Environmental Pollution-

Sources and Impacts

Venna Nair
Assistant Professor
Dept. of English
N.S.S. College Pandalam
Pollution
Introduction of substances or energy by humans, deliberately or

inadvertently into the environment resulting in a deleterious effect.

 EPA Definition:
The presence of a substance in the environment that
because of its chemical composition or quantity prevents
the functioning of natural processes and produces
undesirable environmental and health effects.
Substances which discharged into the surroundings,
where they bring about undesirable changes

 Pollution is drastically rising in all the countries due to

rise in human activity associated with modern
technology and population growth.

 Pollution poses health hazards, endangers wild life and

makes the planet unsafe for future human survival.
Classification of Pollutants
According to their natural disposal,
pollutants can be classified as
 Degradable
 Slowly degradable
 Non-degradable
Based on their nature
 Physical [ heat , noise]
 Chemical [ acids ,poisonous gases ]
 Biological [ pathogenic organisms ]
 Geochemical [ sediments ,dust ]
How many types of pollution affect the environment?

There are 2 different types of pollution

•Point Source Pollution
•Non-point Source Pollution
Point Source Pollution:
Pollution caused from a stationary
location or fixed facility where
pollutants are discharged; any single
identifiable source of pollution.
Eg. Chemicals coming out of pipes,

Oil Spill from Ship, Smoke from a

factory.
Non-point Source Pollution
 Non-point source pollution is the type of

pollution that cannot be easily tracked

back to its source.

 You cannot identify (point to) the source

of this pollution; this type of pollution

happens everyday in all communities.

 Common non-point sources are agriculture,

forestry, urban, mining, construction, dams,

channels, land disposal, saltwater intrusion,

and city streets.

Effects of Non-point Source
Pollution:
This type of pollution kills more animals
and plants in the ocean than point
source pollution.
It does not always immediately destroy
habitats or kill large amounts of life at
one time.
Many animals may die from immediate
exposure to trash (an example of non-
point source pollution), but do not
usually die in large groups from the
same pollution item at the same time.
Case Study: DDT Pesticide Exposure

 DDT was a popular pesticide used from the

1940s to the 1970s in the United States of
America to control insect pests affecting
farms, forests, and home gardens.
 Many people were exposed to this chemical
by using it regularly, but many ocean
animals were also exposed to it when rain
would wash this chemical into the storm
drains and out into the ocean.
 In 1972, the EPA banned the usage of this
chemical due to the increase of cancer
among people and the widespread decline
of bird
species.
1962 ‘Silent Spring’ is
published.
 Rachel Carson’s powerful
book draws the attention of
the American public to the
potential consequences of
the increasing ability of
human activities to
significantly and even
permanently alter the natural
world.
 Different Types of pollution are
categorized based on the part of the
environment which they affect, or result
which the particular pollution causes.
 Each of these types has its own
distinctive causes and consequences.
The main types of pollution are:
 Water Pollution

(Groundwater and Surface water

pollution -River, lake and Oceans)
 Air Pollution
 Soil Pollution
 Thermal Pollution
 Radioactive Pollution
 Noise Pollution
Water Pollution

The type of pollution that

involves the contamination of
various water bodies.

Various aquatic creatures depend

on these water bodies and its
natural nutritious features to
support its life.
 Types of Pollutants
Disease-causing Agents – Pathogens
Oxygen Demanding Agents – Organic
waste: manure
Water-soluble Inorganic Chemicals –
acids, toxic metals
Inorganic Plant Nutrients – nitrogen and
phosphorus
Organic Chemicals – oil, pesticides,
detergents
Sediment or Suspended Material – due
to soil erosion.
Water-soluble Radioactive Isotopes –
radon, uranium
Heat – electric and nuclear power plants.
Causes of Water
Pollution
 Industrial
waste gets dumped into these
water bodies. This causes a chemical
imbalance in the water leading to death of
the aquatic beings.

 Insecticides,
pesticides and ripening
chemicals that are used on plants run into
the ground water system or nearby streams.

 Washing clothes near lakes and rivers causes

detergents also causes a condition called
“Eutrophication” which blocks sunlight
from entering inside and reduces oxygen
values in the water causing an inhabitable
Marine Pollution
Causes
 Overexploitation of fisheries and
physical destruction of marine
coastal habitats by dredging.
 Strong increase in coastal
development discharge of
untreated sewage into the near-
shore waters, resulting in
enormous amounts of nutrients
spreading into the sea and
coastal zones.

Oil Spills
 ‘Oil Spills’ are caused when giant oil
tankers and oil rigs which are present in
the oceans are damaged by either natural
or human errors cause a long-time
damage to the ocean as oil is lighter than
water and floats on water forming a layer
blocking sunlight.

 Certainnatural disasters like flash floods

and hurricanes cause the intermixing of
water with harmful substances on the
land.
AIR POLLUTION
 According to Indian Air amendment
Act, 1987, “air pollution means any
solid, liquid, or gaseous substances
present in the atmosphere in such
concentrations that may tend to be
injurious to human beings or other
living creatures or plants or property
or enjoyment”.
TYPES OF AIR POLLUTION
Outdoor and Indoor Pollution
 Quantitative alteration of atmospheric
constituents or addition of one or more
contaminants in the outdoor atmosphere for
such duration and such quantities that are
injurious to human health, his belongings or
plants and animal life is called outdoor pollution.
eg. lead, sulphur oxides, pollens, ozone, organic
substances, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides,
suspended particulate matter, polycyclic hydrocarbons.
 Pollution of the atmosphere indoors(inside
enclosed) buildings, home, office etc. is called
indoor pollution.
eg. Ammonia, Asbestos and synthetic fibers,
adhesives, formaldehyde, radon, cosmetics, solvents,
allergens.
Sources of Indoor Pollution
• Cooking (CO, NO2,particulate matter)
• Air conditioners & refrigerators ( Fungi-
Thermoactinomyces vulgares, and CFCs)
• Air purifiers (paradi-chlorobenzene)
• Painting & cosmetics (HCHO)
• Cigarette smoking (HCHO, CO, Benzopyrene,
organic particulate matter
• Wood(CO, HC, Polycyclic Organic matter)
• Dry cleaned clothes( trichloroethylene)
• Photocopying machines (O3)
• Carpets and plastic products (Styrene)
• Asbestos (Asbestos dust)
• Electric stove (NO2)
• Building foundation,Granite (Radon)
• Mosquito and cockroach repellents, Bed bugs,
 Main sources of air pollution (OUTDOOR)
Sources of air pollution refer to the various
locations, activities or factors which are
responsible for the releasing of pollutants into the
atmosphere.
These sources can be classified into two major
categories
Natural: sources and Anthropogenic
sources
 The contribution of each source to
local pollution will
vary according to …
the type and number of local industrial
processes,
density and age of road transport and local
Natural sources

 Dust from natural sources, usually large areas

of land with little or no vegetation.

 Volcanic activity, which

produce sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates.

 Methane, emitted by the digestion of food

by animals, for example cattle.

 Radon gas from radioactive decay within

the Earth's crust.
•Radon is a colorless, odorless, naturally occurring, radioactive
noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium.
•Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in buildings,
especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is the
second most frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette
smoking.

Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires.

Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally

significant amounts of Volatile Organic Carbons (VOCs) on
warmer days.

These VOCs react with primary anthropogenic pollutants—

specifically, NO2, SO2, and anthropogenic organic carbon
compounds—to produce a seasonal haze of secondary
pollutants..
Anthropogenic sources
• Burning of fossil fuels and fires, emission from
vehicles, rapid industralisation, agricultural
activities, and wars are the major causes of air
pollution.

• Fossil fuel power stations in mainly rural areas

and distributing the pollution produced more
evenly via tall chimneys has resulted in
improved urban air quality, though they still
remain a major source of pollution, mainly
sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.

• Better dispersion of pollutants emitted by tall

chimneys leads to better dilution in the air and
thus lower local concentrations of pollutants.
This has however led to pollution being
dispersed more widely and to transboundary
air pollution.
 Landfilland incineration are the two most
common methods of waste disposal.
 If not properly managed landfill sites can
cause a number of problems.

These include the production of

potentially explosive levels of methane
gas (65%), dangerous levels of
carbondioxide (35%), plus trace
concentrations of a range of organic gases
and vapours.

 Landfill
sites also have the potential to
cause major odour when badly managed.
Types of Air Pollutants

Air pollutants are classified into two categories:

Primary and Secondary pollutants

• Primary pollutants: Air pollutants directly released from any
source.
Eg. carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, benzene, benzopyrene,
particulate matter, lead, radioactive substances, hydrocarbons.

• Much of the lead emitted by vehicles burning leaded petrol

emerges as particles.

• Diesel engines burn fuel in excess of air and so produce little

carbon monoxide but, instead large quantities of carbon dioxide.

• Secondary pollutants: Formed from primary pollutants under

specific conditions
Eg. Nitric acid, ozone, smog.
 Major Air pollution concerns
Problem Cause Effect
Sulfurous smog SO2 and smoke from Respiratory
industrial and diseases, reduced
domestic sources visibility, Damage to
materials and
vegetation.
Photochemical smog Exhaust gases from Damage to health,
motor vehicles materials and
vegetation.
Global warming CO2 from power Rising
stations and CH4 temperatures,
from paddy fields climate change,
flooding of low-lying
areas.
Depletion of O3 layer CFCs from aerosol Increasing incidence
cans, refrigerators of skin cancer due
etc. to increasing
penetration of UV
radiation.
Acid rain SO2 and Nox from Damage to aquatic
power stations and and terrestrial
motor vehicles ecosystems, and
• Causes and effects of air pollution:
(1) greenhouse effect, (2) particulate
contamination,
(3) increased UV radiation, (4) acid rain, (5)
increased ground level ozone concentration,
(6) increased levels of nitrogen oxides.
 Air Pollution incidents in India
Industrial accidents
 In Dec.3,1984, in Bhopal Methyl
Isocyanate gas(MIC) from Union
carbide Factory- India.

• In August 1985, Chlorine spill occured

at petrochemical plant at Chembur,
Bombay.

• In December 4,1985 ,Oleum (55 tons)

leakage at Shiram Foods &Fertiliser
Industries, Delhi.
 EPA CRITERIA AIR POLLUTANTS
OZONE (O3)
• A colorless gas that forms as a result of chemical reactions between
volatile organic compounds (VOCs), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and oxygen in
the presence of heat and sunlight.
Sources:
• Motor vehicles, electric utilities, factories, landfills, industrial solvents, and
miscellaneous small sources such as gas stations, lawn equipment, etc.
Health and Environmental Effects
Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized
as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems.
• Causes coughing, chest tightness, wheezing and can inflame and damage
lung tissue.
• Aggravates asthma and can even be a cause of asthma. Irritates the
respiratory system, reduces lung function and makes it more difficult to
breathe.
• Aggravates chronic lung diseases and may cause permanent lung
damage.
• May reduce yield of agricultural crops and damages forests and other
vegetation.
Particulate matter (PM-10) -- Particulate matter is a criteria
air pollutant and is a finely divided particle with an
aerodynamic diameter of 10 micrometers or less.
eg. Dust, soot and other tiny bits of solid materials that are
released into and move around in the air.

Particulate pollution can cause eye, nose, and throat

irritation and other health problems.
(24-hour average concentration -150 micrograms per cubic
meter )
Particulate matter (PM2.5) -- Includes tiny particles with an
aerodynamic diameter less than or equal to a nominal 2.5
microns. This fraction of particulate matter penetrates most
deeply into the lungs.
(24-hour average concentration-35 micrograms per cubic
meter)
•Toxic air pollutants get into the body mainly through
breathing. They can also be ingested or absorbed through the
skin.
•Once a pollutant enters the body it can stay in the lungs (like
asbestos), be exhaled, or move into the blood from the lungs
(like the oxygen we breathe) or from the digestive system or
skin. In the blood it is carried to all parts of the body.

•As it moves around the body, a pollutant can undergo

chemical changes, especially as it passes through the liver,
becoming less, or more, toxic.

•At certain levels, toxic air pollutants can cause human health
effects ranging from nausea and difficulty in breathing to
cancer.
•Health effects can also include birth defects, serious
development delays in children, and reduced immunity to
disease in adults and children.
Air Quality Monitoring

 Monitoring stations continuously

monitor and collect information
about the presence and level of
atmospheric contaminants as
well as the meteorological
indices.
 A typical monitoring station
include sophisticated gaseous
pollutant analyzers, particle
collectors, and weather sensors
that are continuously maintained
and operated.
 In India, with the help of
state pollution control
boards, monitors air
pollutants in industrial areas
and selected stations..
Measures to check indoor
pollution
 Using equipments like Air-washers, Bin
vents, cartridge dust collectors .
 Growing Common indoor plants like Spider
plant, Bamboo palm, Peace lily, English Ivy.
 Smoking should be avoided.
 Dry cleaned clothes should be aerated
outside the house.
 Pads and water in desert cooler should be
changed well before they get contaminated
with fungi or other microorganisms.
 Boracic powder (Boric acid, also
called hydrogen borate, boracic acid) can be
used on coakroaches.
THERMAL POLLUTION -
CAUSES AND IMPACTS
Thermal pollution may be defined as:
 Addition of excess of undesirable
heat to water that makes it harmful
to man, animal or aquatic life or
otherwise causes significant
departures from the normal
activities of aquatic communities in
water
 Sources of Thermal
Pollution
 The sources of Thermal pollution mainly
include:
1. Nuclear Power Plants
2. Coal fired Power Plants
3. Industrial effluents
4. Domestic sewage
5. Hydro-electric power
1. Nuclear Power Plants
 Emissions from nuclear reactors and
processing installations are
responsible for increasing the
temperature of water bodies.
 The operation of power reactors and
nuclear fuel processing units
constitute the major contributor of
heat in the aquatic environment.
 The liquid radioactive water
consists of H-3, C-14, Fe-59 and
Co-60 along with corrosion
products.
 In addition, accidental leakage of
radiation from nuclear reactors in
water raises the temperature of
surrounding aquatic system.
 Heated effluents from power
plants are discharged at 10º C
higher than the coolant receiving
waters and severely affected the
2. Coal fired power plants
 These are the major source of
thermal pollutants.
 Their condenser coils are cooled
with water from nearby lake or river
and discharge the hot water back to
the stream increasing the
temperature of nearby water to
about 15º C.
 The heated effluents decrease the
DO content of water resulting in the
killing of fish and other marine
organisms.
3. Industrial Effluents
 The industries like textile, paper
and pulp as well as sugar release
heat in water.

 The discharged water from

steam-electric power industry
using turbo generators, will have
higher temperature ranging from
6ºC to 9ºC than the receiving
water.
4.Domestic Sewage
 Domestic sewage is commonly
discharged into rivers, lakes,
canals or streams with or with out
waste treatment.
 The municipal sewage has a
higher temperature than the
receiving water.
 The discharged sewage not only
raises the stream temperature to
a measurable extent, but also
creates numerous deleterious
 With the increase in temperature of
the receiving water, the DO content
decreases and the demand of
oxygen increases .
 Hence, the anaerobic conditions will
set up resulting in the release of
foul and offensive gases in water.
 The marine organisms which
depend on the dissolved oxygen of
the surface water will die out.
5.Hydro- electric power
 Generation of hydro electric
power, sometimes results in
negative thermal loading in
water systems.
 Apart from electrical power
industries, various factories with
cooling requirement contribute
to thermal loading.
 Impacts of Thermal Pollution

The harmful impacts of thermal pollution

mainly include:

 Reductionin Dissolved Oxygen-

Concentration of dissolved oxygen
decreases with increase in temperature of
water.

 Change in water properties-

A rise in temperature changes the
physical and chemical properties of water.
 The vapour pressure increases
sharply, while the viscosity of
water decreases.
 The decrease in density,
viscosity and solubility of gases
increases the settling speed of
suspended particles which
seriously affects the food supply of
aquatic organisms.

Interference with biological activities

–
 The temperature changes
 Temperature is considered to be of
vital significance to physiology,
metabolism and biochemical
process in controlling respiratory
rates, digestion, excretion and
overall development of aquatic
organisms.

 Interference with reproduction-

In fishes, several activities like nest
building, spawning, hatching,
migration, reproduction etc depend
on some optimum temperature.
 The warm water not only disturbs
spawning, but also destroys laid
eggs.

 Change in metabolic rate-

Fishes show a marked rise in basal
rate of metabolism with
temperature to lethal point.
The respiratory rate, oxygen
demand, food uptake and
swimming speed in fishes increase
 Increased vulnerability to disease
-
Activities of several pathogenic
microorganisms are accelerated
by high temperature.
Hot water causes bacterial
disease in Salmon fish.
 Invasion of destructive organisms
-
Thermal pollutants may permit
the invasion of organisms that
are tolerant to warm water and
 Undesirable changes in algae
production –
The life in an aquatic ecosystem is
greatly influenced by the growth of
algae.
Excess nutrients from the wash out
waters from farm lands, combined
with thermal pollution cause an
excessive algal growth with
consequent acceleration of
eutrophic and other undesirable
changes.
 Control of Thermal
Pollution
Control of thermal pollution is an
extreme necessity, since in future its
detrimental effects on aquatic
ecosystem may be worse.
The following methods can be adopted
for the control of thermal pollution:
1. Cooling Towers
2. Cooling Ponds
3. Artificial Lakes
1. Cooling Towers
 The use of water from water
systems for cooling purposes, with
subsequent return to the water way
after passage through the
condenser is termed as cooling
process.

 Cooling towers transfer some of the

heat from cooling water to the
surrounding atmosphere by the
process of evaporation.
2. Cooling Ponds
Cooling ponds or reservoirs
constitute the simplest method of
cooling thermal discharges.
Heated effluents on the surface
of water in cooling ponds
maximize dissipation of heat to
the atmosphere and minimize the
water area and volume.
3. Artificial Lakes
Artificial lakes are man-made bodies of
water which offer possible alternative
to once through cooling.
The heated effluents can be
discharged into the lake at one end
and the water for cooling purposes
may be withdrawn from the other end.
The heat is eventually dissipated
through evaporation.
So, these lakes have to be rejuvenated
continuously.
SOIL POLLUTION
 SOIL POLLUTION

Soil pollution is defined as the

build-up in soils of persistent toxic
compounds, chemicals, salts,
radioactive materials, or disease
causing agents, which have
adverse effects on plant growth and
animal health.
Causes of Soil Pollution
 Seepage from a landfill

 Discharge of industrial waste and e-waste

into the soil

 Percolation of contaminated water into the

soil

 Rupture of underground storage tanks

 Excess application of pesticides, herbicides

or fertilizer (agrochemicals)

 Solid waste seepage

Waste materials can be broadly
divided into three categories:
Muncipal soild wastes (ie. from
homes, hotels etc.)
Special wastes (medical waste,
construction debris, asbestos, mining
waste, agricultural waste, radioactive
waste, sewage sludge)
Hazardous wastes : Waste with
properties that make it capable of
harming human health or the
environment. eg. Electroplating wastes,
spent solvents, heavy metals in e-
 Solid wastes
Any non liqiud, non- soluble
materials ranging from municipal
garbage to industrial wastes that
contain complex and sometimes
hazardous substances.
It include;
◦ Garbage
◦ Rubbish
◦ Demolition wastes
◦ Sewage treatment residue
◦ Dead animals
◦ Manure and other discarded materials.
Sources of solid wastes

HOUSE HOLDS AGRICULTURE INDUSTRY

CONSTRUCTION INSTITUTION S
Solid waste management
“3rs”
Electronic waste (E-waste)

Among top ten cities generating e-waste, Mumbai

ranks first followed by Delhi, Bangalore, Chennai,
Kolkata, Ahmedabad, Hyderabad, Pune, Surat and
Nagpur.
 Composition of E-waste
 Composition of E-waste is very diverse and
differs in products across different categories. It
contains more than 1000 different substances,
which fall under “hazardous” and “non-
hazardous” categories.

 Broadly, it consists of ferrous and nonferrous

metals, plastics, glass, wood & plywood,
printed circuit boards, concrete and ceramics,
rubber and other items. Iron and steel
constitutes about 50% of the e-waste followed
by plastics (21%), non ferrous metals (13%)
and other constituents.

 Non-ferrous metals consist of metals like

copper, aluminium and precious metals eg.
silver, gold, platinum, palladium etc.
 Health effects
 Contaminated or polluted soil directly affects

human health through direct contact with soil or

via inhalation of soil contaminants which have

vaporized; potentially greater threats are posed

by the infiltration of soil contamination into

groundwater aquifers used for human

consumption, sometimes in areas apparently far

removed from any apparent source of above

ground contamination.

 Health consequences from exposure to soil

Bioaccumulation

 Soil pollution can harm humans by bioaccumulation.

 Plants that are grown in lightly polluted soil continuously absorb molecules of the

pollutants. Since the plants cannot get rid of these molecules, they accumulate in the

plant, causing higher amounts of pollution to exist in the plant than in the soil.
 Animals who eat many of these polluted plants take on all the pollution those plants

have accumulated. Larger animals who eat the plant-eating animals take on all the

pollution from the animals they eat.

 Humans who eat plants or animals that have accumulated large amounts of soil

pollutants may be poisoned, even if the soil itself does not contain enough pollution to

harm human health.

 Solid Waste Management

Reusing of materials:
Materials such as glass containers,
plastic bags, paper, cloth etc. can
be reused at domestic levels rather
than being disposed, reducing solid
waste pollution.
 Recycling and recovery of materials
This is a reasonable solution for
reducing soil pollution. Materials
such as paper, some kinds of
plastics, e-waste and glass can and
are being recycled. This decreases
the volume of refuse and helps in the
conservation of natural resources.

For example, recovery of one tonne

of paper can save 17 trees.
Reforesting
Control of land loss and soil
erosion can be attempted
through restoring forest and
grass cover to check
wastelands, soil erosion and
floods.

Crop rotation or mixed

cropping can improve the
Radiation Pollution ( Nuclear hazard)
RADIATION
Radiation occurs when unstable nuclei of
atoms decay and release particles.
Each radioactive element on the list
gives off either alpha radiation or beta
radiation -and sometimes gamma
radiation too - thereby transforming
itself into the next element
When uranium ore is extracted from the
earth, most of the uranium is removed from
the crushed rock during the milling process,
but the radioactive decay products are left
in the tailings.
Thus 85 percent of the radioactivity of the
Man-made radiation sources (18%) that
result in an exposure to members of the
public:
Tobacco (thorium)
Televisions (tritium)
Medical X-rays (americium)
Smoke detectors (americium),
Lantern mantles (thorium)
Nuclear medicine (tritium)
Coal

 Coal contains a small amount of radioactive

uranium, barium, thorium and potassium, but,
in the case of pure coal, this is significantly
less than the average concentration of those
elements in the Earth's crust.
Oil and gas
 Residues from the oil and gas industry often
contain radium and its decay products.
 The sulfate scale from an oil well can be very
radium rich, while the water, oil and gas from
a well often contain radon.
The radon decays to form solid radioisotopes
which form coatings on the inside of pipework.
 Medical wastes

 Radioactive medical waste tends to contain

beta particle and gamma ray emitters. It can
be divided into two main classes. In diagnostic
nuclear medicine a number of short-lived
gamma emitters such as technetium-99m are
used. Many of these can be disposed of by
leaving it to decay for a short time before
disposal as normal waste.
 Other isotopes used in medicine include:

with half-lives in parentheses,

 Y-90, used for treating lymphoma (2.7 days)
 I-131, used for thyroid function tests and for
treating thyroid cancer (8.0 days)
 Sr-89, used for treating bone cancer,
intravenous injection (52 days)
 Ir-192, used for brachytherapy (74 days)
Effects of Radiation Exposure on Human
Health
Although a dose of just 25 rems causes
some detectable changes in blood, doses to
near 100 rems usually have no immediate
harmful effects.
Doses above 100 rems cause the first signs of
radiation sickness including:
nausea
vomiting
headache
some loss of white blood cells

Genetic effects and the development of

cancer are the primary health concerns
attributed to radiation exposure.
 The common types of
radiation detectors include:
Ionization (Ion) Chamber

Radon Detectors

Geiger-Mueller counter.
 AT1103M X-RAY Radiation
Dosimeter

Unique highly-sensitive
devise for measuring
radiation exposure on
crystalline lens, mucus
membranes and skin.

Measures directed dose

equivalent rate of
continuous X-ray
radiation with energy
International radioactive waste
hazard symbol featuring the trefoil
design.
Nuclear fallout is the distribution of radioactive
contamination by a nuclear explosion.
Contamination may occur from radioactive gases, liquids
or particles.
Suggested Readings:
1. Carson, R. 2002. Silent Spring. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
2. Gadgil, M., & Guha, R.1993. This Fissured Land: An Ecological History
of India.
Univ. of California Press.
3. Gleeson,B. and Low, N. (eds.) 1999. Global Ethics and Environment,
London,
Routledge.
4. Gleick, P.H. 1993. Water in Crisis. Pacific Institute for Studies in Dev.,
Environment & Security. Stockholm Env. Institute, Oxford Univ. Press.
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