Introduction to

Computer Networks &

Internet
 Outline
Looping
• What is Computer Network?
• Advantages of Computer Network
• Applications of Computer Network
• Type of Computer Network
• What is Internet?
• The Network Edge & The Network Core
• Transmission Media
• Network Topologies
• Protocol Layers
• Delay, Loss & Throughput
 What is Computer Network?
 Computer Network is a system in which multiple computers are connected to each other to
share information and resources.

Network
Wireless
Devices

Computers

Wired
 Advantages of Computer Network

File Sharing Flexible Access

Better Communication
Entertainment
 Advantages of Computer Network

Internet Access Inexpensive System

Instant and Multiple Access Resource Sharing

 Applications of Computer Network

Email Services Teleconferencing

Business & Finance File & Directory Services

& Many More….

 Types of Computer Network
 Computer networks can be categories by their size as well as their purpose.
 The size of a network can be expressed by the geographic area.
 Some of the different networks based on size are:

Network

Local Area Metropolitan Area Wide Area

Network Network Network
(LAN) (MAN) (WAN)
 Local Area Network
 A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that interconnects computers within a
limited area such as a residence, school, laboratory, university campus or office building.
 Metropolitan Area Network
 A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network that interconnects with computer in a
metropolitan area like city.
 MAN is a larger than LAN but smaller than the area covered by a WAN.
 It is also used to interconnection of several local area network.

Navagam
Morbi

Rajkot

Shapar
 Wide Area Network
 A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that exists over a large-scale
geographical area.
 A WAN connects different networks, including local area networks (LAN) and metropolitan
area networks (MAN).
 It may be located with in a state or a country or it may be interconnected around the world.

Asia

America

Africa
Types of Computer Networks - Summary
 Types of Computer Networks - Summary
Comparison LAN MAN WAN
Full Name Local Area Network Metropolitan Area Network Wide Area Network
Meaning A network that connects a It covers relatively large region It spans large locality &
group of computers in a small such as cities, towns connects countries together.
geographical area e.g. Internet

Ownership of Network Private Private or Public Private or Public (VPN)

Design and Maintenance Easy Difficult Difficult

Propagation Delay Short Moderate Long

Speed High Moderate Low

Equipment Used NIC, Switch, Hub Modem, Router Microwave, Radio Transmitter
& Receiver
Range(Approximately) 1 to 10 km 10 to 100 km Beyond 100 km
Used for College, School, Hospital Small towns, City State, Country, Continent
 What is Internet?
 The internet is a type of world-wide computer network.
 The internet is the collection of infinite numbers of connected computers that are spread
across the world.
Mobile Network

Network Components Global ISP

PC
Home
Network
server wireless Regional ISP
links

wireless Wired link

laptop

smartphone
router

Institutional
Network
 What is Protocol?
 Human Protocol(Language)  Network Protocol
 “what’s the time?”  Set of rules
 “I have a question”  Machines rather than humans.
 Introduction Talk  All communication activity in Internet
governed by protocols.
Protocol is define format,
order of message that sent
and received among
network entities, and
actions taken on message
transmission and reception.
 The Network Edge
 Computers and other devices are connected at the edge (end) of the network.
 These computers are known as hosts or end systems. Router is known as edge router.

mobile network
Global ISP

Home
Network
Regional ISP

Institutional
Network
 Peer to Peer Network
 Computers are connected together so that users can share resources and information.

 There is no central server for authenticating users, each of them works as both client and
server.
 e.g. Bit Torrent
 Client – Server Network
 Client: Request servers for a task.
 Generally called desktop PCs or workstations.
 Server: Receive requests from the clients. Process and response them.
 e.g. Web Server, Email Server
 The Network Core
 Defines the connection of different network segments together and process to transmit data
packets across the network.
 It is implemented through the use of switching techniques.

Switched
Networks

Circuit-Switched Packet-Switched
Networks Networks
 Circuit Switched Network
 A dedicated channel has to be established before the call is made between users.
 The channel is reserved between the users till the connection is active.
 For half duplex(one way) communication, one channel is allocated and for full duplex(two
way) communication, two channels are allocated.
 It is mainly used for voice communication requiring real time services without delay.
 Circuit Switched Network – Cont…
 Communication via circuit switching involves three phases:
1. Circuit Establishment
2. Data Transfer
3. Circuit Disconnect
 Packet Switched Network
 It is not required to establish the connection initially.
 The connection/channel is available to use by users. But when traffic or number of users
increases then it will lead to congestion in the network.
 Packet switched networks are mainly used for data and voice applications requiring non-real
time scenarios.
 Differences
Circuit Switching Packet Switching
 Dedicated path between source and  No dedicated path
destination
 All packets use same path  Packets travel independently
 Reserve the entire bandwidth in advance  Does not reserve bandwidth
 Bandwidth wastage  No bandwidth wastage
 No store and forward transmission  Supports store and forward
transmission
Switching Network
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
 Transmission Media
 A transmission media can be defined as any medium that can carry information from a
source to a destination.

Transmission Media

Guided Media Unguided Media

(Wired) (Wireless)

Twisted-Pair Coaxial Fiber Optic Infrared

Radio Wave Microwave
Cable Cable Cable Wave
 Guided Media
 Guided media are those that provide a wired - channel from one device to another.
 Three Guided media commonly used for data transmission are:

Twisted Pair Cable Coaxial Cable Fiber Optic Cable

 Twisted Pair Cable
 It is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other.
 It is cheap as compared to other transmission media.
 Installation of the cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable.
 The frequency range for cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.
 It consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.

 The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the number of turns per foot.
 Increasing the number of turns per foot decreases noise interference.
 Twisted Pair Cable - Cont.
 Separately insulated
 It is widely used in different kinds of data and voice infrastructure.
 The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic
induction.
 Two types of twisted pair cable:

UTP STP
(Unshielded Twisted Pair) (Shielded Twisted Pair)
 Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable
 An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication.
 Ordinary telephone wires.
 Weak immunity against noise & interferences.
 Following are the categories of UTP:
 Category 1: Used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
 Category 2 & 3 : It can support upto 4Mbps & 16Mbps.
 Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps.
 Therefore, it can be used for long-distance communication.
 Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.
 Advantages:
 It is cheap.
 Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
 It can be used for high-speed LAN.
 Disadvantage:
 This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation
 Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
 A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that allows
the higher transmission rate.
 An installation of STP is easy.
 It has a higher attenuation.

 It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.

 It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.
 It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
 Used in exterior network(outside of building).
 Coaxial Cable
Insulator

Inner
Plastic cover Conductor
Outer conductor
(shield)
 Outer conductor is braided shield.
 Inner conductor is solid metal.
 Separated by insulating material, and whole cover by plastic cover.
 The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh prevents
from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).
 Coaxial Cable – Cont.
 Used in television, long distance telephone transmission.
 It has excellent noise immunity.
 It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
 Coaxial cable is of two types:
1. Baseband transmission:
 It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at high speed.
2. Broadband transmission:
 It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals simultaneously.
 Coaxial Cable – Cont.
 Advantages Of Coaxial cable:
 The data can be transmitted at high speed.
 It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
 It provides higher bandwidth.
 Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:
 It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
 If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.
 Fiber Optic Cable
 A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.

 A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic.

 The difference in density of the two materials must be such that a beam of light moving
through a core is reflected off the cladding instead of being refracted into it.
 Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel.
 Fiber Optic Cable – Cont.
 Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a core.
 Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding.
 Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket.
 Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform substance.
 Fiber Optic Cable – Advantages
 It provide faster data transmission than copper wires.
 It carries the data at a longer distance as compared to copper cable.
 Small size & weight.
 Better Reliability.
 Used in high bandwidth network.
 High data rate & lower attenuation.
 Unguided Media
 An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using any physical
medium.
 Therefore it is also known as wireless transmission.
 In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy can flow
easily.
 This type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication.
1. Radio wave
2. Microwave
3. Infrared Wave
 Radio Wave
 Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are
transmitted in all the directions of free space.
 Radio waves are omnidirectional.
 The signals are propagated in all the directions.
 The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to
1 khz.
 The sending and receiving antenna are not aligned.
 The wave sent by the sending antenna can be received
by any receiving antenna.
 An example of the radio wave is FM radio.
 Radio Wave – Cont.
 Applications:
 A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many receivers.
 An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.
 Advantages:
 Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular phones.
 It covers a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
 Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.
 Microwave
 Microwaves are of two types:

 Use directional antennas - point to point line of sight communications.

 Microwave communication.
 Used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones, satellite networks.
 Higher frequency ranges cannot efficiently penetrate walls.
 Frequency Range: 1GHz – 300GHz.
 Microwave - Characteristics
 Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6 GHz to 21-23
GHz.
 Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
 Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
 Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.
 Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental conditions and
antenna size.
 Microwave – Cont.
 Advantages Of Microwave transmission :
 Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.
 It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation of cables.
 Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the installation of cable in terrain
is quite a difficult task.
 Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.
 Disadvantages of Microwave transmission :
 Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any malicious user can catch the
signal in the air by using its own antenna.
 Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using microwave transmission.
 Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible to weather condition. This
means that any environmental change such as rain, wind can distort the signal.
 Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of microwave transmission.
 Terrestrial Microwave Transmission
 It is a technology that transmits the focused beam of a radio signal from one ground-based
microwave transmission antenna to another.
 Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be aligned.

 Antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna which is km away.
 It works on the line of sight transmission.
 The antennas mounted on the towers are the direct sight of each other.
 Satellite Microwave Communication
 A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.
 Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility than cable and
fibre optic systems.
 We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite communication.
 How Does Satellite work?
 The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it amplifies the signal. The
amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth station.
 Satellite Microwave Communication – Cont.
 Advantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:
 The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial microwave.
 The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from the centre of the coverage area.
 Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication applications.
 It is easy to install.
 It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting, radio/TV signal broadcasting,
mobile communication, etc.
 Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:
 Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
 The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so that it remains in orbit.
 The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another launch of the satellite has to be
planned before it becomes non-functional.
 Infrared wave
 An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication over short ranges.
 The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
 It is used for short-range communication.
 For Example, the data transfer between two cell phones, TV remote operation, data transfer
between a computer and cell phone resides in the same closed area.
 Infrared Wave - Characteristics
 Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls.
 Therefore, the infrared communication in one room cannot be interrupted by the nearby
rooms.
 An infrared communication provides better security with minimum interference.
 Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays will interfere
with the infrared waves.
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
 Network Topologies
 Network topology is the arrangement of the various components (links, nodes, etc.)
of a computer network.
 Types of network topologies :
1. Bus
2. Ring
3. Star
4. Mesh
5. Tree
6. Hybrid
 Bus Topology
 Every computer and network device is connected to single cable.
 It transmits data only in one direction.
 When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the
network.
 All the stations available in the network will receive the message whether it has been
addressed or not.
 Used in small networks.
 Easy to expand joining two cables together.
 It is used in early LAN connection.
 Bus Topology – Advantages
 Low-cost cable:
 In this, nodes are directly connected to the cable without passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial
cost of installation is low.
 Moderate data speeds:
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
 Familiar technology:
 Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and troubleshooting techniques are well known,
and hardware components are easily available.
 Limited failure:
 A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.
 Bus Topology – Disadvantages
 Extensive cabling:
 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of cabling.
 Difficult troubleshooting:
 It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it
would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
 Signal interference:
 If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals of both the nodes collide with each
other.
 Reconfiguration difficult:
 Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
 Attenuation:
 Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues. Repeaters are used to regenerate the signal.
 Ring Topology
 It forms a ring as each computer is connected to another computer, with the last one
connected to the first.
 Transmission is unidirectional & sequential way that is bit by bit.
 The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
 The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
 Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the
nodes having tokens can transmit data.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 Ring Topology – Advantages
 Network Management:
 Faulty devices can be removed from the network without bringing the network down.
 Product availability:
 Many hardware and software tools for network operation and monitoring are available.
 Cost:
 Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the installation cost is very low.
 Reliable:
 It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not dependent on the single host
computer.
 Ring Topology – Disadvantages
 Difficult troubleshooting:
 It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it
would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
 Failure:
 The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
 Reconfiguration difficult:
 Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
 Delay:
 Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding new devices increases the
communication delay.
 Star Topology
 Computers are connected to a single central hub through
a cable.
 Fast performance with few nodes and low network
traffic.
 Easy to troubleshoot & Easy to setup and modify.
 Only that node is affected which has failed rest of the
nodes can work smoothly.
 Hub can be upgraded easily.
 Star Topology - Advantages
 Efficient troubleshooting:
 All the stations are connected to the centralized network. Therefore, the network administrator has to go
to the single station to troubleshoot the problem.
 Network control:
 Complex network control features can be easily implemented in the star topology. Any changes made in
the star topology are automatically accommodated.
 Limited failure:
 As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable, therefore failure in one cable will not
affect the entire network.
 Easily expandable:
 It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open ports on the hub.
 Cost effective:
 Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
 High data speeds:
 It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT is one of the most popular Star topology
networks.
 Star Topology - Disadvantages
 A Central point of failure:
 If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the connected nodes will not be able to communicate
with each other.
 Cable:
 Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount of routing is required.
 Mesh Topology
 Point-to-point connection to other devices or fully connected.
 Traffic is carried only between two connected devices.
 Robust, costly but not flexible.
 Fault is diagnosed easily.
 More cable resource used in setup.
 Mesh Topology - Advantages
 Reliable:
 The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will not affect the communication
between connected computers.
 Fast Communication:
 Communication is very fast between the nodes.
 Easier Reconfiguration:
 Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication between other devices.
 Mesh Topology - Disadvantages
 Cost:
 A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a router and more transmission
media than other topologies.
 Management:
 Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain and manage. If the network is not
monitored carefully, then the communication link failure goes undetected.
 Efficiency:
 In this, redundant connections are high that reduces the efficiency of the network.
 Tree Topology

 It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy.
 Also called hierarchical topology.
 Mostly used in Wide Area Network – WAN.
 Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
 Easily managed and maintained.
 Tree Topology - Advantages
 Support for broadband transmission:
 Tree topology is mainly used to provide broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances
without being attenuated.
 Easily expandable:
 We can add the new device to the existing network. Therefore, we can say that tree topology is easily
expandable.
 Easily manageable:
 In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments known as star networks which can be easily
managed and maintained.
 Error detection:
 Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
 Limited failure:
 The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
 Point-to-point wiring:
 It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
 Tree Topology - Disadvantages
 Difficult troubleshooting:
 If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to troubleshoot the problem.
 High cost:
 Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
 Failure:
 A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus cable will damage the overall
network.
 Reconfiguration difficult:
 If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
 Hybrid Topology

 A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be hybrid
topology.
 It is a combination of two or more topologies.
 Flexible & reliable as error detection and easy to troubleshoot.
 Scalable as size can be increased easily.
 Comparison of Topologies
Bus Ring Star Mesh Tree
Means every computer Each computer All the All the network It has a root
and network is connected to computers are nodes are node and all
device is another, with connected to a connected to other nodes are
connected to the last one single hub each other. connected to it
single cable. connected to through a forming a
the first. cable. hierarchy.

Cost Average Cheap High High High

Used in Small Network Expand Small Network Expand Expand
Network Network Network
Troubleshoot Easy, But Difficult; Failure Easy; Difficult; Easy;
Cables fail then of one If the hub fails Installation and Central root
whole network computer then the whole configuration is hub fails,
fails. disturbs the network is difficult. network fails.
whole network. down.
PROTOCOL LAYERS
 Protocols Layers
 To deals with connecting systems that are open for communication with other systems.
 OSI Layer Model (Open Systems Interconnection)
 Developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO) with seven different layers.
1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
 Example – Air Plane Travel

Departure Arrival

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage (claim)

gates (load) gates (unload)

runway takeoff runway landing

airplane routing airplane routing

airplane routing
How OSI Layer Works?
Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) OSI Reference Model
 Physical Layer

 The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop (node) to the
next.
 Physical Layer
 It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
 It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices.
 It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
 The physical layer contains information in the form of bits.
 The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one
node to another node.
 This layer will get the signal and send it to the Data Link layer.
 Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices
 Functions of a Physical layer
 Line Configuration:
 It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected physically.
 Signals:
 It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.
 Bit synchronization:
 It provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and
receiver thus providing synchronization at bit level.
 Bit rate control:
 It also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
 Physical topologies:
 It specifies the way in which the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh
topology.
 Transmission mode:
 It also defines the way in which the data flows between the two connected devices.
 The various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
 Physical Layer – Cont…
 Carries the bit stream over a physical media.
 Physical Layer is concerned with:
 Interface and Medium like guided cables
 Representation of bits
 Data rate
 Synchronization of bits
 Line configuration
 Physical topology
 Transmission mode
 Data Link Layer

 The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next.
 Data-Link Layer
 This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.
 It provides hop-to-hop delivery.
 It defines the format of the data on the network.
 It provides a reliable and efficient communication.
 It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a local
network.
 When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit it to the Host
using its MAC address
 Packet in Data Link layer is referred to as Frame
 Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device drivers of host
machines
 Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
 Data-Link Layer
 Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
 Logical Link Control Layer
 It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer.
 It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
 It also provides flow control.
 Error detection, using Ethernet trailer field frame check sequence (FCS).
 Media Access Control Layer
 Provides physical addressing
 A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer and the network's physical
layer.
 It is used for transferring the packets over the network.
 The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the
frame size of NIC (Network Interface Card).
 DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
 Functions of the Data-link layer
 Framing:
 Framing is a function of the data link layer.
 The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known as Frames.
 Breaks messages into frames and reassembles frames into messages
 Attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
 The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame.

 Physical Addressing:
 The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains destination and source addresses.
 The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the header.
 Functions of the Data-link layer
 Flow Control:
 It is the main functionality of the Data-link layer.
 It is the technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that no data
get corrupted.
 It keeps a fast transmitter from flooding a slow receiver.
 Error Control:
 Adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer.
 The CRC is added to the message frame before it is sent to the physical layer.
 If any error seems to occur, then the receiver sends the acknowledgment for the retransmission of the
corrupted frames.
 Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and retransmits damaged or
lost frames.
 Access Control:
 When two or more devices are connected to the same communication channel, then
 The data link layer protocols are used to define which device has control over the communication link at
a given time.
 Data Link Layer – Cont…
 Data link layer is concerned with:
 Framing – divide bits stream into data unit (frame)
 Physical addressing
 Flow control – avoid over overwhelming
 Error control – bit loses, retransmission
 Access control
 Network Layer

 The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source host
to the destination host.
 Functions of Network Layer
 Internetworking:
 An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer.
 It provides a logical connection between different devices.
 Addressing:
 In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing
scheme.
 A Network layer adds the source and destination IP addresses to the header of the frame.
 Addressing is used to identify the device uniquely and universally on the internet.
 Routing:
 Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the best optimal path out of the
multiple paths from source to the destination.
 Packetizing:
 A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and converts them into packets.
 This process is known as Packetizing.
 It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).
 Network Layer – Cont…
 In this layer, packet is combined with header and data.
 In case of data link layer, packet delivers on the same network.
 If two different networks are connected then packet is concern with network layer.
 Network layer is concerned with:
 Logical addressing e.g. 192.168.1.1 (IP Address)
 Routing
 Transport Layer

 The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to another.
 Functions of Transport Layer
 At sender’s side:
 Transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers, performs Segmentation,
 Implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper data transmission.
 It also adds Source and Destination port numbers (which is associated with the receiver’s
application) in its header and forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.
 Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually.
 For example, a web server typically uses port number 80 by default.
 At receiver’s side:
 Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the Data that it has received
to the respective application.
 It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.
 Transport Layer – Cont…
 This layer ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order.
 Transport layer is concerned with:
 Service-point addressing (port address)
 Segmentation and Reassembly
 Connection Control
 Flow and Error Control
 Session Layer

 The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.

 Functions of Session layer
 Session establishment, maintenance, and termination:
 The layer allows the processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.
 Dialog control:
 Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between two processes.
 In simple words, it allows the communication between two processes which can be either
half-duplex or full-duplex.
 Synchronization:
 Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a sequence.
 If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the transmission will
take place again from the checkpoint.
 This process is known as synchronization and recovery.
 Data loss is avoided by it.
 Session Layer – Cont…
 This layer is network dialog controller – establishes, maintains, synchronizes the interaction
among computers.
 Session layer is concerned with:
 Dialog control
 Synchronization
 Presentation Layer

 The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and encryption.

 Presentation Layer
 The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer.
 The data from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required
format to transmit over the network.
 This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation
format to another format.
 The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.
 Functions of Presentation layer
 Translation:
 It acts as a data translator for a network, for example, ASCII to EBCDIC
 The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of character strings, numbers
and so on.
 Different computers use different encoding methods, the presentation layer handles the
interoperability between the different encoding methods.
 It converts the data from sender-dependent format into a common format and changes the
common format into receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
 Encryption:
 Encryption is needed to maintain privacy.
 Data encryption translates the data into another form or code.
 The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text.
 A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data
 Compression:
 Data compression reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network
 Data compression is very important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.
 Presentation Layer – Cont…
 This layer is concerned with the syntax which refers to order in which data is presented and
semantics helps in interpreting a particular pattern.
 Presentation layer is responsible for:
 Translation
 Encryption
 Compression
 Application Layer

 The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.

 Application Layer
 Application layer, which is implemented by the network applications is the top most layer of
the OSI OSI Reference Model.
 These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the network.
 This layer also serves as a window for users and the application services to access the
network and for displaying the received information to the user.
 It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
 This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
 Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
 Application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.
 Functions of Application layer
 File transfer, access, and management (FTAM):
 An application layer allows a user to access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the
files from a computer and to manage the files in a remote computer.
 Mail services:
 An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and storage.
 Directory services:
 An application provides the distributed database sources and is used to provide that global
information about various objects.
 Application Layer – Cont…
 This layer provides various services like:
 Network virtual terminal
 File transfer, access and management
 Mail services
 Directory services
 Summary – OSI Layer

To allow access to
Application network resource
To translate, encrypt
and compress data Presentation
To establish, manage
Session and terminate sessions
To provide reliable process-
to-process message
delivery and error recovery Transport
To move packets from
source to destination; To
Network provide internetworking
To organize bits into
frames; To provide hop- Data link
to-hop delivery To transmit bits over a
medium; To provide
Physical
mechanical & electrical
specification
 TCP/IP Reference Model
(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
 It was originally defined as having five layers:
 TCP/IP is a set of protocols developed to allow cooperating computers to share resources
across the network.
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Data Link Layer
5. Physical Network
TCP/IP Model Architecture
Comparison
 Difference - OSI Model and TCP/IP Protocol Layers
OSI TCP/IP
(Open System Interconnection) (Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol)

 It has 7 layers  It has 5 layers

OSI Model
&  OSI provides layer functioning and also  TCP/IP model is more based on protocols
defines functions of all the layers and protocols are not flexible with other
TCP/IP Protocol layers

Layer  Follows horizontal approach  Follows vertical approach

 OSI model has a separate presentation layer  TCP/IP doesn’t have a separate
presentation layer

 OSI model has a problem of fitting the  TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
protocols in the model
 Majors between OSI Model and TCP/IP Protocol Layers
OSI TCP/IP
(Open System Interconnection) (Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol)

 Network layer of OSI model provide both  The Network layer in TCP/IP model provides
OSI Model connection oriented and connectionless
service
connectionless service

&
 OSI provides layer functioning and also  TCP/IP model is more based on protocols
TCP/IP Protocol defines functions of all the layers and protocols are not flexible with other
layers
Layer
 Protocols are hidden in OSI model and are  In TCP/IP, replacing protocol is not easy
easily replaced as the technology changes

 OSI model defines services, interfaces and  In TCP/IP, it is not clearly separated its
protocols very clearly and makes clear services, interfaces and protocols
distinction between them

 In OSI model the transport layer guarantees  In TCP/IP model the transport layer does not
the delivery of packets guarantees delivery of packets
Protocol Layers: Summary
 Delay, Loss & Throughput
 Delay
 As a packet travels from one node (host or router) to the subsequent node (host or router) along
this path, the packet suffers from several types of delays at each node along the path.

Where dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtran + dprop

dnodal = Total Delay

dproc = Processing Delay
dqueue = Queuing Delay
dtran = Transmission Delay
dprop = Propagation Delay
 Delay – Cont…
 Processing Delay (dproc)
 The time required to examine the packets header and determine where to direct the packet.
 To check bit level error
 Determine output link
 Delay in terms of microseconds
 Delay – Cont…
 Queuing Delay (dqueue)
 A time to wait at output link for transmission.
 Depends on congestion level of router.
 If queue is empty, then delay will be zero.
 If queue is full (heavy traffic) then delay will be long.
 Delay in terms of microsecond to millisecond.
 Delay – Cont…
 Transmission Delay (dtran = L/R)
 An amount of time required for the router to transmit the packet.
 It is depending on packet length(L) and transmission rate(R) of link.
 Delay – Cont…
 Propagation Delay (dprop= d/s)
 A time required to propagate from the beginning of the link to router B.
 Depends on the length of physical medium(d) link and propagation speed(s) of link
 Delay in terms of millisecond.
 Sum
 In this problem, we consider sending real-time voice from Host A to Host B over a packet-
switched network (VoIP).
 Host A converts analog voice to a digital 64 kbps bit stream on the fly.
 Host A then groups the bits into 56-byte packets.
 There is one link between Hosts A and B; its transmission rate is 2 Mbps and its propagation
delay is 10 msec.
 As soon as Host A gathers a packet, it sends it to Host B. As soon as Host B receives an entire
packet, it converts the packet’s bits to an analog signal.
 How much time elapses from the time a bit is created (from the original analog signal at Host
A) until the bit is decoded (as part of the analog signal at Host B)?
 Solution
 Since this is a packet switched network, the data will be transmitted packet by packet. A
packet is 56 byte and the analog to digital conversation rate is 64 kbps.
 Thus the preparing time Tp for a packet is (56*8)/(64*1000)= 0.007 s = 7 ms.
 The transition time Dtrans for a packet is (56*8)/(2*1000*1000) =0.000224 s = 0.224ms.
 Tprop = 10ms
 Finally, the total time elapses from the time a bit is create until the bit is decoded is

Tp +Dtrans+Tprop
= 7+0.224+10
= 17.224 ms
 Packet Loss
 Packet loss is the failure of one or more transmitted packets to arrive at their destination.
 The loss of data packets depends on the switch queue/buffer. The loss of data packets
increases with the increases in the traffic intensity.
 It affects the performance
of the network.
 Throughput
 Throughput or Network Throughput is the rate of successful message delivery over a
communication channel.
 Throughput is measured in bits(data) per second (bit/s or bps)

server, with link capacity link capacity Client

file of F bits Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec
send to client
 History of Computer Networks
 1961-1972 : The development of Packet Switching
 1972-1980 : Proprietary Network and Internetworking
 1980-1990 : A Proliferation of Networks
 1990s : The Internet Explosion
 Recent Developments…
 Outline - Revised
 What is Computer Network? Connected each other
 Advantages of Computer Network
 Applications of Computer Network
 Type of Computer Network LAN, MAN, WAN
 What is Internet? Infinite nos. of connected computers across the world
 What is Protocol? Set of Rules
 The Network Edge Host-end system & edge router
 The Network Core Circuit Switched & Packet Switched
 Transmission Media Guided- Wired & Unguided-Wireless
 Network Topologies Bus, Ring, Star, Mesh, Tree, & Hybrid
 Protocol Layers OSI Layer & TCP/IP Layer
 Delay, Loss & Throughput
Thank You