COMPUTER NETWORK

Dr. Ratikanta Biswal

Data Communication

It refers to the electronic transmission of

computerized data (0’s and 1’s) from one location
to another. Computers transmit data for many
reasons:
 One is the need to transfer information from one
storage location to another within primary
memory or primary memory to either the ALU or
the supervisory control unit.
 Another is the need to transfer data from the CPU
to peripheral devices.
 Many business need to transfer data from one
local computer to another or from local data
terminals to distant computers.
 Communication System
Elements
 Message  Pictures, Numbers, text, Sound,
Video or a combination of these items.
 Sender  Which creates the message to be
transmitted. Eg. Computer, Telephone, Mobile
etc.
 Receiver  Which receives the message. Eg.
Computer, Telephone, Mobile etc.
 Medium  Which carries the message. Eg.
Twisted pair, Coaxial cables, Files, Optical cable,
Radio waves, Microwaves etc.
 Protocol  A set of rules that govern data
communication.
Objectives of data communication:

To reduce the time, effort and cost

required to perform various business
tasks.
To capture business data at its source
and disseminate it.
To support improved management
control of the organization
 Five components of data communication

1.5
Effective data communication has following
characteristics:
Delivery  To the correct destination
Accuracy  To deliver data accurately
Timeliness  To deliver data at the appropriate time
Data transmission Modes or Data Flow

There are three ways or modes of

transmitting data from one point to
another.
They are depicted in the following figures
Simplex :
It is also called one way communication or
unidirectional.
Devices connected to such a circuit are
either a send-only or a receive-only
device. Keyboards and traditional
monitors are examples of simplex
devices.
Example 1: Stereo system sends musical
signals to its speakers.
Example 2: A data collection terminal of
an organization can send the message
to the printer while the printer receives
them.
Half-duplex:
It transmits data in both directions, but
only in one direction at a time.
So, it can alternately send or receive data.
The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane
road with traffic allowed in both
directions. When cars are traveling in
one direction, cars going the other way
must wait.
It is similar to walkie-talkie
communication. You can either talk or
listen at a time, but not both at a time.
Full-Duplex:
In full-duplex mode (also called duplex),
both stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously. It can be thought of as
the combination of two simplex lines,
one in each direction working
simultaneously.
One common example of full-duplex
communication is the telephone
network. When two people are
communicating by a telephone line,
both can talk and listen at the same
 DATA TRANSMISSION SPEED

What is a frequency?
It is the rate at which a current alternates (measured in Hz, KHz,
MHz, etc)
Bandwidth:
It is the data handling capacity of a communication system.
It is the range of frequencies available for the transmission of
data.
i.e. It is the difference between highest and lowest frequencies.
Example: The bandwidth of human voice is 20Hz to 14,000 Hz or
13,380 Hz.
Highest frequency - Lowest frequency=Band Width
Baud:
It is the unit used to measure communication data transfer rate.
Transfer rate means bits per second transmitted.
Bits per second=Baud
A rate of 300 baud is 300 bits per second.
In communication system, I baud means 10bits per second.
So, the 30 characters per second is said to operate 300 baud.
Depending on the transmission speeds,
communication channels are grouped into three
categories —>

 Narrowband
 Voice band
 Broadband

Narrowband:
Its speed ranges from 45 to 300 baud.
It is used to handle low data volumes.
It is used for telegraph lines and low speed terminals.
Voice band:

It handles moderate data volumes.

It can transmit data at speeds up to 9600 baud.
It is used in telephone voice communication medium.

Broadband:

When we want to transmit large volumes of data at a high

speed, we use this channels.
It can transmit data at speeds 1 million baud or more.
The cost of service increases with speed.
 Data representation:

Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers,

images, audio and video.

Text: Text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits. Different

sets of bit patterns represents different text symbols. Each set is
called a code, and the process of representing symbols is called
coding.
Numbers: Binary, Decimal, Hexadecimal and Octal.
Images: Images are also represented by bits patterns. An image is
composed of a matrix of pixels (picture elements), where each pixel
is a small dot. The size of the pixel depends on the resolution.
Audio: It refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound and music.
Audio is by nature different from text, numbers or images. It is
continuous, not discrete.
Video: It refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie.
Video can either be produced as a continuous entity or it can be a
combination of images, each a discrete or an analog signal.
 Definition:
Computer network means an
interconnected collection of autonomous
computers.
Two computers are said to be
interconnected if they are able to exchange
information.
Autonomous means, if any computer will
not forcibly start, stop or control other
computers.
 NETWORK CRITERIA

The most important of these are performance, reliability

and security.
Performance It can be measured in many ways
including transit time and response time, number of
users, the type of transmission medium, efficiency of
software.

Transit time is the amount of time required to travel from

one device to another. Whereas the response time is
the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.

Performance is often measured by two networking

metrics: throughput and delay.
Reliability In addition to accuracy of
delivery, network reliability is measured
by the frequency of failure, the time it
takes a link to recover from a failure .

Security It includes protecting data from

unauthorized access, protecting data
from damage and development,
implementing policies and procedures
for recovery from breaches and data
loses.
Distributed Vs. Network System:

In a distributed system, the existence of multiple

autonomous computers is transparent to the user. The
user can type a command to run a program and it
runs. It is up to the operating system to select the
best processor, find and transport all the input files to
that processor and put the results in the appropriate
place.

In other words, the user of a distributed system is not

aware that there are multiple processors; it looks like
a virtual uniprocessor. Allocation of jobs to processors
and files to disks, movement of files between where
they are stored and where they are needed and all
other system functions must be automatic.
With a network, users must explicitly log
onto one machine, explicitly submit jobs
remotely, explicitly move files around
and generally handle all the network
management personally.

A distributed system represents a special

case of a network system with the major
distinction being the software as
opposed to the hardware.
 Need for Networking

 To share computer files In an organization one

file is to be shared by the different
departments it is placed over network system.
 To share computer peripherals Some
computer devices are very expensive. For
example, laser printer and large hard disks are
quite costly. Network enables us to share these
costly devices.
 To enable different computers to communicate
each other For example, a computer with DOS
can communicate with a computer having
UNIX.
 To improve communication speed and
accuracy Example is E-mail.

 Use of Network for Business Applications

A company with many factories may have a

computer at each location to keep track of
inventories, monitor productivity and do
the local payroll.
Initially, each of these computers may have
worked in isolation from the others. But, at
some point, management may have
decided to connect them to be able to
extract and correlate information about the
entire company.
Resource Sharing
High Reliability
Money saving
Scalability
Resource Sharing: It means to make all
programs, equipments and especially data
available to anyone on the network without
regard to the physical location of the
resource and the user.
High Reliability: It means having alternative
sources of supply. Example All files could
be replicated on two or three machines. If
any one of them is unavailable due to
hardware failure or software failure, the
other copies could be used. This means the
presence of multiple CPUs. If one goes
down, the others may be able to take over
Saving Money:
Small computers have a much better
price/performance ratio than large ones.
Mainframes are faster in speed than
personal computers, but it costs a more.
To balance this difference, systems have
been made consisting of personal
computers, one per user with data kept on
one or more shared file server machines.
In this model, the users are called clients and
the whole arrangement is called client-
server model.
A network with two clients and one server
The client-server model involves requests and
replies
Scalability: It is the ability to increase
system performance gradually as the
workload grows just by adding more
processors using client-server model but
not with costlier centralized mainframe.
 Types of Computer Networks

1. By the area they encompass

2. By their topologies
By the area they encompass:
Local area network
Metropolitan area network
Wide area network
 Local area Network (LAN)

LAN is a data communication system allowing a

number of
independent devices to communicate directly with
each other within a moderately sized geographic
area over a physical communications channel.
This is a privately-owned network within a single
building or camps of up to a few kilometers in size.
IEEE quantifies LAN length as 10 km or less in
radius.
A LAN usually connects servers, workstations,
printers, and mass storage devices, enabling users
to share the resources.
LANs are distinguished from other kinds of
networks by three characteristics:
1. Their size
2. Their transmission technology (to a
single cable all the machines are
attached)
3. Their topology (Bus & Ring)
4. Saves time, resources, allows
information to be held securely and
centrally
5. Offer high-speed communications
(>10Mbps)
An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a
closet
Hub:
A common connection point for devices in a
network.
Hubs are commonly used to connect segments of
a LAN.
A hub contains multiple ports.
When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to
the other ports so that all segments of the LAN
can see all packets.
Switch: In networks, a device that filters and
forwards packets between LAN segments.

Router: A device that forwards data packets

along networks. A router is connected to at
least two networks, commonly two LANs or
WANs or a LAN and its ISP’s network
(Internet Service Provider).
Routers are located at gateways, the places
where two or more networks connect.
 Metropolitan area network

It is basically a bigger version of a LAN and

normally uses similar technology.
It covers a group of nearby corporate offices or a
city.
It might be owned by either private or public.
It can support both data and voice.
A MAN has one or two cables and does not
contain switching elements.
Example: Let an organization withy buildings
located throughout a city. If each building has its
own independent LAN and if these LANs are
connected to one another, then it will be a MAN.
MANs have very high transfer speeds.
MANs can recover from network faults very
quickly (failover time)
MANs are very often a ring topology (not a
star-wired ring)
 Wide Area Network

A WAN spans a large geographical area,

often a country or continent.
It contains a collection of machines
intended for running user (i.e. application)
programs.
This machine is called a host or end
system.
The hosts are connected by a
communication subnet.
The job of the subnet is to carry messages
from host to host.
A subnet consists of two components-
Transmission lines move data bits between
machines.
The switching elements are specialized
computers used to connect two or more
transmission lines.
When data arrive on an incoming line, the
switching element must choose an
outgoing line to forward them on.
Relation between hosts on LANs and the subnet.
A stream of packets from sender to receiver.
 Networks by their Topology
The term topology refers to the physical pattern to which
a network conforms; that is, the physical layout of
the network’s computers, terminals, links.
In other words we can say that the pattern of
interconnection of nodes in a network is called the
network topology.
The choice of network topology for installing a computer
network depends on a combination of factors such
as:
1. The desired performance of the system.
2. The desired reliability of the entire system.
3. Size of the system.
4. Expandability of the system.
5. Cost of the components and services required to
implement the network.
6. Availability of communication lines.
7. Delays involved in routing information from one node
to another.
 Physical vs. Logical
Topology
 The actual layout of a network and its media
is its Physical Topology

 The way in which the data access the

medium and transmits packets is the Logical
Topology.

 The choice of Logical Topology will affect the

Physical Topology – and vice versa.
 Interconnection Schemes
Point-to-Point
Broadcast
 Point-to-Point
A point-to-point network consists of nodes
that can only communicate with adjacent
nodes.
It provides a dedicated link between two
devices.
Adjacency is expressed by starting the
number of hops required for data to travel
from the source node to the destination
node.
A hop is a connection to or from an
intermediate node on the path from the
source to destination.

The most common point-to-point topologies
are:

1. Star topology
2. Tree topology
 Star Topology
Each device has a dedicated point-to-point
link only to a central controller, called a
hub.
 Looks like the spokes of a wheel.
 Each device needs its own cable to the Hub.
 Easy to maintain and expand.
 If one device wants to send data to another, it
sends the data to the hub which then relays
the data to the other connected device.
Advantages:

 Easy to add devices as the network expands

 One cable failure does not bring down the
entire network (resilience)
 Hub provides centralised management
 Easy to find device and cable problems
 Can be upgraded to faster speeds
 Lots of support as it is the most used
Disadvantages:

• A star network requires more cable than a ring

or bus network
• Failure of the central hub can bring down the
entire network
• Costs are higher (installation and equipment)
than for most bus networks
 Loop topology
It is a modified version of a star topology.
In a loop, nodes are connected via
dedicated wiring instead of through a
centralized hub.
It involves only one connection between
any two nodes.
A single link failure does not cause the
entire network to fail.
Loops are more reliable than stars.
A highly reliable and more expensive loop
design involves each node being connected
to every other node. This is called a
 Mesh topology
Every device has a dedicated point-to-point
link to every other device.
To find the number of physical links in a
fully connected mesh network with n
nodes, we first consider that each node
must be connected to other n-1 nodes.
Hence, we require n(n-1) physical links.
If each physical link allows communication
in both directions, we need n(n-1)/2
duplex-mode links.
 Not common on LANs
 Most often used in WANs to interconnect LANS
 Each node is connected to every other node
 Allows communication to continue in the event
of a break in any one connection
 It is “Fault Tolerant”
Advantages:
The use of dedicated links guarantees that
each connection can carry its own data
load, thus eliminating the traffic problems
that can occur when links must be shared
by multiple devices.
Mesh topology is robust. If one link
becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate
the entire system.
Advantages of privacy or security. When
every message travels along a dedicated
line, only the intended recipient can see it.
Disadvantages:
• Expensive
• Difficult to install
• Difficult to manage
• Difficult to troubleshoot
 Tree Topology
A tree topology combines characteristics of
linear bus and star topologies.
It consists of groups of star-configured
workstations connected to a linear bus
backbone cable.
Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an
existing network and enables organizations
to configure a network to meet their needs.
Advantages of a Tree Topology

 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

 Supported by several hardware and software
venders.
 It is most suitable for large networks where
ring and star topologies are not efficient.
 Since it divides the network in sub-parts, so it
becomes more manageable
 There is no hassle in either expanding or
removing the nodes.
 For individual segments there is dedicated
line wiring to the local hub.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

 Overall length of each segment is limited

by the type of cabling used.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire
segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than
other topologies.
 The network is vulnerable as it is wholly
dependent on the central hub.
 If the network becomes extremely large it
becomes difficult to manage.
 Broadcast Networks
A broadcast network consists of nodes that
share a single communication channel.
In contrast to point-to-point design, data sent
by one machine are received by all other
nodes connected to the shared channel.
Hosts receiving a transmission check to see
who is the recipient of the message and
determine if it is intended for them.
This is done by examining destination address.
Hosts that are not the intended recipient
discard the message.
Example: Let a classroom setting with a
teacher and 23 students. If the teacher
asks one student a question, all 23
students hear the question but only the
chosen student responds. This is analogous
to a broadcast network.

Broadcast networks employ different

topologies –
Bus topology
Ring topology
 Bus Topology
 Bus topology uses a common backbone to connect all
the network devices in a network in a linear shape.
A single cable functions as the shared
communication medium for all the devices attached
with this cable with an interface connector or through
appropriate hardware interfacing known as a tap.
 Full-duplex operation between the stations and the
tap allows data to be transmitted onto the bus and
received from the bus.
 The device, which wants to communicate send the
broadcast message to all the devices attached with
the shared cable but only the intended recipient
actually accepts and process that message.
At each end of the bus there is a
terminator, which absorbs any signal,
preventing reflection of signal from the
endpoints.
If the terminator is not present, the
endpoint acts like a mirror and reflects the
signal back causing interference and other
problems.
 Stations

Termina tap
tor Shared
medium
 Advantages of Bus Topology

 Inexpensive to install
 Easy to add stations
 Use less cable than other topologies
 Works well for small networks
 Disadvantages of Bus Topology

• No longer recommended
• Backbone breaks, whole network down
• Limited no of devices can be attached
• Difficult to isolate problems
• Sharing same cable slows response rates
 Ring topology
In ring Network, every computer or devices
has two adjacent neighbors for
communication.
In a ring network, all the communication
messages travel in the same direction
whether clockwise or anti clockwise.
 Any damage of the cable of any cable or
device can result in the breakdown of the
whole network.
Ring topology now has become almost
obsolete.
No beginning or end (a ring in fact !!)
All devices of equality of access to media
Single ring – data travels in one direction only
Each device has to wait its turn to transmit
Most common type is Token Ring (IEEE 802.5)
A token contains the data, reaches the
destination, data extracted, acknowledgement
of receipt sent back to transmitting device,
removed, empty token passed on for another
device to use
Advantages
 Data packets travel at great speed
 No collisions
 Easier to fault find
 No terminators required
Disadvantages
• Requires more cable than a bus
• A break in the ring will bring it down
• Not as common as the bus – less devices
available
Network Protocols
 Network protocol: It is a common set of rules
that allows two computers on a network to
communicate with one another successfully.
i.e.
How to interpret signals, how to identify a
computer on a network, how to initiate and
end networked communications, and how to
manage information exchange across the
network medium
 Examples:
TCP/IP
NetBEUI
IPX/SPX
The key elements of a protocol are

1. Syntax
2. Semantics &
3. Timing.

Syntax:
It refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning
the order in which they are presented.
For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8
bits of data to be the address of the sender, the
second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver and
the rest of the stream to be the message itself.
Semantics:

It refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a

particular pattern to be interpreted and what action is
to be taken based on that interpretation?
For example, does an address identify the route to be
taken or the final destination of the message?

Timing:

It refers to two characteristics: when data should be

sent and how fast they can be sent.
For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but
the receiver can process data at 1 Mbps, the
transmission will overload the receiver and some data
will be lost.
Refers to two characteristics:
a. When data to be sent
b. How fast it can be sent
Eg. If a sender produces data at 100 Mbps
but the receiver can process data at only
1 Mbps, the transmission will overload
the receiver and data will be largely lost.
 Connection oriented service -
Like the phone system. The system establishes a
connection, uses it, and closes it. Acts like a tube.
Data comes out the other end in the same order as
it goes in.
o Connection Setup
o Data Transfer
o Connection Termination

 Connectionless service -
Like the post office. Each message has the entire
address on it. Each message may follow a different
route to its destination. Ordering not maintained.
Organizations For Communication
Standards
Standards are developed by cooperation among
standards creation committees, forums, and
government regulatory agencies.

Standards Creation Committees

a) International Standards Organization (ISO)
b) International Telecommunications Union (ITU)
c) American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
d) Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE)
e) Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
f) Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
Data communication standards fall into two
categories: de facto (meaning "by fact" or
"by convention") and de jure (meaning "by
law" or "by regulation").
De facto. Standards that have not been
approved by an organized body but have
been adopted as standards through
widespread use are de facto standards. De
facto standards are often established
originally by manufacturers who seek to
define the functionality of a new product or
technology.
De jure. Those standards that have been
International Standards
Organization (ISO)
- A multinational body whose membership
is drawn mainly from the standards
creation committees of various
governments throughout the world
- Dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards in a variety field.
- Currently includes 82 memberships
industrialized nations.
- Aims to facilitate the international
exchange of goods and services by
providing models for compatibility,
improved quality, increased quality,
increased productivity and decreased
International Telecommunications Union (ITU)

- An international standards organization related

to the United Nations that develops standards
for telecommunications.
- Two popular standards developed by ITU-T are:
i) V series – transmission over phone lines
ii) X series – transmission over public digital
networks, email and directory services and
ISDN.
American National Standards
Institute (ANSI)
- A non-profit corporation not affiliated with US
government.
- ANSI members include professional societies,
industry associations, governmental and
regulatory bodies, and consumer groups.
- Discussing the internetwork planning and
engineering, ISDN services, signaling, and
architecture and optical hierarchy.
Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
- The largest national professional group
involved in developing standards for
computing, communication, electrical
engineering, and electronics.
- Aims to advance theory, creativity and product
quality in the fields of electrical engineering,
electronics and radio.
- It sponsored an important standard for local
area networks called Project 802 (eg. 802.3,
802.4 and 802.5 standards.)
Electronic Industries Association (EIA)

- An association of electronics manufacturers

in the US.
- Provide activities include public awareness
education and lobbying efforts in addition
to standards development.
- Responsible for developing the EIA-232-D
and EIA-530 standards.
Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF)
- Concerned with speeding the growth and
evolution of Internet communications.
- The standards body for the Internet itself
- Reviews internet software and hardware.
Switched networks involve a partially or
fully meshed topology and use special
network devices called switches to
interconnect the links between source and
destination nodes.

Classification:

1. Circuit-switched network
2. Packet-switched network
 Circuit-switched Network
A dedicated physical circuit is first
established between the source and the
destination nodes before any data
transmission takes place.
Once established, the circuit is dedicated
exclusively to the current transmission.
After the transmission is over, the
dedicated circuit is then released and made
available for other communication
transmission.
 Circuit Switching
Circuit switching was
designed in 1878 in order to
send telephone calls down
a dedicated channel.
This channel remained
open and in use throughout
the whole call and could not
be used by any other data
or phone calls.
 Circuit Switching
With the expanded use of the Internet for
voice and video, analysts predict a gradual
shift away from circuit-switched networks.
A circuit-switched network is excellent for
data that needs a constant link from end-to-
end. For example real-time video.
 Circuit Switching
Advantages:
Circuit is dedicated to the call – no
interference, no sharing
Guaranteed the full bandwidth for
the duration of the call
Guaranteed Quality of Service
 Circuit Switching
Disadvantages:
Inefficient – the equipment may be
unused for a lot of the call, if no data
is being sent, the dedicated line still
remains open
Takes a relatively long time to set up
the circuit
During a crisis or disaster, the
network may become unstable or
unavailable.
It was primarily developed for voice
traffic rather than data traffic.
 Packet Switching
In packet-based networks, the
message gets broken into small
data packets. These packets
are sent out from the computer
and they travel around the
network seeking out the most
efficient route to travel as
circuits become available. This
does not necessarily mean that
they seek out the shortest
route.
Each packet may go a different
 Packet Switching
Each packet is sent with a ‘header address’.
This tells it where its final destination is, so it
knows where to go.
The header address also describes the sequence
for reassembly at the destination computer so
that the packets are put back into the correct
order.
One packet also contains details of how many
packets should be arriving so that the recipient
computer knows if one packet has failed to turn
up.
If a packet fails to arrive, the recipient computer
sends a message back to the computer which
originally sent the data, asking for the missing
 Packet Switching

Message is broken up into segments

(packets).
Each packet carries the identification of the
intended recipient, data used to assist in
data correction and the position of the
packet in the sequence.
Each packet is treated individually by the
switching centre and may be sent to the
destination by a totally different route to all
the others.
 Packet Switching
Security
Bandwidth used to full potential
Devices of different speeds can
communicate
Not affected by line failure (rediverts
signal)
Availability – do not have to wait for a
direct connection to become available
During a crisis or disaster, when the
public telephone network might stop
working, e-mails and texts can still be
sent via packet switching
 Packet Switching

Disadvantages
Under heavy use there can be a
delay
Data packets can get lost or
become corrupted
Protocols are needed for a
reliable transfer
Not so good for some types data
streams e.g real-time video
streams can lose frames due to
the way packets arrive out of
 Packet Vs Circuit Switching

It is easier to double the capacity of a packet

switched network than a circuit network – a
circuit network is heavily dependent on the
number of channel available.
 Packet Vs Circuit Switching
It is cheaper to expand a packet switching
system.
Circuit-switched technologies, which take four
times as long to double their
performance/cost, force ISPs to buy that many
more boxes to keep up.
This is why everyone is looking for ways to get
Internet traffic off the telephone network.
The alternative of building up the telephone
network to satisfy the demand growth is
economically out of the question.
 Packet Vs Circuit Switching
It is cheaper to expand a packet switching
system.
Circuit-switched technologies, which take four
times as long to double their
performance/cost, force ISPs to buy that many
more boxes to keep up.
This is why everyone is looking for ways to get
Internet traffic off the telephone network.
The alternative of building up the telephone
network to satisfy the demand growth is
economically out of the question.
 Packet Vs Circuit Switching
The battle between circuit and packet
technologies has been around a long time,
and it is starting to be like the old story of
the tortoise and the hare.
In this case, the hare is circuit switching—
fast, reliable and smart.
The hare starts out fast and keeps a steady
pace, while the tortoise starts slow but
manages to double his speed every 100
meters.
If the race is longer than 2 km, the power of
compounding favours the tortoise.