Learning

GROUP 1
Jahanzaib Razaq(F21BDOCS1M01083)
M. Sulman(F21BDOCS1E02123)
Hafiz M. Hammad(F21BDOCS1E02136)
Mian Ahmad Daud(F21BDOCS1E02157)
Ali Haider(F21BDOCS1E02166)
Definition:
In psychology, learning is generally defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior or
knowledge that results from. In other words, when we learn, we acquire new skills or information
that last beyond the immediate situation.

Example:
Seven-year-old Luke Nuttall, who has Type 1 diabetes, was saved one night by his alert dog, Jedi—a
specially trained black Labrador who detected a dangerous drop in Luke’s blood sugar when a
mechanical monitor failed. Jedi, trained through psychological learning techniques, alerted Luke’s
mother instead of Luke, demonstrating not just detection but also learned response behavior. This
story highlights the power of learning in both animals and humans, a concept central to many areas
of psychology. Learning allows us to acquire, change, or refine behaviors and skills through
experience, whether through conditioning or cognitive processes.
Major Theories of Learning:

Psychologists identify three main learning processes:

• Classical Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning
• Observational Learning
Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
In classical conditioning, an organism learns to associate two stimuli so that a neutral cue comes
to elicit a response originally caused by another stimulus. For example, Ivan Pavlov found that
dogs would begin to salivate upon hearing a bell if that bell had previously been paired with the
smell of food. Initially the bell (a neutral stimulus) meant nothing to the dogs, but after many
pairings with food (the unconditioned stimulus that naturally causes salivation), the bell alone
triggered salivation (a conditioned response). In everyday life, similar associations occur: if a
person feels anxious in a dentist’s office (unconditioned fear response) after a painful dental
procedure, just seeing the dentist’s office (conditioned stimulus) may eventually cause anxiety.
File:One of Pavlov's dogs.jpg - Wikipedia
Example:
Pavlov’s classic experiment paired a neutral bell with food until the bell alone caused dogs to
drool A real-life parallel is hearing a favorite song (originally neutral) after it was played during
happy times – later, the song alone can bring back those positive feelings (a learned emotional
response). •

After Conditioning:

If the conditioned stimulus (e.g. bell) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus
(food), the learned response fades (called extinction). For Pavlov’s dogs, ringing the bell without
giving food caused their salivation response to weaken over time.
Generalization vs. Discrimination:

Once conditioned, animals (including people) often generalize their response to stimuli similar
to the original cue. For instance, a dog conditioned to one bell tone may salivate to other bells
with similar pitch (stimulus generalization).

Conversely, with training an organism can learn discrimination, responding only to the exact
original cue and ignoring other similar signals. Pavlov’s dogs, for example, learned to salivate
only to the specific tone they had heard with food, not to different tones
Operant Conditioning (Skinner):

In operant conditioning, behaviors are shaped by their consequences. B.F. Skinner showed
that an organism (like a rat or a child) “operates” on its environment, and is more likely to
repeat behaviors that are rewarded and less likely to repeat behaviors that are punished. In a
Skinner box (shown below), a rat might learn to press a lever to receive a food pellet.
Skinner explained that adding rewards increases a behavior, while adding punishments
decreases a behavior.
File:Skinner box photo 02.jpg - Wikipedia
Positive Reinforcement:

Presenting a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior. For example, giving a child a treat for
doing homework makes it more likely the child will do homework in the future. In fact, studies
have shown paying children small rewards for reading books (a token economy) significantly
improves their reading performance.

Negative Reinforcement:

Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior. For example, the annoying seatbelt
“beep-beep” in cars stops when you buckle up. The removal of the beep (aversive stimulus)
reinforces seatbelt use.
Positive Punishment:
Adding an unpleasant outcome to reduce a behavior. For example, a teacher might scold a
student to stop them from texting in.

Negative Punishment:

Taking away a pleasant stimulus to reduce a behavior. For example, taking away a
teenager’s video game privileges to discourage fighting with.
Shaping:
Complex behaviors can be learned by rewarding successive approximations. Skinner’s
teaching machine for students was an example – it gave immediate reinforcement (points or
encouragement) for each correct response, gradually guiding students through harder tasks.

Schedules:
The timing and frequency of reinforcement affect how quickly and strongly a behavior is
learned. Continuous rewards teach behaviors faster but extinguish quickly when stopped,
whereas intermittent (e.g. random) rewards produce more persistent responses.
Observational Learning (Bandura):
Observational learning (social learning) occurs by watching and imitating others, rather than
through direct reward or punishment. Albert Bandura emphasized that people (especially
children) can learn by modeling – copying behaviors of role models like parents, teachers, or
peers
Example:
In Bandura’s famous Bobo doll experiment, young children watched an adult act aggressively
toward a large inflatable doll. Later, the children imitated those same aggressive behaviors,
even without receiving any reward . Similarly, a child whose parent angrily yells during
disputes may learn to use yelling in conflict themselves . Observational learning explains
everyday skills, too: a toddler who watches a parent tie shoelaces can eventually imitate the
steps to tie their own shoes .

Modeling:
This term refers to learning by observing the model’s actions and their consequences. For
instance, a teenager who sees an older sibling receive a speeding ticket (negative
consequence) learns not to speed themselves . Observers pay attention to a model’s behavior,
remember what they saw, and may later reproduce it – especially if the model is someone
similar or respected .
Vicarious Reinforcement/Punishment:
People are more likely to imitate a behavior if they see the model being rewarded, and
less likely if the model is punished (Observational Learning: Examples, Stages,
History). Bandura noted that witnessing consequences for others can guide our own
actions without direct experience.
Applications in Daily Life, Education, and
Behavior Change:

Everyday Life:
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning shape many habits. A phone’s notification
ding can become a conditioned cue that makes you check your phone out of habit.
Operating on rewards and punishments is common: children often do chores for allowance
(operant reinforcement), and we naturally imitate behaviors we see around us
(observational). Media and advertising use these principles too (e.g. pairing happy images
with a product for a conditioned positive feeling). Children learn social norms by watching
and imitating adults or peers (Observational Learning: Examples, Stages, History).
Education:
Teachers use operant principles all the time. Praising students or giving gold stars reinforces
good work, while removing privileges can deter misbehavior. Skinner’s teaching machines and
modern computer-adaptive tutors give immediate feedback for correct answers, harnessing
positive reinforcement . In classrooms, instructors also model behaviors – for example, a
teacher who demonstrates problem-solving methods provides a model for students to emulate.
Group learning lets students learn from peers through observation.
Behavior Change and Therapy:

Learning theories guide many behavior-change techniques. In therapy for phobias or anxiety, exposure
therapy and systematic desensitization apply classical conditioning: patients are gradually exposed to the
feared cue without any bad outcome, which extinguishes the fear response over time. Operant principles
underlie token economies and contingency management programs, which have been effective in
addiction treatment. Observational learning helps in social skills training and role modeling: clients may
practice behaviors by imitating a therapist or peer.