Intrinsic Semiconductor

Objective

Density of States (DoS)

Fermi- Dirac Statistics

ntrinsic Concentration: density of electrons and holes in intrinsic semicond

Fermi Energy level in intrinsic semiconductor

 Carrier Concentration in
Semiconductors
The carrier concentration in an energy band is obtained by
multiplying the density of available states, g(E), and the
probability of occupation, f(E).

n( E )  g ( E ) f ( E ) dE
band

g(E) : The density of states in a band (the number of

states/dE)
f(E) : The probability of filling a state at a given
temperature
 Density of
States

The density of states in a semiconductor equals the density per unit volume and
energy of the number of solutions to Schrödinger's equation.

 Density of state describes the distribution of the energy states over the band

The density of states can be used to calculate the total number of electron in a band. If
g(E) is the DOS, then the total number of electrons in a band, S(E) is given by

❑
𝑆 ( 𝐸)= ∫ 𝑔( 𝐸) 𝑑𝐸 and
𝑔 ( 𝐸)=
𝑑𝑆( 𝐸)
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝐸
 Density of
States
To calculate a 2D density of states

Crystal of size L2 and a 2D Quantum well which means

two quantum numbers n1 and n2

Each state has an energy of

2
h
2 (
𝐸= 𝑛1 +𝑛 2)
2 2

8 𝑚𝑒 𝐿

Each state, or electron wavefunctions in the crystal, can be represented by a box at n1, n2 as shown
in the figure.
We can derive a formula for the number of states in ring of thickness dE
and that is the density of states.
 Density of
States
To calculate a 3D density of states.

Assume parabolic E(k)

A 3D potential well means three quantum
numbers n1, n2 and n3 and now the spatial
dimension L of the well refers to the size of
the entire solid.

Each state has

2 an energy of
h
2 (
𝑛1 +𝑛 2+𝑛 3 )
2 2 2
𝐸= In three dimensions, the volume defined by a sphere of
8 𝑚𝑒 𝐿
radius n' and the positive axes n1, n2, and n3, contains
2 2 all the possible combinations of positive n1, n2, and n3
h 𝑛
𝐸= 2
values that satisfy
8 𝑚𝑒 𝐿 2 2
𝑛1 +𝑛 2+ 𝑛3 ≤ 𝑛
2 2
 Density of
States  Each dot here represent the energy state
n3

n2

n1
 Density of
n3
States
 Each dot here represent the energy state

 To quantify, Let us draw a sphere of radius

n

n  The total number of states within the

sphere is given by its volume .
n2

n1
 Density of
States
n3  Each dot here represent the energy state

 To quantify, Let us draw a sphere of radius n

 The total number of states within the sphere is given by

its volume.
n
n2  Since the quantum numbers can only be positive, we
can only take the first quadrant of the sphere

n1
 Density of
States
 Total number of `orbitals' (energy states), Sorb(n), is given by the volume of the sphere in the first
quadrant

𝑆 ( 𝐸 ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑆 𝑜𝑟𝑏 ( 𝑛)= (
1 4
8 3 )1
𝜋 𝑛3 = 𝜋 𝑛3
6

 Since each orbital can take two electrons of opposite spin ( Pauli’s exclusion), the total number of
energy states (including spin), S(n), is given by

1 3 1 3
𝑆 ( 𝐸)=2 𝑆( 𝐸)❑ =2 × 𝜋 𝑛 = 𝜋 𝑛
6 3
 Density of
1
States
3
𝑆 ( 𝐸 )= 𝜋 𝑛
3

 Now, we can relate the quantum number (n) to the energy (E) i.e. to write the total number of
states in terms of energy, S(E)

( )
2 3/2 3 3/2
1 8 𝑚𝑒 𝐸𝐿 𝜋 𝐿 ( 8 𝑚𝑒 𝐸 )
𝑆 (𝐸)= 𝜋 2
= 3
3 h 3h
 Density of
States
Total number of states, S(E)

( )
2 3/2 3/2
1 8 𝑚𝑒 𝐸𝐿 𝜋 𝐿3 ( 8 𝑚𝑒 𝐸 )
𝑆 (𝐸)= 𝜋 2
= 3
3 h 3h

Since L3 is the physical volume of the solid, the number of states per unit volume

3/ 2
𝜋 ( 8 𝑚𝑒 𝐸 )
𝑆 ( 𝐸 )= 3
3h
 Density of
States 3/ 2
𝜋 ( 8 𝑚𝑒 𝐸 )
𝑆 ( 𝐸 )= 3
3h
The density of states is the differential of the total number of states, so that
g(E) is given by 3 /2
𝑑𝑆( 𝐸 ) 3 𝜋 ( 8𝑚 𝑒 )
1
2
𝑔 ( 𝐸 )= = 𝐸
𝑑𝐸 2 3h
3

3 𝜋 ×8 × 2 √ 2 ( 𝑚 𝑒 )
3 /2 1
2
𝑔 ( 𝐸 )= 𝐸
2 3 h3

3 𝜋 ×8 × 2 √ 2 ( 𝑚 𝑒 )
( )
3 /2 1 3 1
𝑚𝑒
𝑔 ( 𝐸 )= 𝐸 =8 𝜋 √2
2 2
𝐸 2
2 3 h3 h2
 Density of
g(E) = Density of states: g(E)States
dE is the number of states (i.e., wavefunctions) in
the energy interval E to (E + dE) per unit volume of the sample.

3/ 2

g ( E )  8 2 1/ 2

 me 
 2 E1 / 2
h 

We have to know how the electrons will occupy the

energy levels
 Fermi-Dirac
Statistics
The Fermi-Dirac function

1
f (E) 
 E  EF 
1  exp 
 kT 
where EF is a constant called the Fermi energy.
f(E) = the probability of finding an electron in a state with energy E is given
 Fermi-Dirac
Statistics
The fermi-Dirac f(E) describes the statistics of
electrons in a solid. The electrons interact with
each other and the environment, obeying the
Pauli exclusion principle.

Above absolute zero, at E = EF, f(EF) = 1/2. We

define the Fermi energy as that energy for which
the probability of occupancy f(EF) equals 1/2
 Electron Concentration in
Conduction Band
The carrier concentration in an
energy band
n( E )  g ( E ) f ( E ) dE
band

In Intrinsic semiconductor,
we have to find the electron concentration in the conduction band and then
the hole concentration in the valence band....
Electron concentration in Conduction
Band
Integrating has to be performed from the bottom (Ec) to the top of the CB
gives the electron concentration

n  g CB ( E ) f ( E )dE
Ec
 Electron Concentration in
Conduction Band

n  g CB ( E ) f ( E )dE
Ec

For electrons in CB, E > EC  (Ec − EF) ≫ kT i.e., EF is at least a few

kT below Ec
1  E  EF 
f (E)  exp   Fermi-Dirac function  Boltzmann
 E  EF   kT  function
1  exp 
 kT 
 Electron Concentration in
Conduction
 Band
n Ec g CB ( E ) f ( E )dE
Density of states in the conduction band
3/ 2

 
*
 me 
g ( E )  8 2  2  E1 / 2
 h 
 

Since the density of states function is with respect to the bottom of the CB E is replaced by (E -Ec)
* 3/ 2
 me 

gCB ( E )  8 2  2
 h
 

E  EC 
1/ 2

 
 Electron Concentration in
Conduction Band


n  g CB ( E ) f ( E )dE
Ec

3/ 2
 m*e   E  EF 
 
gCB ( E )  8 2  2
 h


E  EC 
1/ 2
f ( E ) exp  
   kT 
 Electron Concentration in
Conduction Band

n  g CB ( E ) f ( E )dE
Ec

3/ 2
*
 me   E  EF 
 
gCB ( E )  8 2  2
 h


E  EC 
1/ 2
f ( E ) exp  
   kT 

*3 / 2 
 8 2m e 12  ( E  EF ) 
n 3  ( E  EC ) exp    dE
h E
c  kT 
 Electron Concentration in
Conduction Band
 8 2me*3 / 2 
12  ( E  EF ) 
n 3  ( E  EC ) exp    dE
h E
c  kT 

To solve this , let us assume E  Ec E  Ec  xkT

x So, E Ec  xkT
kT
dE kTdx

Limits
8 2me*3 / 2  12  ( EC  xkT  EF ) 
n 3  ( xkT ) exp    kTdx E  Ec  xkT
h 0  kT  E Ec  x 0
E   x 
 Electron Concentration in
Conduction Band
 8 2me*3 / 2  12  ( EC  xkT  E F ) 
n 3 ( xkT ) exp    kTdx
h 0  kT 

 8 2me*3 / 2  ( EC  E F )   12 x
n kT exp     ( xkT ) e dx
h3  kT 0

 8 2me*3 / 2 3  ( E  E )  
n kT  2 exp   C F

12 x
 e dx
x
h3  kT 0
 Electron Concentration in
*3 / 2
Conduction Band
 8 2me  3  ( EC  E F )  1 2  x
n 3
kT  2 exp    x e dx
h  kT 0


12 x 
The integral is a gamma function, x e dx (3 / 2) 
0 2

 8 2me*3 / 2 3  ( EC  E F )  
n 3
kT  2 exp    2
h  kT
3
 me*kT  2
 ( EC  E F ) 
n 4 2  2
 exp   
 h   kT
3
 2 me*kT  2
 ( E  EF ) 
n 2 2
 exp   C 
 h   kT
 Electron Concentration in
Conduction Band
 (E  E ) 
n  N c exp   c F

 k BT 
n = Electron concentration in the CB
Nc = Effective density of states at the CB edge
Ec = Conduction band edge, EF = Fermi energy
kB = Boltzmann constant, T = Temperature (K)
Effective Density of States at CB Edge
3/ 2
 2m k T 
*
N c 2 e B
2

 h 
Nc = Effective density of states at the CB edge, me* = Effective mass of the
electron in the CB, k = Boltzmann constant, T = Temperature, h = Planck’s
 Hole Concentration in Valence Band

One can in a similar fashion one can calculate the number density of holes, p,
by evaluating the expression
Ev
p  p ( E )dE Ev
0 g VB ( E )1  f ( E )dE
Ebot

For holes in VB, E< EF  (E − EF) << kT (E − EF)/ kT <<1

 E  EF   E  EF 
exp  1  exp  1
1  kT   kT 
1  f ( E ) 1  
 E  EF   E  EF   E  EF 
1  exp  1  exp  exp 
 kT   kT   kT  exp E  E F 
1  f (E)   
 E  E F   kT 
1  exp 
 kT 
 Hole Concentration in
Valence Band

p Ev
0 g VB ( E )1  f ( E )dE

 m*h 
3/ 2
 E  EF 
 
gCB ( E )  8 2  2  EV  E
1/ 2 1  f ( E ) exp 
 h   kT 
 

Derivation of hole concentration is similar to the electron concentration, so

the rest of the derivation is left to you
 Hole Concentration in
Valence Band
 ( E F  Ev ) 
p  N v exp   
 k BT 
p = Hole concentration in the VB
Nv = Effective density of states at the VB
edge
Ev = Valence band edge, EF = Fermi
energy Effective Density of States at VB
kB = Boltzmann constant, , T = Edge
Temperature (K) 3/ 2
 2m k T  *
N v 2 h B
2
 h 
Nv = Effective density of states at the VB edge, mh* = Effective mass of a hole in
the VB, k = Boltzmann constant, T = Temperature, h = Planck’s constant
 Carrier Concentration in Intrinsic
Semiconductor
It is interesting to consider the product np (according to mass
action law) (i.e. concentration is directly proportional to the
product of the reactants @thermal equlibrium

 ( EC  E F )   ( E F  Ev ) 
np  N C exp    NV exp   
 kT   kT
 ( EC  Ev ) 
np  N C NV exp   
 kT
 Eg 
 np  N C NV exp   
 kT 
 Mass Action Law
In intrinsic semiconductor, n = p =ni

2  E g 
Mass Action Law np n  N N exp  
i c v  k T
 B 
ni = intrinsic concentration

The np product is a “constant”, ni2, that depends on the material properties

Nc, Nv, Eg, and the temperature. If somehow n is increased (e.g. by doping), p
must decrease to keep np constant.

Mass action law applies in thermal equilibrium and in the dark (no illumination)
 Carrier Concentration in Intrinsic
Semiconductor
From the product np,

 Eg 
np n  N c N v exp 
2
i

 k BT 
Intrinsic concentration

 E 
 
1
g
ni  N c N v 2
exp  
 2 k BT 
(a) Energy band diagram.
(b) Density of states (number of states per unit energy per unit volume).
(c) Fermi-Dirac probability function (probability of occupancy of a state).
(d) The product of g(E) and f (E) is the energy density of electrons in the CB
(number of electrons per unit energy per unit volume). The area under
nE(E) versus E is the electron concentration.
 Fermi Energy in Intrinsic Semiconductors

Setting p = ni

 ( E Fi  Ev )   Eg 
 
1
N v exp     Nc Nv 2
exp  
 k BT   2 k BT 
1
 ( E Fi  Ev )   Eg   Nc  2
exp    exp   
 k BT   2 k BT   Nv 
1
 ( E Fi  Ev ) Eg   N c  2
exp      
 k BT 2 k BT   N v 
 Fermi Energy in Intrinsic Semiconductors
Taking log on both sides
1
(  E Fi  Ev ) Eg  Nc  2
 ln  
k BT 2 k BT  Nv 
Eg 1  Nc 
 E Fi  Ev   k BT ln  
2 2  Nv 
Eg 1  Nc 
E Fi  Ev   k BT ln  
2 2  Nv 
 Fermi Energy in Intrinsic Semiconductors

1 1  Nc 
E Fi  Ev  E g  k BT ln  
2 2  Nv 
EFi = Fermi energy in the intrinsic semiconductor
Ev = Valence band edge, Eg = Ec - Ev = Bandgap energy
kB = Boltzmann constant, T = temperature
Nc = Effective density of states at the CB edge
Nv = Effective density of states at the VB edge
substituting the proper expressions for Nc and Nv

1 3  me 
*
E Fi  Ev  E g  k BT ln  * 
2 4  mh 
me* = Electron effective mass (CB), mh* = Hole effective mass (VB)
 Average Electron Energy in CB
Average is found from

 Eg ( E ) f ( E )dE 3
E CB  E c  k BT
CB
Ec
ECB  
g
Ec
CB ( E ) f ( E )dE
2
E CB = Average energy of electrons in the CB, Ec = Conduction band edge, kB = Boltzmann
constant, T = Temperature
(3/2)kBT is also the average kinetic energy per atom in a monatomic gas (kinetic molecular
theory) in which the gas atoms move around freely and randomly inside a container.

The electron in the CB behaves as if it were “free” with a mean kinetic energy that is
(3/2)kBT and an effective mass me*.
 Electron and Hole Drift Velocities

vde = eEx vdh = hEx

vde = Drift velocity of the electrons, e = Electron drift mobility, Ex = Applied

electric field, vdh = Drift velocity of the holes, h = Hole drift mobility

Conductivity of a Semiconductor

 = ene + eph

 = Conductivity, e = Electronic charge, n = Electron concentration in the CB, e = Electron drift mobility, p =
Hole concentration in the VB, h = Hole drift mobility
 Fermi Energy
Fermi energy is a convenient way to represent free carrier concentrations (n in the
CB and p in the VB) on the energy band diagram.

However, the most useful property of EF is in terms of a change in EF.

Any change DEF across a material system represents electrical work input or output
per electron.

DEF = eV
For a semiconductor system in equilibrium, in the dark, and with no applied
voltage or no emf generated, DEF = 0 and EF must be uniform across the system.