VISHWAKARMA INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING

SUBJECT- PHYSICS

COURSECODE- BS10234CS

TOPIC- LAWS OF ATOMIC PHYSICS

 GROUP MEMBERS

Sr. No. Name PRN no. Roll no.

1 Janhvi Mishra 22311352 102148

2 Radhika Thale 22310794 102136

3 Pranita Bhor 22311344 102147

Atomic
Physics
Table of contents

A A1. Bohr’s Model

A2. Pauli’s Exclusion
0 principle .

Atomic Physics-
B B1. MO Theory C Quantum Mechanics
B2. Nuclear C1. Wave particle
. .
Physics duality
C2. Heisenberg’s
Uncertainity principle
 A1
Bohr’s Model
.
 BOHR’S MODEL
Introduction to Atomic Physics:

Atomic physics is a branch of physics that studies the

structure, behavior, and interactions of atoms—the
basic units of matter.
What is Bohr’s Model of an Atom?

The Bohr model, proposed by Neil Bohr in 1915, modified Rutherford's

nuclear model of the atom . It introduced fixed electron orbits with specific
energies. Electrons move in these orbits around a positively charged
nucleus. Electrons farther from the nucleus have higher energy levels, while
those closer have lower energy levels.
Postulates of Bohr’s Model of an Atom

o In an atom, electrons (negatively charged) revolve around the positively

charged nucleus in a definite circular path called orbits or shells.
o Each orbit or shell has a fixed energy and these circular orbits are known
as orbital shells.
o The energy levels are represented by an integer (n=1, 2, 3…) known as
the quantum number. This range of quantum number starts from nucleus
side with n=1 having the lowest energy level. The orbits n=1, 2, 3, 4… are
assigned as K, L, M, N…. shells and when an electron attains the lowest
energy level, it is said to be in the ground state.
o The electrons in an atom move from a lower energy level to a higher
energy level by gaining the required energy and an electron moves from a
higher energy level to lower energy level by losing energy.

Limitations of Bohr’s Model of an Atom

Equation of Bohr Model:
o Bohr’s model of an atom failed to explain the Zeeman Effect
l=angular
(effect of magnetic field on the spectra of atoms). momentum
o It also failed to explain the Stark effect (effect of electric field n=principle quantum
on the spectra of atoms). number
o It violates the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. h=plank’s constant
o It could not explain the spectra obtained from larger atoms.
 A2
Pauli’s Exclusion
Principle
.
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
What is Pauli’s Exclusion Principle ?
Proposed by Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli in
1925 ,Pauli's exclusion principle is a fundamental principle in
quantum mechanics that states that no two electrons in an
atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers.

The four quantum numbers that describe the state of an

electron in an atom are:
o Principal Quantum Number (n): Describes the
energy level of the electron.
o Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l):
Describes the shape of the electron's orbital.
o Magnetic Quantum Number (ml​): Describes the
orientation of the orbital in space.
o Spin Quantum Number (ms​): Describes the intrinsic
spin of the electron.
 Principle :
"No two electrons in an atom can have the same set
of four quantum numbers."

• The Pauli exclusion principle specifically applies to the spin

quantum number (ms​), which can have only two possible
values: +1/2​or −1/2. This means that, within a given atom, no
two electrons can have the same set of quantum numbers,
including their spin.

Implications of Pauli’s Exclusion principle :

The exclusion principle has important implications for the filling of

electron orbitals in atoms. For example:

o In a single orbital, electrons must have opposite spins (one with

+1/2​and the other with −1/2).
o In a subshell (a set of orbitals with the same n and l), each
orbital is occupied by at most one electron before any orbital
gets a second electron.
o The Pauli exclusion principle explains why there is a limit to the
number of electrons that can occupy a particular energy level
B-01
Molecular
Orbital
Theory
Introduction:
In simple terms, the molecular orbital theory(MOT) states that each atom
tends to combine together and form molecular orbitals. As a result of such
an arrangement, electrons are found in various atomic orbitals, and they
are usually associated with different nuclei. In short, an electron in a
molecule can be present anywhere in the molecule.

What are Molecular Orbits?

Molecular orbitals are mathematical functions that describe where
electrons are most likely to be found within a molecule. They're
constructed by combining atomic or hybridized orbitals from each atom in
the molecule. These orbitals help us understand how molecules bond
together, providing a model through molecular orbital theory. In simpler
terms, they show us the space where electrons are likely to be found in a
molecule, helping us understand how atoms come together to form
chemical bonds.
 Formation of Molecular
Orbitals:
An atomic orbital is an electron wave; the waves of the two
atomic orbitals may be in phase or out of phase. Suppose ΨA and
ΨB represent the amplitude of the electron wave of the atomic
orbitals of the two atoms A and B.

Case 1: When the two waves are in phase Case 2: When the two waves are out of
so that they add up and the phase, the waves are subtracted from
each other so that the amplitude of the
amplitude of the wave is Φ= ΨA + ΨB
new wave is Φ ´= ΨA – ΨB
B-02
Nuclear
Physics
Introduction:
Nuclear physics is a branch of physics focused on studying the
nucleus of atoms. It deals with understanding what makes up the
nucleus, the forces that hold it together, and the processes that
occur within it. This includes exploring how protons and neutrons
are bound together, as well as the fascinating reactions like fission
(splitting) and fusion (merging) that release enormous amounts of
energy. In essence, nuclear physics takes us deep into the heart of
matter to uncover its secrets.

Nuclear physics uses theories like the liquid drop and shell models
to understand the complex structures of atomic nuclei. But it's not
just about abstract ideas – it has real-world applications. We use
nuclear reactions to generate power in reactors, supplying
electricity for our daily lives. Additionally, nuclear physics plays a
crucial role in medicine by using radioactive isotopes for diagnostic
purposes, helping doctors detect and treat diseases. So, it's not
just about studying particles; it's about making a practical impact
on energy and healthcare.
Applications of Nuclear Physics:
Some important applications of nuclear physics are listed below:

#Nuclear energy is an essential part of society’s energy production.

Nuclear energy is produced using a nuclear reactor.

#Nuclear physics principles have led to great medical diagnostics and

therapy methods. One such example is radiation therapy. In radiation
therapy, ionizing radiation is used to treat conditions such as thyroid
cancer.

#In archaeology, nuclear solutions are used to identify various stable and
radioactive isotopes in archaeological relics. This allows us to uncover the
backgrounds of these artefacts.

#Radioactive elements are used in smoke detectors. Most standard

domestic smoke alarms use a radioactive isotope of the element
americium to recognize smoke.
 C
ATOMIC PHYSICS-
QUANTUM MECHANICS
 Atomic physics-Quantum
Quantum mechanics forms mechanics
the theoretical foundation for understanding the
structure and behavior of atoms and their constituent particles, providing the
tools to explain a wide range of phenomena observed in atomic physics.

Quantum mechanics and atomic physics are closely interconnected fields,

as quantum mechanics provides the theoretical framework for understanding
the behavior of atoms and subatomic particles. Here are some key
applications of quantum mechanics in the realm of atomic physics: Atomic
structure, Wave particle duality, Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle.
 C-1
WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY
 WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY
Wave-particle duality is a fundamental concept in quantum
mechanics that describes the dual nature of particles, such as
electrons and photons. It suggests that these particles exhibit
both wave-like and particle-like properties, depending on the
experimental conditions. This duality challenges classical notions
of particles as distinct, localized entities with precise trajectories.

The De-Broglie’s wavelength equation is generally used to

prove the wave-particle duality. Louis de Broglie proposed
that particles, traditionally considered as particles with
definite positions, also exhibit wave-like behavior. He
associated a wavelength (λ) with a particle, known as the
de Broglie wavelength. The formula is given by:
λ=h/p ​where λ is the de Broglie wavelength, h is the
Planck constant, and p is the momentum of the particle.
 WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY
1. Wave-Like Properties: 2. Particle-Like Properties:
Interference: Particles with wave-like Quantization: Certain properties of particles,
properties can interfere constructively or such as energy levels in an atom, are
destructively when their waves overlap. This quantized. This means that particles can only
interference pattern is characteristic of have specific discrete values of certain
waves and can be observed in experiments properties, similar to the quantization of waves.
like the double-slit experiment.
Localized Impact: In certain experiments,
Diffraction: Waves exhibit diffraction, the particles behave as if they are localized,
bending of waves around obstacles or impacting a detector at specific points. This
through narrow openings. Particles such as behavior is more characteristic of particles with
electrons can also show diffraction patterns, distinct positions.
indicating their wave nature.
 C-2
HEISENBERG’S
UNCERTAINTY
PRINCIPLE
HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle, formulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1927,
is one of the fundamental principles of quantum mechanics. It states that it is
impossible to simultaneously and precisely know both the position and
momentum of a particle (such as an electron) with arbitrary precision.

Mathematically, the principle is often expressed in terms of the uncertainties in

position (Δx) and momentum (Δp) of a particle:

Δx * Δp ≥ ħ / 2,

where Δx is the uncertainty in position, Δp is the uncertainty in momentum,

and ħ (h-bar) is the reduced Planck constant (h/2π).

In simpler terms, the principle implies that the more precisely you know the
position of a particle, the less precisely you can know its momentum, and vice
versa. This does not imply a limitation in measurement techniques but is a
fundamental property of quantum systems. The uncertainty principle has
profound implications for our understanding of the behavior of particles at the
quantum level and is a key concept in quantum mechanics.
"Every atom in our body came from a star that
exploded, It really is the most poetic thing about
physics: We are all stardust, we all are unique and
capable, believe in ourselves!!" - Lawrence M.
Krauss