Prof. Dr.-Ing Jochen H.

Schiller
Inst. of Computer Science
Freie Universität Berlin
Germany

Mobile Communications
Chapter 6: Internet Protocols

Mobile IP, Security, MIPv6, PMIPv6

Micro mobility support, Locator/ID split
Ad-hoc networks, Routing protocols, WSN/IoT

TCP-mechanisms
Classical approaches, PEPs in general
Additional optimizations

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications

Motivation for Mobile IP
Routing
- based on IP destination address, network prefix (e.g. 129.13.42) determines physical subnet
- change of physical subnet implies change of IP address to have a topological correct address (standard IP) or
needs special entries in the routing tables

Specific routes to end-systems?

- change of all routing table entries to forward packets to the right destination
- does not scale with the number of mobile hosts and frequent changes in the location, security problems

Changing the IP-address?

- adjust the host IP address depending on the current location
- almost impossible to find a mobile system, DNS updates take to long time
- TCP connections break, security problems

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.2

Requirements for Mobile IPv4 (RFC 5944 was: 3344, was: 3220, was: …, updated by: …)
Transparency
- mobile end-systems keep their IP address
- continuation of communication after interruption of link possible
- point of connection to the fixed network can be changed

Compatibility
- support of the same layer 2 protocols as IP
- no changes to current end-systems and routers required
- mobile end-systems can communicate with fixed systems

Security
- authentication of all registration messages

Efficiency and scalability

- only few additional messages to the mobile system required (connection typically via a low bandwidth radio link)
- world-wide support of a large number of mobile systems in the whole Internet

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.3

Terminology
Mobile Node (MN)
- system (node) that can change the point of connection
to the network without changing its IP address
Home Agent (HA)
- system in the home network of the MN, typically a router
- registers the location of the MN, tunnels IP datagrams to the COA
Foreign Agent (FA)
- system in the current foreign network of the MN, typically a router
- forwards the tunneled datagrams to the MN, typically also the default router for the MN
Care-of Address (COA)
- address of the current tunnel end-point for the MN (at FA or MN)
- actual location of the MN from an IP point of view
- can be chosen, e.g., via DHCP
Correspondent Node (CN)
- communication partner

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.4

Example network

HA
MN

router

home network mobile end-system

Internet
(physical home network
for the MN)
FA foreign
network
router
(current physical network
for the MN)
CN

end-system router
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.5
Data transfer to the mobile system

HA
2
MN

home network receiver

3
Internet

FA foreign
network

1. Sender sends to the IP address of MN,

HA intercepts packet (proxy ARP)
1 2. HA tunnels packet to COA, here FA,
CN
by encapsulation
3. FA forwards the packet
sender to the MN
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.6
Data transfer from the mobile system

HA
1 MN

home network sender

Internet

FA foreign
network

1. Sender sends to the IP address

of the receiver as usual,
CN
FA works as default router

receiver
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.7
Overview
COA

home router
router MN
network FA
HA

foreign
Internet network

CN router

3.
home router router
2. MN
network HA FA
4.
foreign
Internet network

1.
CN router

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.8

Questions & Tasks
- What is the key motivation for the classical Mobile IP?
- Why can we use mobile systems without any Mobile IP?
- What is triangular routing? Potential performance issues?

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.9

Network integration
Agent Advertisement
- HA and FA periodically send advertisement messages into their physical subnets
- MN listens to these messages and detects, if it is in the home or a foreign network (standard case for home
network)
- MN reads a COA from the FA advertisement messages

Registration (always limited lifetime!)

- MN signals COA to the HA via the FA, HA acknowledges via FA to MN
- these actions have to be secured by authentication

Advertisement
- HA advertises the IP address of the MN (as for fixed systems), i.e. standard routing information
- routers adjust their entries, these are stable for a longer time (HA responsible for a MN over a longer period of
time)
- packets to the MN are sent to the HA,
- independent of changes in COA/FA

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.10

Agent advertisement
Extended ICMP Router Advertisements 0 7 8 15 16 23 24 31
type code checksum
#addresses addr. size lifetime
router address 1
preference level 1
router address 2
preference level 2
...
type = 16
length = 6 + 4 * #COAs type = 16 length sequence number
R: registration required registration lifetime R B H F M G r T reserved
B: busy, no more registrations COA 1
H: home agent COA 2
F: foreign agent ...
M: minimal encapsulation
G: GRE encapsulation
r: =0, ignored (former Van Jacobson compression)
T: FA supports reverse tunneling
reserved: =0, ignored

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.11

Registration

MN re FA HA MN re HA
gi s t gi s t
r equ r at ion r equ r at ion
es t e st
regi
s
r equ t r at ion
es t
t ion
s t ra
regi
y
n repl
o
g i s t rat i
re
repl
y t
o n
g i s t rat i
re
y
repl

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.12

Mobile IP registration request

0 7 8 15 16 23 24 31
type = 1 S B DMG r T x lifetime
home address
home agent
COA
identification

extensions . . .

S: simultaneous bindings
B: broadcast datagrams
D: decapsulation by MN
M mininal encapsulation
G: GRE encapsulation
r: =0, ignored
T: reverse tunneling requested
x: =0, ignored

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.13

Mobile IP registration reply
0 7 8 15 16 31
type = 3 code lifetime
home address
home agent
identification
Example codes: extensions . . .
registration successful
0 registration accepted
1 registration accepted, but simultaneous mobility bindings unsupported
registration denied by FA
65 administratively prohibited
66 insufficient resources
67 mobile node failed authentication
68 home agent failed authentication
69 requested Lifetime too long
registration denied by HA
129 administratively prohibited
131 mobile node failed authentication
133 registration Identification mismatch
135 too many simultaneous mobility bindings

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.14

Encapsulation – needed for the tunnel HA-CoA

original IP header original data

new IP header new data

outer header inner header original data

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.15

Encapsulation
Encapsulation of one packet into another as payload
- e.g. IPv6 in IPv4 (6Bone), Multicast in Unicast (Mbone)
- here: e.g. IP-in-IP-encapsulation, minimal encapsulation or GRE (Generic Record Encapsulation)
IP-in-IP-encapsulation (mandatory, RFC 2003)
- tunnel between HA and COA

ver. IHL DS (TOS) length

IP identification flags fragment offset
TTL IP-in-IP IP checksum
IP address of HA
Care-of address COA
ver. IHL DS (TOS) length
IP identification flags fragment offset
TTL lay. 4 prot. IP checksum
IP address of CN
IP address of MN
TCP/UDP/ ... payload

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.16

Optional: Generic Routing Encapsulation
original
original data
header

GRE original
outer header original data
header header

RFC 1701 new header new data

ver. IHL DS (TOS) length

IP identification flags fragment offset
TTL GRE IP checksum
IP address of HA RFC 2784 (updated by 2890)
Care-of address COA
C R K S s rec. rsv. ver. protocol C reserved0 ver. protocol
checksum (optional) offset (optional) checksum (optional) reserved1 (=0)
key (optional)
sequence number (optional)
routing (optional)
ver. IHL DS (TOS) length
IP identification flags fragment offset
TTL lay. 4 prot. IP checksum
IP address of CN
IP address of MN

TCP/UDP/ ... payload

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.17

Optimization of packet forwarding
Problem: Triangular Routing
- sender sends all packets via HA to MN
- higher latency and network load

“Solutions”
- sender learns the current location of MN
- direct tunneling to this location
- HA informs a sender about the location of MN
- big security problems!

Change of FA
- packets on-the-fly during the change can be lost
- new FA informs old FA to avoid packet loss, old FA now forwards remaining packets to new FA
- this information also enables the old FA to release resources for the MN

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.18

Change of foreign agent
CN HA FAold FAnew MN

Data Data Data

Update
ACK

Data Data
MN changes
location
Update Registration
ACK
Data
Data Data
Warning
Request
Update
ACK
Data
Data
t

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.19

Reverse tunneling (RFC 3024, was: 2344)

HA
2
MN

home network sender

1
Internet

FA foreign
network

1. MN sends to FA
3 2. FA tunnels packets to HA
CN by encapsulation
3. HA forwards the packet to the
receiver (standard case)
receiver

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.20

Mobile IP with reverse tunneling
Router accept often only “topological correct“ addresses (firewall!)
- a packet from the MN encapsulated by the FA is now topological correct
- furthermore multicast and TTL problems solved (TTL in the home network correct, but MN is to far away from
the receiver)

Reverse tunneling does not solve

- problems with firewalls, the reverse tunnel can be abused to circumvent security mechanisms (tunnel hijacking)
- optimization of data paths, i.e. packets will be forwarded through the tunnel via the HA to a sender (double
triangular routing)

The standard is backwards compatible

- the extensions can be implemented easily and cooperate with current implementations without these
extensions
- Agent Advertisements can carry requests for reverse tunneling

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.21

Problems with mobile IP
Security
- authentication with FA problematic, for the FA typically belongs to another organization
- no common protocol for key management and key distribution widely accepted in the Internet

Firewalls
- typically mobile IP cannot be used together with firewalls, special set-ups are needed (such as reverse
tunneling)

QoS
- many new reservations in case of resource reservation protocols
- tunneling makes it hard to give a flow of packets a special treatment needed for the QoS

Security, firewalls, QoS etc. are always topics of research and discussions…

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.22

Questions & Tasks
- How does an MN detect that it is not “at home”?
- What is the difference of a co-located COA and a COA at the FA?
- How to optimize triangular routing?
- Why may reverse tunneling be needed? Performance issues?
- Which security issues come with mobile IP?

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.23

Mobile IP and IPv6 (RFC 6275, was: 3775)
Mobile IP was developed for IPv4, but IPv6 simplifies the protocols
- security is integrated and not an add-on, authentication of registration is included
- COA can be assigned via auto-configuration (DHCPv6 is one candidate), every node has address auto-
configuration

All routers perform router advertisement

- can be used instead of the special agent advertisement, no need for a separate FA

Addresses are always co-located

- MN can signal a sender directly the COA, sending via HA not needed in this case
- this allows for an automatic path optimization

„Soft“ hand-over
- no packet loss due to change of subnets
- MN sends the new COA to its old router
- the old router encapsulates all incoming packets for the MN and forwards them to the new COA
- authentication is always granted

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.24

IP Micro-mobility support
What happens if, e.g., a student changes subnets on a campus frequently?
- Involvement of the HA each time
- Reveals precise “location”

Micro-mobility support:
- Efficient local handover inside a foreign domain
without involving a home agent
- Reduces control traffic on backbone
- Especially needed in case of route optimization

Lot of research, not everything in products

Important criteria:
Security Efficiency, Scalability, Transparency, Manageability

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.25

Hierarchical Mobile IPv6 (RFC 5380, was: 4140)

Operation:
- Network contains mobility anchor point (MAP)
- mapping of regional COA (RCOA) to link COA (LCOA)
- Upon handover, MN informs Internet
HA
MAP only
- gets new LCOA, keeps RCOA RCOA
- HA is only contacted if MAP
MAP
changes

Security provisions: binding AR AR

update
- no HMIP-specific
security provisions LCOAnew LCOAold
- binding updates should be
MN MN
authenticated

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.26

Hierarchical Mobile IP: Security
Advantages:
- Local COAs can be hidden, which provides at least some location privacy
- Direct routing between CNs sharing the same link is possible (but might be dangerous)
- Handover requires minimum number of overall changes to routing tables

Potential problems:
- Decentralized security-critical functionality (handover processing) in mobility anchor points
- MNs can (must!) directly influence routing entries via binding updates (authentication necessary)
- Not transparent to MNs
- Handover efficiency in wireless mobile scenarios:
- All routing reconfiguration messages sent over wireless link

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.27

Proxy Mobile IPv6 (PMIPv6)
Network-based mobility management protocol, RFC5213, updated by RFC6543, RFC7864
- enables IP mobility for a host without requiring its participation in any mobility-related signaling
- the network manages the IP mobility, no software change in clients needed
- adopted by 3GPP in LTE (LMA is in the PDN Gateway, 3GPP TS 29.275)
CN

Local Mobility Anchor (LMA)

- acts as MIPv6 Home Agent WLAN access
- anchor for MN’s network prefix(es) network Internet
MAG
Mobile Access Gateway (MAG)
- function on access routers, tracks MN’s mobility
MN
- performs the signaling in the network with the LMA MAG LMA
- does the mobility management on behalf of the MN 3GPP
- compatible to MIPv6 enabled MNs EPC

MAG bi-directional tunnel

IP traffic offloading possible
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.28
Split the two roles of an IP address: localization and identification
Host Identity Protocol v2 (HIPv2, RFC 7401, was: 5201, updated by 6253, 8002)
- Introduction of HIP layer between routing and transport, Alternative to Mobile IP
- IP addresses for routing only, change depending on location (must be topological correct!)
- Identification via Host Identity Tag, used e.g. for TCP connection identification instead of IP address
- Host Identity Tag based on public keys
- Communication requires Diffie Hellman key exchange
- Pro
- No intermediate agent, normal IP routing
- Con
- Extra RTT due to key exchange, firewalls, extra layer
- See also RFCs 5202, 5203, 5204, 5205, 5206, 5207, 5770…

Locator/ID Separation Protocol (LISP, RFC 6830)

- New routing concept, tunneling for data transport, no changes to hosts or core
- RLOC (Routing Locator): topologically assigned, used for routing
- EID (Endpoint Identifier): administratively assigned, used for identification

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.29

Questions & Tasks
- How does IPv6 simplify Mobile IP?
- What is the motivation of micro-mobility support?
- What is a big advantage of PMIPv6?
- Which two roles does an IP address have? Why can this be problematic? Solutions?

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.30

Mobile ad hoc networks
Standard Mobile IP needs an infrastructure
- Home Agent/Foreign Agent in the fixed network
- DNS, routing etc. are not designed for mobility
Sometimes there is no infrastructure!
- remote areas, ad-hoc meetings, disaster areas
- cost can also be an argument against an infrastructure!
Main topic: routing
- no default router available
- every node should be able to forward

A B C

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.31

Solution: Wireless ad-hoc networks
Network without infrastructure
- Use components of participants for networking

Examples
- Single-hop: All partners max. one hop apart
- Bluetooth piconet, tablets in a room,
gaming devices…

- Multi-hop: Cover larger distances,

circumvent obstacles
- Bluetooth scatternet, TETRA police network,
car-to-car networks…

Internet: MANET (Mobile Ad-hoc Networking) group

- IEEE mesh networks solve similar issues on layer 2 – but think of layer 2 vs. layer 3 addresses!

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.32

Manet: Mobile Ad-hoc Networking

Mobile
Router

Manet

Mobile
Devices

Mobile IP,
DHCP

Fixed
Network

Router End system

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.33

Problem No. 1: Routing
Highly dynamic network topology
- Device mobility plus varying channel quality
- Separation and merging of networks possible
- Asymmetric connections possible
N7 N6
N6
N7
N1 N1
N2 N3
N3 N2

N4 N4
N5 N5

time = t1 time = t2

good link
weak link

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.34

Traditional routing algorithms
Distance Vector
- periodic exchange of messages with all physical neighbors that contain information about who can be reached
at what distance
- selection of the shortest path if several paths available

Link State
- periodic notification of all routers about the current state of all physical links
- router get a complete picture of the network

Example
- ARPA packet radio network (1973), DV-Routing
- every 7.5s exchange of routing tables including link quality
- updating of tables also by reception of packets
- routing problems solved with limited flooding

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.35

Routing in ad-hoc networks
Was THE big topic in many research projects
- Far more than 50, 100, 150, … different proposals exist
- The most simple one: Flooding!

Reasons
- Classical approaches from fixed networks fail
- Very slow convergence, large overhead
- High dynamicity, low bandwidth, low computing power

Metrics for routing

- Minimal
- Number of nodes, loss rate, delay, congestion, interference …
- Maximal
- Stability of the logical network, battery run-time, time of connectivity …

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.36

Problems of traditional routing algorithms
Dynamic of the topology
- frequent changes of connections, connection quality, participants

Limited performance of mobile systems

- periodic updates of routing tables need energy without contributing to the transmission of user data, sleep
modes difficult to realize
- limited bandwidth of the system is reduced even more due to the exchange of routing information
- links can be asymmetric, i.e., they can have a direction dependent transmission quality

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.37

A simple example: Dynamic source routing I
Split routing into discovering a path and maintaining a path

Discover a path
- only if a path for sending packets to a certain destination is needed and no path is currently available

Maintaining a path
- only while the path is in use one has to make sure that it can be used continuously

No periodic updates needed! It is a so-called reactive routing protocol.

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.38

A simple example: Dynamic source routing II
Path discovery
- broadcast a packet with destination address and unique ID
- if a station receives a broadcast packet
- if the station is the receiver (i.e., has the correct destination address) then return the packet to the sender (path was
collected in the packet)
- if the packet has already been received earlier (identified via ID) then discard the packet
- otherwise, append own address and broadcast packet
- sender receives packet with the current path (address list)

Optimizations
- limit broadcasting if maximum diameter of the network is known
- caching of address lists (i.e. paths) with help of passing packets
- stations can use the cached information for path discovery (own paths or paths for other hosts)

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.39

DSR: Route Discovery
Sending from C to O P R

C
G Q

B I
E
K M O
A
H

D L
F J N

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.40

DSR: Route Discovery
Broadcast P R
[O,C,4711]
C
[O,C,4711] G Q

B I
E
K M O
A
H

D L
F J N

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.41

DSR: Route Discovery
P R
[O,C/G,4711]
C
G [O,C/G,4711] Q
[O,C/B,4711]

B I
E
K M O
A
[O,C/E,4711] H

D L
F J N

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.42

DSR: Route Discovery
P R

C
G Q

[O,C/G/I,4711]
B I
E
K M O
A
H
[O,C/E/H,4711]
[O,C/B/A,4711] D L
F J N
[O,C/B/D,4711]
(alternatively: [O,C/E/D,4711])

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.43

DSR: Route Discovery
P R

C
G Q

[O,C/G/I/K,4711]
B I
E
K M O
A
H

D L
F J N
[O,C/E/H/J,4711]
[O,C/B/D/F,4711]

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.44

DSR: Route Discovery
P R

C
G Q

[O,C/G/I/K/M,4711]
B I
E
K M O
A
H

D L
F J N

[O,C/E/H/J/L,4711]
(alternatively: [O,C/G/I/K/L,4711])

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.45

DSR: Route Discovery
P R

C
G Q

B I
E
K M O
A
H

D L
F J N

[O,C/E/H/J/L/N,4711]

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.46

DSR: Route Discovery
P R

C
G Q

Path: M, K, I, G
B I
E
K M O
A
H

D L
F J N

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.47

A simple example: Dynamic Source Routing III
Maintaining paths
- after sending a packet
- wait for a layer 2 acknowledgement (if applicable)
- listen into the medium to detect if other stations forward the packet (if possible)
- request an explicit acknowledgement
- if a station encounters problems it can inform the sender of a packet or look-up a new path locally

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.48

Interference-based routing
Routing based on assumptions about interference between signals

N1
N2

R1
S1 N3

N4

N5 N6 R2
S2

N8 N9
N7
neighbors
(i.e. within radio range)

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.49

A plethora of ad hoc routing protocols
Flat
- proactive
- FSLS – Fuzzy Sighted Link State OLSRv2: RFC 7181
- FSR – Fisheye State Routing • updated by 7183, 7187, 7188, 7466
- OLSR – Optimized Link State Routing Protocol (RFC 3626) • table-driven, proactive
- TBRPF – Topology Broadcast Based on Reverse Path Forwarding • optimization of classic link state routing
- reactive • selection of multipoint-relays (MPRs): each
- AODV – Ad hoc On demand Distance Vector (RFC 3561) 2-hop neighbor must be reachable
- DSR – Dynamic Source Routing (RFC 4728) • flooding of topology messages only via MPRs
- DYMO – Dynamic MANET On-demand • different link metrics possible
Hierarchical
- CGSR – Clusterhead-Gateway Switch Routing
- HSR – Hierarchical State Routing
- LANMAR – Landmark Ad Hoc Routing
- ZRP – Zone Routing Protocol
Geographic position assisted
- DREAM – Distance Routing Effect Algorithm for Mobility
- GeoCast – Geographic Addressing and Routing
- GPSR – Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing
- LAR – Location-Aided Routing

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.50

Further difficulties and research areas
Auto-Configuration
- Assignment of addresses, function, profile, program, …
Service discovery
- Discovery of services and service providers Internet
Cluster head
Base station
Multicast
- Transmission to a selected group of receivers
Quality-of-Service
- Maintenance of a certain transmission quality
Power control
- Minimizing interference, energy conservation mechanisms Cluster
Security Super cluster
- Data integrity, protection from attacks (e.g. Denial of Service)
Scalability
- 10 nodes? 100 nodes? 1000 nodes? 10000 nodes?
Integration with fixed networks
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.51
Questions & Tasks
- What makes routing so difficult in ad-hoc networks?
- Which problems do traditional routing algorithms have in wireless ad-hoc networks?
- What is the difference between proactive and reactive routing protocols?
- What are metrics for wireless ad-hoc routing?

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.52

The next step: Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN)
Commonalities with MANETs
- Self-organization, multi-hop
- Typically wireless, should be energy efficient

Differences to MANETs
- Applications: MANET more powerful, more
general  WSN more specific
- Devices: MANET more powerful, higher data rates, more resources
 WSN rather limited, embedded, interacting with environment
- Scale: MANET rather small (some dozen devices)
 WSN can be large (thousands)
- Basic paradigms: MANET individual node important, ID centric
 WSN network important, individual node may be dispensable, data centric
- Mobility patterns, Quality-of Service, Energy, Cost per node …

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.53

Properties of wireless sensor networks
Sensor nodes (SN) monitor and control the environment
Nodes process data and forward data via radio
Integration into the environment, typically attached to other networks over a gateway (GW)
Network is self-organizing and energy efficient
Potentially high number of nodes at very low cost per node

GW Bluetooth, TETRA, …
SN
SN

SN SN
SN SN
GW RM!
A LA
SN
SN A
SN L ARM! LA
RM
SN A
!
GW
Eth SN
AL ern SN
GW et
GPRS WLAN AR
M!

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.54

Promising applications for WSNs
Machine and vehicle monitoring
- Sensor nodes in moveable parts
- Monitoring of hub temperatures, fluid levels …

Health & medicine

- Long-term monitoring of patients with minimal restrictions
- Intensive care with relative great freedom of movement

Intelligent buildings, building monitoring

- Intrusion detection, mechanical stress detection
- Precision HVAC with individual climate

Environmental monitoring, person tracking

- Monitoring of wildlife and national parks
- Cheap and (almost) invisible person monitoring
- Monitoring waste dumps, demilitarized zones

… and many more: logistics (total asset management, RFID), telematics …

- WSNs are quite often complimentary to fixed networks!

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.55

And now… the Internet of Things!

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.56

Internet of Things – is it really new?
1991: Mark Weiser
- The Computer for the 21st Century, ubiquitous use of IT, disappearing computer
1999: Kevin Ashton
- Coined the term Internet of Things in the context of logistics/supply chains, enhanced radio tags

Network of inter-connected, embedded mini computers

- Collecting and distributing data, Internet technologies as common platform, comprises enhanced RFIDs,
wireless sensor networks, actors, mobile communications, “smart” objects, cyber physical systems, …
- Next generation embedded systems + wireless sensor networks + actors + Internet protocols + …

Already today, there are many more communicating systems compared to people – more than 10 billion

In the future:
- Some estimate > 25 billion end of 2020, others estimate > 50 billion – ok, there will be MANY…
- As always great expectations: 202x - 1 trillion $ revenue p.a. estimated by GSMA

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.57

Internet of Things: What is really new?
Miniaturization
- MEMS, smart everything, embedded objects

Availability of many “new” technologies

- Cloud/edge computing, big data, IPv6, 6LoWPAN,
content centric networking, adapted operating systems…

Restricted devices © iecetech.org

- At least at the beginning wrt. firewalls, antivirus, …
- BUT we all use the same or similar protocols and interfaces

Complexity
Source: RIOT OS, www.riot-os.org
- function(#nodes, topology, traffic pattern, stability, legacy, ?) 1,5 kByte RAM, 5 kByte ROM,
real-time, multi-threaded

 All this comes together now! Possibilities and vulnerabilities…

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.58

6LoWPAN
IPv6 over Low power Wireless Personal Area Networks
- RFCs (updates): 4919, 4944 (6282, 6775, 8025, 8066), 6282 (8066), 6775 (8505), 6606, 6568

Assumptions: IEEE 802.15.4 devices are limited in power/memory/energy, have long sleep cycles, are unreliable,
ad-hoc deployment is typical, large number of devices will be seen, …

Problem:
- MAC layer offers only max. 81 byte for data due to PHY limits plus security mechanisms
- IPv6 header requires 40 byte, UDP additional 8 byte, leaving only 33 byte for applications
23 21 40 8 33 2 byte

802.15.4 AES IPv6 UDP payload FCS

Solution:
- Compression of IPv6 and UDP headers down to 7 byte (ideal case)
- Fragmentation of packets as IPv6 requires at least 1280 byte message size
- Adaptation layer between link and network layer 23 21 4 2 byte
2-7 70-75
802.15.4 AES D IPv6 UDP payload FCS
D: dispatch, defines packet type (e.g., IPv6 adr., fragment, mesh…)
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.59
Questions & Tasks
- Think of mobile and wireless communications – what are specific challenges of WSNs or IoT in general?
- Which problems arise using the classical Internet protocols together with e.g. 802.15.4/ZigBee?

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.60

The Transport Layer

Example: HTTP (used by web services) typically uses Client Server

TCP TCP SYN
- Reliable transport between client and server required
TCP SYN/ACK Connection
setup
TCP
TCP ACK
- Steam oriented, not transaction oriented
- Network friendly: time-out HTTP request
 congestion Data
 slow down transmission HTTP response transmission

Well known – TCP guesses quite often wrong in wireless >15 s

and mobile networks no data
- Packet loss due to transmission errors GPRS: 500ms! Connection
- Packet loss due to change of network release

Result
- Severe performance degradation
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.61
Motivation I
Transport protocols typically designed for
- Fixed end-systems
- Fixed, wired networks

Research activities
- Performance
- Congestion control
- Efficient retransmissions

TCP congestion control

- packet loss in fixed networks typically due to (temporary) overload situations
- router have to discard packets as soon as the buffers are full
- TCP recognizes congestion only indirect via missing acknowledgements, retransmissions unwise, they would
only contribute to the congestion and make it even worse
- slow-start algorithm as reaction

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.62

Motivation II
TCP slow-start algorithm
- sender calculates a congestion window for a receiver
- start with a congestion window size equal to one segment
- exponential increase of the congestion window up to the congestion threshold, then linear increase
- missing acknowledgement causes the reduction of the congestion threshold to one half of the current
congestion window
- congestion window starts again with one segment

TCP fast retransmit/fast recovery

- TCP sends an acknowledgement only after receiving a packet
- if a sender receives several acknowledgements for the same packet, this is due to a gap in received packets at
the receiver
- however, the receiver got all packets up to the gap and is actually receiving packets
- therefore, packet loss is not due to congestion, continue with current congestion window (do not use slow-start)

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.63

Influences of mobility on TCP-mechanisms
TCP assumes congestion if packets are dropped
- typically wrong in wireless networks, here we often have packet loss due to transmission errors
- furthermore, mobility itself can cause packet loss, if e.g. a mobile node roams from one access point (e.g.
foreign agent in Mobile IP) to another while there are still packets in transit to the wrong access point and
forwarding is not possible

The performance of an unchanged TCP can degrade severely

- however, TCP cannot be changed fundamentally due to the large base of installations in the fixed network, TCP
for mobility has to remain compatible
- the basic TCP mechanisms keep the whole Internet together

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.64

Early approach: Snooping TCP I
“Transparent” extension of TCP within the foreign agent
- buffering of packets sent to the mobile host
- lost packets on the wireless link (both directions!) will be retransmitted immediately by the mobile host or
foreign agent, respectively (so called “local” retransmission)
- the foreign agent therefore “snoops” the packet flow and recognizes acknowledgements in both directions, it
also filters ACKs
- changes of TCP only within the foreign agent

local retransmission correspondent

foreign host
agent
„wired“ Internet

snooping of ACKs buffering of data

mobile
host
end-to-end TCP connection

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.65

Early approach: Snooping TCP II
Data transfer to the mobile host
- FA buffers data until it receives ACK of the MH, FA detects packet loss via duplicated ACKs or time-out
- fast retransmission possible, transparent for the fixed network

Data transfer from the mobile host

- FA detects packet loss on the wireless link via sequence numbers, FA answers directly with a NACK to the MH
- MH can now retransmit data with only a very short delay

Integration of the MAC layer

- MAC layer often has similar mechanisms to those of TCP
- thus, the MAC layer can already detect duplicated packets due to retransmissions and discard them

Problems
- snooping TCP does not isolate the wireless link as good as other approaches (e.g. Indirect-TCP)
- snooping might be useless depending on encryption schemes

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.66

Fast retransmit/fast recovery
Change of foreign agent often results in packet loss
- TCP reacts with slow-start although there is no congestion

Forced fast retransmit

- as soon as the mobile host has registered with a new foreign agent, the MH sends duplicated
acknowledgements on purpose
- this forces the fast retransmit mode at the communication partners
- additionally, the TCP on the MH is forced to continue sending with the actual window size and not to go into
slow-start after registration

Advantage
- simple changes result in significant higher performance

Disadvantage
- further mix of IP and TCP, no transparent approach

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.67

Transmission/time-out freezing
Mobile hosts can be disconnected for a longer time
- no packet exchange possible, e.g., in a tunnel, disconnection due to overloaded cells or multiplexing with higher
priority traffic
- TCP disconnects after time-out completely

TCP freezing
- MAC layer is often able to detect interruption in advance
- MAC can inform TCP layer of upcoming loss of connection
- TCP stops sending, but does now not assume a congested link
- MAC layer signals again if reconnected

Advantage
- scheme is independent of data

Disadvantage
- TCP on mobile host has to be changed, mechanism depends on MAC layer

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.68

Selective retransmission
TCP acknowledgements are often cumulative
- ACK n acknowledges correct and in-sequence receipt of bytes up to n-1 (byte-stream oriented!)
- if single packets are missing quite often a whole packet sequence beginning at the gap has to be retransmitted
(go-back-n), thus wasting bandwidth

Selective retransmission as one solution

- RFC2018 allows for acknowledgements of single packets, not only acknowledgements of in-sequence packet
streams without gaps
- sender can now retransmit only the missing packets (i.e. non acknowledged parts of the byte-stream)

Advantage
- much higher efficiency

“Disadvantage”
- more complex software in a receiver, more buffer needed at the receiver
- Might be a problem in really tiny devices…

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.69

Comparison of different approaches for a “mobile” TCP
Approach Mechanism Advantages Disadvantages
Indirect TCP splits TCP connection isolation of wireless
loss of TCP semantics,
into two connections link, simple higher latency at
handover
Snooping TCP “snoops” data and transparent for end-to- problematic with
acknowledgements, local end connection, MAC encryption, bad isolation
retransmission integration possible of wireless link
M-TCP splits TCP connection, Maintains end-to-end Bad isolation of wireless
chokes sender via semantics, handles link, processing
window size long term and frequent overhead due to
disconnections bandwidth management
Fast retransmit/ avoids slow-start after simple and efficient mixed layers, not
fast recovery roaming transparent
Transmission/ freezes TCP state at independent of content changes in TCP
time-out freezing disconnect, resumes or encryption, works for required, MAC
after reconnection longer interrupts dependant
Selective retransmit only lost data very efficient slightly more complex
retransmission receiver software, more
buffer needed
Transaction combine connection Efficient for certain changes in TCP
oriented TCP setup/release and data applications required, not transparent
transmission

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.70

TCP Improvements I
0.93 * MSS
Initial research work BW 
- Indirect TCP, Snoop TCP, M-TCP, T/TCP, RTT * p
SACK, Transmission/time-out freezing, … • max. TCP BandWidth
• Max. Segment Size
• Round Trip Time
TCP over 2.5/3G wireless networks • loss probability
- Fine tuning of TCP, RFC3481 – best current practice (BCP 71, 2003)
- Learn to live with sometimes
- Data rates: 64 kbit/s up, 115-384 kbit/s down; asymmetry: 3-6, but also up to 1000 (broadcast systems),
periodic allocation/release of channels
- High latency, high jitter, packet loss
- Suggestions
- Large (initial) sending windows, large maximum transfer unit, selective acknowledgement, explicit congestion
notification, time stamp, no header compression
- Widespread use in adapted protocol stacks
- “Historical”: i-mode running over FOMA, WAP 2.0 (“TCP with wireless profile”)

Alternative congestion control algorithms

- TCP Vegas (cong. control with focus on packet delay, rather than packet loss)
- TCP Westwood plus (use ACK stream for better setting cong. control), (New) Reno, Santa Cruz, …
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.71
TCP Improvements II
Performance enhancing proxies (PEP, RFC 3135) Mobile system
- Transport layer
- Local retransmissions and acknowledgements wireless
- Additionally on the application layer
- Content filtering, compression, picture downscaling PEP
- E.g., Internet/WAP gateways
- Web service gateways?
- Big problem: breaks end-to-end semantics
- Disables use of IP security
- Choose between PEP and security! Internet

More open issues

- RFC 3150 / BCP 48 (slow links)
- Recommends header compression, no timestamp Comm. partner
- RFC 3155 / BCP 50 (links with errors)
- States that explicit congestion notification cannot be used
- In contrast to 2.5G/3G recommendations!

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.72

Questions & Tasks
- What are the problems of using TCP over wireless links?
- Why do many “enhancements” fail or are not wide-spread?
- What should wireless systems optimize in favor of TCP performance?

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de Mobile Communications 8.73