I-Introduction

( Introduction: Understanding Scientific Research)

College of Business and Economics

Bahir Dar University ,2007E.C
 OUTLINE
 Concept of Scientific Research
 Source of Knowledge(Methods of Knowing)
 Definition of Scientific Research
 Goals Scientific of Research
 Alternative Knowledge Claims
 Classification of Research
 Research Process
 1.1. Concept of Scientific Research
 For any undertakings to be Scientific Research,
it should:

 i) Contribute to a body of science and/or apply

scientific knowledge to solve practical problems

 ii) Follow scientific method =>Scientific methods of

knowing

??? What is scientific method of knowing???

??? What are Other methods of knowing???
 1.1.1. Sources of knowledge(Method of
Knowing)
 The major approaches of knowing the world:

 I) The Method of Tenacity- refers to the acceptance of a

belief based on the idea that “we have always known it to
be this way”.

 Truth is true because one believe in it

Þ Acceptance of beliefs and customs, in which we have been
socialized, as true and then behave with it and
Þ Stood still in front of contradicting evidences.

 Problems of Method Tenacity => It offers no means for

correcting erroneous ideas.
 …cont’d
 II) Credential-Based Knowing: The Method of Authority-
This method of knowing is the acceptance of new idea or information
stated by the authority figure(someone who is supposed to have the
knowledge-experts of the phenomena)

 With the method of authority, we defer to experts when looking for

accurate assertions about the world.
 Truth is true because an authority says so
 In trusting experts, we are deferring to their credentials and training. We
accept as accurate and true that which experts tell us.
 Problems of Method of Authority- the authority based knowing can
be incorrect => Hence, it is important to examine the basis of the
authority’s claims.
 Frequently our trust in experts is misplaced. Credentials don't always give experts the
corner on truth.
 Note too that authorities, however credentialed they are, can sometimes intentionally
mislead us. Experts can distort information when it is in their vested interest to do so.
 …cont’d
 III) The Method of Intuition – This method of knowing can
be thought as “the direct access” of knowledge

 It refers to the way of knowing that operate on “the gut feelings”,

without the use of intellect.

Þ Problems of Intuition- Intuition, because it operates

outside the realm of intellect and reason, is often hard
to understand
 …cont’d
 IV) The Method of Common Sense-This method of knowing
appeals to direct experience.
Þ This view is also called empiricism (i.e., knowledge comes our day-to-day
practical experiences ).

Þ It is based on our own past experiences and our perceptions of the world.

 Problems of Common sense:

 i)Our experiences and perceptions of the world may be quite limited;

Because personal experience is tied to the individual and unique circumstances, it is not the
best basis for generalized knowledge.
 ii)it may also prevent us from understanding new ideas.
 …cont’d
 V) The Method of Science: Science is a systematic and
organized body of knowledge in any area of inquiry that is
acquired through the scientific method.

 Scientific method relies on a mixture of empiricism (i.e., the

collection of data) and rationalism (i.e., the use of reasoning and,
theory construction and testing).

 The scientific method of knowing is the scientific

research
 1.1.2 Definition of Scientific
Research
 Scientific Research is defined as the systematic , controlled,
empirical, and critical investigation of natural or social
phenomena(using commonly accepted methodology) that either:
 Is guided by theory and hypotheses about the presumed(true)

relations among such phenomena(Deductive Reasoning) , or

 Results in theory and propositions about the possible(true)
relations among such phenomena(Inductive Reasoning)

Systematic-- so ordered, planned and disciplined;

Controlled-the researcher can have confidence in his/her research outcomes;

Empirical-putting beliefs, ideas, or assumptions to a test

Critical-many truths are tentative and are subject to change as a result of subsequent
research.
 …cont’d
 Given the definition of scientific method of knowing (scientific
research) , its main characteristics include:

 In scientific method, we arrive at scientific knowledge (Laws + Theories)

through a process of logic (theory) and evidence (observation).


Theories provide meaning and significance to what we observe, and
observations help to validate or refine existing theory or construct new
theory.

 It is characterized by carefully designed procedures; and hence,


Strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to
validate the procedures employed, the data collected, and the
conclusion reached

 As theories and observations are the two pillars of science, scientific

research also operates at two levels: a theoretical level and an empirical
level.
 …cont’d
 The confirmatory or deductive method- is a top-down or
theory/hypothesis testing approach to research.
 It is used by most quantitative researchers involving the f/g three
steps:


1)State the hypothesis (based on theory or research
literature) .


2)Collect data to test the hypothesis.


3) Make a decision to tentatively accept or reject the
hypothesis.
 …cont’d
 The exploratory or inductive method- is a bottom-up or theory
generation approach to research.

 It is used by many qualitative researchers involving the f/g

three steps:

 1) Observed the world

 2)Search for a pattern in what is observed
 3)Make a generalization or conclusion about what is occurring

 Virtually any application of science includes the use of both the

deductive & inductive approaches to the scientific method
either in a single study or over time, as in Figure 1.1.
 Figure 1.1. Research Wheel

Theory Confirmatory/
Deductive

Patterns,
Hypothesis,
Description
Predictions
s

Observatio
n, Data
Exploratory/
Inductive
 1.2.Goals of Scientific of Research
 The broad goal of scientific research is problem solving that
could be:

 Theoretical in nature- The primary goal of research is to

acquire and expand the frontiers of knowledge.
 Seek Reality or Truth(Knowledge)

Science is the pursuit of truth, of explanation , prediction and
control of a phenomena

Truth obtained from the scientific method contains both logic and
evidence that are consistent with each other

Science is systematically acquired knowledge that is verifiable

Autonomy of inquiry- Pursuit of science is not accountable to any
one but the scientific community

 Practical in nature- Researchers attempt to reduce the

complexity of problems, and improve the way we live.
 1.3Alternative Knowledge claims/ Paradigms
 Knowledge claims/paradigms/ are assumptions researchers make on how they will
learn and what they will learn during their inquiry.
 Paradigm determines how you view the world

 Practices that make up a paradigm

 Ontology: what we think is knowable or exists – the fundamental nature of reality
 Epistemology: The theory of knowledge; how we think we know about things
 Methodology: Procedures for making knowledge valid and authoritative; How do we gain
knowledge about the world? Theory of method

 Four school of thought

 Positivist(Post positivist)
 Constructivism
 Advocacy/participatory
 Pragmatist
 Positivist(Post Positivism)
Aim of Reflects a deterministic philosophy in which causes probably
research determines outcome
ÞTo Find generalities and regularities; To Find causal laws of human
behaviour
Ontology: External, objective and independent of social actors
Reality =>Truth is out there, knowledge develops in a cumulative process of
discovering such truth.
=>Reality exists that is independent of human thoughts and beliefs
Epistemology: Only observable phenomena can provide credible data, facts
Knowledge, (Empirical). Focus on causality and law like generalisations
reality & truth Reducing phenomena to simplest elements (Reductionism)
Researcher is objective analyst, collect data in a value-free way,
ÞThe researcher is detached, neutral observer
Mostly deductive reasoning
ÞAn individual begins with a theory, collects data that either support or
refutes the theory and makes necessary revisions before additional tests
are conducted
Methodology: Quantitative (abstract ideas linked to precise measurement)
ÞSurveys; Experimental
ÞHypothesis testing
ÞDescriptive and analytical (usually descriptive and inferential statistics)
ÞShould be replicable
 Constructivism/Interpretivism
Aim of Hold that individuals seek understanding of the world in which they live and
research work.
 They develop subjective meanings of their experiences
 These meanings are varied and multiple, leading the researcher to look for
complexity of views rather than narrowing meanings into few ideas.
ÞMove away from abstract explanation to everyday lived experience
ÞUnderstanding of social life; How people construct meaning; Experiences of daily
life
Ontology: Multiple subjective realities which are constructed and interpreted.
Reality ÞConstructed through human interactions.
Epistemology: Events understood through interpretation, influenced by interactions with social
Knowledge, context.
reality & ÞOften the subjective meanings are negotiated socially and historically. In other words,
truth they are formed through interaction with others (hence social constructivism)
Empathic observer
ÞResearchers recognize that their own background shapes their interpretation
Analysing details of meaning and seeking connections
Inductive reasoning
ÞRather than starting with a theory (as a positivist) inquirers generate or inductively
develop a theory
Methodology: Mostly qualitative;
ÞThe process of qualitative research is inductive in nature.
Interactional: interviews; focus group discussions; ethnography
Text based: archives; media etc. Phenomenological analysis.
 Advocacy/Participatory(or Emancipatory)
Aim of Holds that research inquiry need to be intertwined with politics and
research political agenda.
ÞResearch should contain an action agenda for reform that aim for social
justice and emancipation
 Specific issues to be addressed include empowerment, inequality, oppression,
domination, suppression, alienation.
ÞGoing beyond surface illusions to uncover structures in the material world
that disempower people.
ÞAim is not simply to understand but to change the social world

Ontology: Reality shaped by historical, social, political, economic values, persons in

Reality society, power
Epistemology: Understand events in social and economic context.
Knowledge, Emphasis on ideological critique and praxis.
reality & Findings are value mediated & socially constructed=> Value Laden
truth Deductive, inductive and abductive reasoning (repeated reevaluations of
ideas and data based on applying alternative rules or schemes)
Methodology: The research assume that the inquirer will proceed collaboratively so as to
not further marginalize the participants.
 Participants may help design questions, collect data, analyze information,
receive rewards for participating in the change.
ÞArgumentative and controversial
ÞDiscourse analysis;Critical action research
ÞFeminism
 Pragmatism
Aim of It arises out of actions, situations and consequences rather than
research antecedent conditions (as a positivist)
ÞThere is a concern with applications—what works—and solutions to
problems (Patton, 1990).
Ontology: Pragmatists are not committed to any one system of philosophy or
Reality reality
ÞExternal, multiple, view chosen to best enable answering of research
question
Epistemology: Either or both observable phenomena and subjective meanings can
Knowledge, provide acceptable knowledge dependent upon the research question.
reality & truth Focus on practical applied research, integrating different perspectives
to help interpret the data
Values play a large role in interpreting results, the researcher adopting
both objective and subjective points of view
Methodology: Instead of methods being important, the problem is the most important
and researchers use all approaches to understand the problem
ÞApply mixed or multiple method designs, quantitative and qualitative
Four knowledge claims/Paradigms/
 1.4. Classification of
Research
 Commonly, Research can be classified based on:

 Goals of Research

 Specific Objectives of Research

 Approaches of Research
 …cont’d
 I) Classification Research Based on Goals of
Research

 The goal of research is problem solving that could be-

theoretical or practical

Þ These two types of problems that the research tries to solve

leads to two broad classifications of research:

 Basic research, and

 Applied research.
 …cont’d
 Basic/Fundamental/Pure Research- aim is to develop a body of knowledge for
the understanding of a phenomenon by means of a combination of empirical enquiry
and application of theory.

 Specifically, its aims to:

 Obtain and use empirical data to formulate, expand, or evaluate theory; and
 Discovery of knowledge solely for the sake of knowledge.

 The driving force in basic research is

 A researcher’s interest in a scientific question

=> to expand human knowledge, not for its practical significance.

 Undertaken by academics and its consumers are the academic community

 …cont’d
 In general, basic research:•

 Represents a rigorous and structured type of analysis;

 Employs careful sampling procedures in order to extend the findings

beyond the group or situation; and

 Has little concern for the application or social usefulness of the findings
.
 …cont’d
 Applied Research- aim is to solve practical problems of
the world, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's
sake.

Þ Specifically, applied research aims to:

 Improve understanding of particular practical problem

 Results in solution to problem
 New Knowledge limited to problem

 Its objectives negotiated with originator/sponsor

 Conducted by practitioner and/or applied researchers

employed by sponsors.
 …cont’d
 In general, Applied research:

 Is conducted in relation to actual problems and under the conditions

in which they are found in practice;

 Employs methodology that is not as rigorous as that of basic

research;

 Yields findings that can be evaluated in terms of local applicability

and not in terms of universal validity
 …cont’d
 II) Classification Research Based on Specific
Objective of Research

 Based on the specific objectives, research can be classified

as:

 Exploratory

 Descriptive, or

 Explanatory research.
 …cont’d
 Exploratory Research- is often conducted in new areas of
inquiry, where the objectives of the research are:

 (1) to scope out the magnitude or extent of a particular phenomenon,

problem, or behavior,

 (2) to generate some initial ideas about that phenomenon, or

 (3) to test the feasibility of undertaking a more extensive study

regarding that phenomenon.

 It involves a variety of research methods to achieve its objectives:

• Informal/formal in depth interview
• focus group discussion
• Case studies
 …cont’d
 Descriptive Research- is directed at making careful
observations and detailed documentation of a phenomenon of
interest.

 The objective is to describe some aspect of a phenomenon,

i.e., the status of a given phenomenon.

 It can help understand a topic and lead to causal analysis.

 It involves a variety of research methods to achieve its

objectives:
 • Surveys
 • Correlation studies
 • Observation studies
 • Case studies
 …cont’d
 Explanatory Research - seeks explanations of observed
phenomena, problems, or behaviors.

 Seeks answers to why and how types of questions

 Attempts to connect the dots in research, by identifying causal factors
and outcomes of the target phenomenon

 Explanatory research involves:

 Explaining things not just reporting. Why? Elaborating and enriching a

theory's explanation.
 Determining which of several explanations is best.
 Determining the accuracy of the theory; test a theory's predictions .
 Providing evidence to support or refute an explanation or prediction.
 …cont’d
 III)Classification of Research based on Approach
Employed

 Based on the approaches to be employed in conducting

research, research can be classified as


Qualitative research

 Quantitative research and

 Mixed Research
Features Qualitative Research
Objectives Interest is to look for meaning . The socially
constructed nature of reality.
Sample Entails purposive sampling for gathering
data. Usually, a small # of non representative
cases. Respondents selected to fulfill a given
quota. Information maximization guides the
selection of respondent
Data In the form of words, picture or objects
Data collection Unstructured or semi structured techniques
Methods e.g. In-depth interviews, group discussions, and
observations
Method of Data No statistical tests are used. It is formulated
analysis during or parallel to data collection .
Mode of inquiry Primarily inductive process used to formulate
theory
Outcome Exploratory and/or investigative. Findings are
not conclusive and not generalizable to the
population of interest
Researcher Role Personal involvement & partiality. Emphatic
Features Quantitative Research
Objectives To quantify data and generalize results from a
sample to population of interest
Sample Entails random sampling for gathering data.
Usually, a large # of cases representing the
population of interest Respondents selected
randomly
Data In the form of numbers and statistics
Data collection Structured techniques e.g. survey questioner
Methods and experiments
Method of Data Statistical methods are frequently used . It is
analysis formulated after data collection . It may take the
forms of cross tabulations, correlation analysis and
tests of significance on numerical data
Mode of inquiry Primarily deductive process used to test the pre
specified concepts, constructs and hypotheses that
make up a theory
Outcome Findings are conclusive and more generalizable
to the population of interest
Researcher Role Detachment & Impartiality. Objective portrayal.
Features Mixed Research
What??? & It is the type of research in which a researcher combines
Why?? elements of qualitative and quantitative research
approaches for purposes of :

- breadth and depth of understanding and corroboration.

- to expand an understanding from one method to
another, to converge or confirm findings from different
data sources
Core
Characteristics -Collects and analyzes persuasively and rigorously both
qualitative and quantitative data (based on research question)

-Mixes (or integrates) the two forms of data concurrently by

combining them (or merging them), or sequentially by having
one build on the other,

-Gives priority to one or to both forms of data (in terms of what

the research emphasizes)

Sample Data, - Use of both qualitative and quantitative viewpoints on data

Method of type, sampling, data collection, analysis, inference techniques
Data analysis
Features ……..Contd……Mixed Research
Mode of Sequential mixed-methods research in the form of:
inquiries
-Sequential Exploratory- qualitative data collection and
analysis is undertaken first, and then, quantitative data
collection and analysis

-Sequential Explanatory-quantitative data collection and

analysis is undertaken first, and then qualitative data collection
and analysis

 Concurrent Strategies of Mixed method, in the form of:

-Concurrent Triangulation- involve data collection using

both quantitative and qualitative approaches simultaneously,
with the possible equal priority, for triangulation.

- Concurrent Nested or Embedded- Unlike the concurrent

triangulation model, a nested approach has a predominant method
that guides the research

-Given less priority, the method (quantitative or qualitative) is

embedded, or nested, within the predominant method
(qualitative or quantitative).

-This nesting may mean that the embedded method addresses

a different question than the dominant method or seeks
 1.5. Research Process
 Research process- represents a series of activities to be
performed in research, categorized into three phases ,as in
Figure 1.2:

 Exploration,

 Research design, and

 Research execution.
 Research Literature
EXPLORATION Theory
Question Review

Operationaliz Research
RESEARCH DESIGN Sampling
ation Method

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Pilot Testing

RESEARCH EXECECUTION Data Collection

Data Analysis

RESEARCH REPORT
 …cont’d
 Exploration – It is the first phase of research is exploration.
This phase includes:

 exploring and selecting research questions for the study,

 examining the published literature on the area of interest to

understand the current state of knowledge in that area, and

 identifying theories that may help answer the research questions of

interest..
 …cont’d
 Research Design- The next major in the research
process is research design.

 This is a blueprint for fulfilling the research objectives and

answering the research questions.

 This phase includes:

 Selecting a research method,

 Operationalizing constructs of interest, and
 Devising an appropriate sampling strategy.
 …cont’d
 Research Proposal- At this stage, it is often a good idea
to write a research proposal detailing all of the decisions
made in the preceding stages of the research process and the
rationale behind each decision

 This multi-part proposal should address:

 What research questions you wish to study and why, the prior
state of knowledge in this area, theories you wish to employ
along with hypotheses to be tested,

 How to measure constructs, what research method to be

employed and why, and desired sampling strategy
 …cont’d
 Research Execution-Having decided who to study (subjects),
what to measure (concepts), and how to collect data (research
method), the researcher is now ready to proceed to the
research execution phase.

 This includes-

 Pilot testing the measurement instruments,

 Data collection, and
 Data analysis
 …cont’d
 Research Report- The final stage of research involves
preparing the final research report documenting the entire
research process in the form of a research paper, dissertation,
or monograph.

 This report should outline in complete detail

 All the choices made during the research process (e.g., theory used,
constructs selected, measures used, research methods, sampling, etc.)
and why, as well as

 The outcome of each phase of the research process

…cont’d
End !