includes:

 Study of action
Movement is done for accomplishing
a particular activity/ action
 Study of perception

Perception Cognition Motor Processes

Movement
 Study of cognition
 Movement is always intentional and goal
oriented
 Perception and action are organized to
achieve specific goals
 Cognitive processes( attention,
motivation, emotion) relate perception and
action
 Interaction of Individual, Task and
Environment
Task

Motor
Control

Environment Individual
 Why studying motor control is
important to us?
 Physiotherapists = Movement Scientist/
Clinician

 Retrain motor control essential for

achievement of functional competence

 Unless we know nature and cause of

movement, can not retrain movement
 Theories of Motor Control
 “Theory” – a group of abstract ideas
about nature and cause of
movement

 Theories are often but not always

based on models of brain function
 “Models” – simplified version of
structure and function of a real thing

 Better the model, better it predicts

how the real thing behaves in a real
situation
 Different theories are based on different
philosophical views of how the brain
controls the movement

 They talk about different approaches in

explaining action

 They stress on different aspects of the

organization of underlying
neurophysiology and neuroanatomy of
that action
 Relationship between Theory and
Practice
 Rehabilitation practices reflect the
theories

 Actions of a therapist are based on

assumptions about nature and cause
of function and dysfunction
 Theories provide :

 A framework for interpreting behavior

 A guide for clinical action
 New ideas
 Working hypothesis for assessment and
treatment
 Theories of Motor Control
 Common – Formulated to understand
nature and cause of movement

 Difference – Approach
 Reflex Theory
 Sir Charles Sherrington
 Reflexes are building blocks of
complex behavior
 Reflexes work together or in
sequence to achieve a common
purpose
 Complex behavior occurs as a result
of successive combination or
chaining together of reflexes
 Reflex Theory
 Receptor Conductor Effector

 Stimulus Response

 Stimulus Response Response

(Stimulus)
 Reflex Theory
 Limitations
• Can not explain spontaneous and
voluntary movements
• It does not adequately predict movement
that occurs in absence of sensory stimulus
• Does not explain fast movements that
occur too rapidly to allow for sensory
feedback from preceding movement to
trigger the next
 Reflex Theory
• It fails to explain that a single
stimulus can result in varying
responses depending on context
• Does not explain the ability to
produce novel movements
 Reflex Theory
 Clinical Implication
• Patient’s movement behavior would
be interpreted in terms of presence/
absence of controlling reflexes
• Testing reflexes would help us
predict function
• Retraining motor skills would focus
on / effect of various reflexes
 Hierarchial Theory
 Hughling Jackson
• Organizational structure that is top
down
• Higher level controls the successive
lower level below it
 Hierarchial Theory
Top

Bottom
 Hierarchial Theory
 Rudolf Magnus
• Reflexes controlled by lower levels of
neural hierarchy are only present
when cortical centers are damaged
• Reflexes are a part of a hierarchy of
motor control, in which higher
centers normally inhibit these lower
reflexes
 Hierarchial Theory
 George Schaltenbrand
• Described development of human
mobility in terms of appearance and
disappearance of a progression of
reflexes
• Pathology of brain may result in
persistence of reflexes
 Hierarchial Theory
 Stephen Wiesz
• Reflex reactions are the basis of
equilibrium in the body

 Hierarchial theory also called as

Reflex/ Hierarchial theory as it
combines reflex and hierarchial into
one
 Hierarchial Theory
 Arnold Gessel & Myrtle McGraw
• ‘Neuromaturational theory’
• Described in detail, the maturation of
infants
• Normal motor development was
attributed to increasing
corticalization of CNS resulting in
emergence of higher levels of control
over level reflexes
 Hierarchial Theory
 CNS Maturation- Primary agent of
Development
 Postural Reflex Reaction Motor Development

Cortex Equilibrium reaction Bipedal Function

Midbrain Righting reaction Quadripedal Function

Brainstem Primitive Reflexes Apedal Function

 Hierarchial Theory
 Current Concept
• Each level of nervous system can act
upon other levels depending upon
the task
• Reflexes are not considered the sole
determinant of motor control, but
only one of the many processes
important for generation and control
of movement.
 Hierarchial Theory
 Limitation
• Can not explain the dominance of
reflex behavior in certain situations
in normal adults
 Hierarchial Theory
 Clinical Implication
• Used in Bobath Technique
• Reflex testing developed as a part of
clinical assessment of patients with
neurological impairment
 Motor Programming Theories
 Focus is physiology of action rather
than physiology of reactions
 ‘Central Motor Pattern’- can be
generated either by sensory stimuli
or central processes
 Movement is possible in absence of
reflexive action
 Though not essential, sensory input
helps in modulating the action
 Motor Programming Theories
 CPG (Central Pattern
Generators)- hardwired neural
connections
 Limitations
• CPG can not be considered the sole
determinant of action, it must
include musculoskeletal & env.
factors into account
 Motor Programming Theories
 Clinical implication
• If CPG is lost- must relearn the
correct rules of action
• If CPG is intact- can use other means
of doing the task
 Systems Theory
 Nicolai Bernstein
 To understand neural control of
movement, we need to understand the
characteristics of the system & internal
and external forces acting on the body
 Same central command can result in quite
different movement patterns because of
the interplay between external forces and
variations in initial conditions
 Systems Theory
 ‘ Distributed Model of Motor Control’-
Control of integrated movement is
distributed throughout many
interacting systems working
comparatively to achieve movement
 Systems Theory
 ‘ Degrees of Freedom’
 Co-ordination of movement is the process
of mastering the redundant degrees of
freedom
 Higher levels

Lower levels

Synergies
 Limitation
• Does not focus as heavily on
environment
 Clinical Implication
• understands the body as a
mechanical system- output of
nervous system filtered through
mechanical system, therefore must
assess both the systems.
 Dynamical Actions Theory
 Fundamental Dynamical Actions
Principal- Self organization
 Elements of the system come
together and behave collectively in
an ordered way
 There is no need for the higher
centers to issue commands
 Dynamical Actions Theory
 Movement emerges as a result of
interacting elements without the
need for specific commands, or
motor program within the nervous
system
 Tries to find mathematical
description of self organizing system
 Critical features are examined
 Dynamical Actions Theory
 Dynamical Systems Model- combines
with systems theory
 Movement underlying actions results
from interaction of both physical and
neural components
 Dynamical Actions Theory
 Limitation
presumes that nervous system is
unimportant
 Clinical implication
helps patient regain control by using
physical properties of human body
 Parallel Distributed Processing
Theory
 Describes how nervous system
processes information for action
 Explains acquisition of new skills
 Nervous system operates through
serial processing as well as parallel
processing
 Parallel Distributed Processing
Theory
 Elements ( neuronal synapses) are
hooked together in circuits, each
element can have different
magnitudes of positive or negative
effect on the next element
 Layered networks containing input
elements, intermediate processing
layers and output elements
 Parallel Distributed Processing
Theory
 Efficiency of this system depends on
two factors:
• Pattern of connections between the
layers
• Strength of individual connections
 ‘Back Progression’- can determine
the most efficient output producing
connection
 Parallel Distributed Processing
Theory
 ‘Error’- difference between the
desired and actual output
 Error is used to modify the
connections that have produced the
error
 This process is run again and again
till the system corrects itself
 Parallel Distributed Processing
Theory
 Limitations
• Concept of back progression does not
mimic the real nervous system
 Clinical Implication
• Can be used to predict how injury within
nervous system affects function
• ‘Threshold for Function’
• Training through multiple pathways
Activation of redundant
 Task Oriented Theories
 Peter Greene
 Task- Fundamental problems that the
CNS needs to solve to achieve a goal
 Helps neuroscientists find observable
behaviors to measure that are
relevant to the task- better
understanding of neural circuitry
 Task Oriented Theories
 Gordon and Horak
 Control of movement is organized
around goal directed functional
behaviors
 Goal of motor control is the control of
movement to attain a goal, not
elaboration of movement for the
sake of movement alone
 Task Oriented Theories
 Limitation
• Lack of consistency about what the
fundamental tasks of the CNS are and
what the essential elements for the task
are

 Clinical Implication
• Motor retraining needs to focus on
essential functional task
• Requires understanding of essential
components of task to be retrained
 Ecological Theory
 James Gibson
 Focused on how we detect
information in our environment that
is relevant to our actions and how we
use this information to control our
movement
 Actions are geared to the
environment
 Ecological Theory
 Actions require perceptual
information that is specific to a
desired goal- directed action
performed within a specific
environment
 Organization of action is specific to
the task and the environment in
which the task is performed
 Ecological Theory
 Laid more importance on perception
rather than sensation
 Described nervous system as
perception- action system rather
than sensory- motor system which
explores the environment to satisfy
its own goals
 Ecological Theory
 Limitation
• Less emphasis on organization and
function of nervous system
 Clinical Implication
• Allows individual to develop multiple
ways of accomplishing a task
• Adaptability- in organization of
movement and use of senses during
action
 Which theory is the best?
 There is no one theory that has it all..
 Best theory is the one that combines
the elements of all the theories
(comprehensive, integrated theory)