DIGITAL SWITCHING SYSTEMS

Subject code: 15EC654

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 1

 MODULE 1
Developments of
telecommunications

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The importance of switching in communication
• The cost of switching is high

Definition:
• Transfer input sample points to the correct output ports at the correct time

Terminology
• Switching
• Digital switching (sample points amplitudes are 0's and 1's)
• PABX
• Circuit
• Circuit switching
• Packet switching

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Space division

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Voice digitization:
• W=3KHz, sampling at 2*3=6 or 8KHz
• 256 levels for quantization (8 bits)
• Bit rate=64Kb/s

Telephone switching
• Time division multiplexing: time slot (0.1 ms), field, frame;
• 125ms/0.8=150 channels + time for synchronization and control

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Switch architecture
• Sampling input signals, storing values in memory, placing values in the proper field
and frame of the output sequence
• Need for more channels: hierarchical switching
• Combining time and space switching

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General framework for switching
• time, space and frequency (broadband signals) switching
• synchronization (single clock) and buffering (memory)
• set-up time and delay (propagation time)
• "call duration" assignment vs. dynamic assignment
• in-band and out-of-band signaling

Circuit (synchronous) vs. packet (asynchronous) switching

• control and routing overhead, virtual packet switching

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Switching techniques and networking
• Switching is the technology allowing to get a message between the nodes of a
network
• Crossbar switching: mechanical (in the past) or electronic.
• Bus and cable switches: computer buses or cables (switching + transportation =
network)
• Token passing approach (similar to the locks used by multiprocessors connected
by a bus)
• Ethernet approach: cable or ring, packets, conflicts, resending
• Synchronization and Hub switch: star networks (no conflicts)

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Ethernet Cabling

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 Ethernet Cabling

Cable topologies. (a) Linear, (b) Spine, (c) Tree, (d)

Segmented.
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 Switched Ethernet

A simple example of switched Ethernet.

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 Switching Techniques
In large networks there might be multiple paths linking sender and receiver.
Information may be switched as it travels through various communication channels.
There are three typical switching techniques available for digital traffic.

• Circuit Switching
• Message Switching
• Packet Switching

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 Circuit Switching
• Circuit switching is a technique that directly connects the
sender and the receiver in an unbroken path.
• Telephone switching equipment, for example, establishes a
path that connects the caller's telephone to the receiver's
telephone by making a physical connection.
• With this type of switching technique, once a connection is
established, a dedicated path exists between both ends
until the connection is terminated.
• Routing decisions must be made when the circuit is first
established, but there are no decisions made after that
time.

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 Circuit Switching

• Circuit switching in a network operates almost the same way

as the telephone system works.
• A complete end-to-end path must exist before
communication can take place.
• The computer initiating the data transfer must ask for a
connection to the destination.
• Once the connection has been initiated and completed to
the destination device, the destination device must
acknowledge that it is ready and willing to carry on a
transfer.

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 Circuit switching
Advantages:
• The communication channel (once established) is dedicated.

Disadvantages:
• Possible long wait to establish a connection, (10 seconds,
more on long- distance or international calls.) during which
no data can be transmitted.
• More expensive than any other switching techniques,
because a dedicated path is required for each connection.
• Inefficient use of the communication channel, because the
channel is not used when the connected systems are not
using it.

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 Message Switching

• With message switching there is no need to establish a

dedicated path between two stations.
• When a station sends a message, the destination address is
appended to the message.
• The message is then transmitted through the network, in its
entirety, from node to node.
• Each node receives the entire message, stores it in its
entirety on disk, and then transmits the message to the next
node.
• This type of network is called a store-and-forward network.

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 Message Switching

A message-switching node is typically a general-purpose computer. The device

needs sufficient secondary-storage capacity to store the incoming messages,
which could be long. A time delay is introduced using this type of scheme due to
store- and-forward time, plus the time required to find the next node in the
transmission path.

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 Message Switching
Advantages:
• Channel efficiency can be greater compared to circuit-
switched systems, because more devices are sharing the
channel.
• Traffic congestion can be reduced, because messages may be
temporarily stored in route.
• Message priorities can be established due to store-and-forward
technique.
• Message broadcasting can be achieved with the use of
broadcast address appended in the message.

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 Message Switching

Disadvantages
• Message switching is not compatible with interactive
applications.
• Store-and-forward devices are expensive, because they
must have large disks to hold potentially long messages.

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 Packet Switching
• Packet switching can be seen as a solution that tries to combine the
advantages of message and circuit switching and to minimize the
disadvantages of both.
• There are two methods of packet switching: Datagram
and virtual circuit.

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 Packet Switching
• In both packet switching methods, a message is broken into
small parts, called packets.
• Each packet is tagged with appropriate source and destination
addresses.
• Since packets have a strictly defined maximum length, they
can be stored in main memory instead of disk, therefore access
delay and cost are minimized.
• Also the transmission speeds, between nodes, are optimized.
• With current technology, packets are generally accepted onto
the network on a first-come, first-served basis. If the network
becomes overloaded, packets are delayed or discarded
(``dropped'').

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 Packet size

• The size of the packet can vary from 180 bits, the
size for the Datakit® virtual circuit switch designed
by Bell Labs for communications and business
applications; to 1,024 or 2,048 bits for the 1PSS®
switch, also designed by Bell Labs for public data
networking; to 53 bytes for ATM switching, such as
Lucent Technologies' packet switches.

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 Packet switching

• In packet switching, the analog signal from your phone is

converted into a digital data stream. That series of digital
bits is then divided into relatively tiny clusters of bits, called
packets. Each packet has at its beginning the digital address
-- a long number -- to which it is being sent. The system
blasts out all those tiny packets, as fast as it can, and they
travel across the nation's digital backbone systems to their
destination: the telephone, or rather the telephone system,
of the person you're calling.
• They do not necessarily travel together; they do not travel
sequentially. They don't even all travel via the same route.
But eventually they arrive at the right point -- that digital
address added to the front of each string of digital data --
and at their destination are reassembled into the correct
order, then converted to analog form, so your friend can
understand what you're saying.
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 Packet Switching: Datagram
• Datagram packet switching is similar to message switching in
that each packet is a self-contained unit with complete
addressing information attached.
• This fact allows packets to take a variety of possible paths
through the network.
• So the packets, each with the same destination address, do not
follow the same route, and they may arrive out of sequence at
the exit point node (or the destination).
• Reordering is done at the destination point based on the
sequence number of the packets.
• It is possible for a packet to be destroyed if one of the nodes on
its way is crashed momentarily. Thus all its queued packets may
be lost.

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 Packet Switching:Virtual Circuit
• In the virtual circuit approach, a preplanned route is established
before any data packets are sent.
• A logical connection is established when
 a sender send a "call request packet" to the receiver and
 the receiver send back an acknowledge packet "call accepted
packet" to the sender if the receiver agrees on conversational
parameters.
• The conversational parameters can be maximum packet sizes,
path to be taken, and other variables necessary to establish and
maintain the conversation.
• Virtual circuits imply acknowledgements, flow control, and error
control, so virtual circuits are reliable.
• That is, they have the capability to inform upper-protocol layers
if a transmission problem occurs.

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 Packet Switching:Virtual Circuit

• In virtual circuit, the route between stations does not mean that
this is a dedicated path, as in circuit switching.
• A packet is still buffered at each node and queued for output over
a line.
• The difference between virtual circuit and datagram approaches:

 With virtual circuit, the node does not need to make a routing
decision for each packet.
 It is made only once for all packets using that virtual circuit.

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 Packet Switching: Virtual Circuit

VC's offer guarantees that

 the packets sent arrive in the order sent

 with no duplicates or omissions
 with no errors (with high probability)
regardless of how they are implemented internally.

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 Advantages of packet switching

Advantages:
• Packet switching is cost effective, because switching
devices do not need massive amount of secondary
storage.
• Packet switching offers improved delay characteristics,
because there are no long messages in the queue
(maximum packet size is fixed).
• Packet can be rerouted if there is any problem, such as,
busy or disabled links.
• The advantage of packet switching is that many
network users can share the same channel at the same
time. Packet switching can maximize link efficiency by
making optimal use of link bandwidth.

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 Disadvantages of packet switching
Disadvantages:
• Protocols for packet switching are typically more complex.
• It can add some initial costs in implementation.
• If packet is lost, sender needs to retransmit the data.
• Another disadvantage is that packet-switched systems still
can’t deliver the same quality as dedicated circuits in
applications requiring very little delay - like voice
conversations or moving images.

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 MODULE 2
a)Evolution of Switching systems
b)Digital switching systems

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• a) Message switching, Circuit switching, Functions of
switching systems, Distribution systems, Basics of
crossbar systems, Electronic switching, Digital switching
systems.
• b) Fundamentals : Purpose of analysis, Basic central
office linkages, Outside plant versus inside plant,
Switching system hierarchy, Evolution of digital
switching systems, Stored program control switching
systems, Digital switching system fundamentals,
Building blocks of a digital switching system, Basic call
processing.
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 Message switching

• Telegraph – torn tape system - Morse code

• Dynamic link establishment
• Priority based done
• Traffic congestion reduced
• Store and forward facility
• Large buffer space to store the message.
• Not applicable for real time
• Modified form is packet switching
• Delay/Queuing system
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• Message switching

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 Circuit Switching
• Telephone :to maintain the connection during
the call to connect the circuit between two
callers.
• If line –busy ,no store and forward facility,call
lost
• Lost call system

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• Circuit switching (Example ) - dedicated commu
path(circuit) between an O-D pair - data are
transmitted along the path with pre-negotiated
rate - path (i.e., the link capacity/bandwidth) is
occupied for the entire lifetime of communication -
Three phases of the CS: 1) ciircuit/connection
establishment (call setup) 2) data transfer 3) circuit
disconnect (release the granted capacity) - only
propagation delay while transmission Ex.
Telephone network: dial .Æ talk Æ hang up
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Manual exchange

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 Features
• Cord type of switch board and automatic
systems
• Central battery operation
• Loop/disconnect signalling
• Multiple – check the status of the customer
• Busy test-tip ,ring and sleeve.

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• T, R and sleeve-busy condition –switch in
automatic
• Metering and ticketing
• Class of service –ordinary telephones & pay
phones (coin)
• Stored program control in modern

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 Functions of switching system
Manual exchange –
• Attending
• Information receiving
• Information processing
• Busy testing
• Interconnection
• Alerting
• Supervision
• Information sending
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 Strowger system
• Automatic exchange to improve speed and
carry more subscribers
• Several electromechanical exchanges invented
• 1880 to 1890
• Strowger step step system was most popular
• The 1st electromechanical was developed by
Almon B Strowger , an undertaker in Kansas
city ,USA.
• https://www.scribd.com/doc/56449050/2/Basic
-Elements-of-Strowger-Switching-System
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Basic Elements of Strowger Switching System:

• Two types of basic elements which perform

most of the functions of the strowger
switching system
• (a) Uniselectors and
• (b) Two motion selectors

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Uniselector

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Two motion selector

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If calling party dial 5831

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Strowger step by step system

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Strowger system

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 Disadvantages
• 4 digit numbering scheme
• Junction calls- separate digits for call and routing
between exchanges
• A -3456 within exchange
• B – 68-3456 to A
• C – 74-3456 to A
• D – 23-74-3456 thro C to exchange A
• Different dial numbers for same destination

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 Linked Numbering Scheme
• Unique number for each customer
• Local numbering covers a number of
exchanges.
• First part is the exchange code and remaining
customer number
• STD,ISD

https://www.google.co.in/?gfe_rd=cr&ei=knyw
VoT8O8OL8QfYtpDQCA&gws_rd=ssl#q=linked+
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CROSS BAR SWITCH

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Multistage switch

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Space Division Multiplexing

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A general trunking diagram

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 Electronic Switching
• Electronic techniques- more reliable
• Electromechanical –relays and switches –wear
out –frequently used
• Electronics-not dependent on frequency of
operation
• Central processor to common control –SPC
• Users data –altered –class of service

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 ESS

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 Electronic Switching
• SPC-Stored program control – wider facilities
• Facilities altered – by class of service in central memory
• Processor data can be altered-
• Call barring
• Repeat last call
• Reminder calls
• Call diversion
• Three way calls
• Charge device

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• Electronic ???
• Diode cross point –multipled elements –one
bit memory for duration of a connection-
• Multiplexing done –FDM-TDM
• SDS-TDS
• Too Expensive- high voltage to line

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Time Division Switch

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 Reed electronic systems
• Reed relay
• +,-,P wire, memory
• Matrix of reed relays == cross
bar switch –single coil.
• Magnetic material used – no P
wire and memory-released by
opposite current – no P wire
• Free path- found by store-one
marker-lead to SPC-processor
control all the switches
• TXE4 reed electronic exchange
• Semi electronic exchanges

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TXE2 EXCHANGE

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TXE3 Reed relay

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Digital Switching Systems

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• Let the communication is to take place
between subscriber A and B. Let A is assigned
time slot 2 and line 7 and subscriber B is
assigned time slot 16 and line 11. Then the
signal moved from time slot 2 to time slot 16
by the time-slot exchanger and is transfered
from line 7 to line 11 in the space array.
Similarly, the signal originated by B is moved
from slot 16 to slot 2 through line 11 to 8.
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Digital Switching Systems

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 Telephony System

Circuit Switching

Station Equipment

Transmission

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 DSS Analysis and Design
• System Analysis and Design
Process – user requirements and design –
optimize.
• To understand the exchange and its
subsystems to analyze DSS

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 Purpose of Analysis
• Reliablility
• Internet access
• Complex system
• How will you analyse ?
• What type of Reliablity?
• What type of architecture?

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Basic central office linkages

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 MDF
• Subscriber line –vertical side
• Dss to line equipment from horizontal side
• Assignment process –users to line equipment
automated.

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 TDF
• All trunks and other links are cross connected.
• Smaller than MDF
• Trunk –vertical side
• From Dss to line –horizontal side

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 Power Plant
• Power converters ???
• Battery systems
• Emergency power resources -48 to +24 V dc
power
• AC power also

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 Carrier Facilities
• For multiplexing
• Coaxial cables,radio and satellite systems
• CF termiante on TDF for cross connection
Digital Cross Connect
• Automatic Assignments of trunks to DSS
• Special Services
• Data and Wireless services

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 Outside plant VS Inside Plant
• Switching Fabric –Inside plant
• Outside CO –Outside Plant

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 Switching System Hierarchy
• Efficient path searching
• The disadvantage is that if primary, sectional
and regional toll centers goes down then large
areas become inaccessible.
• After a call leaves class 5 switch, a path is
hunted through the class 4 office followed by
class 3,class 2 and class1.In addn there are
international gateway offices.

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Switching System Hierarchy

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Evolution of Digital Switching
Systems

Stored Digital
program Switching Building Block
Control System of DSS
System Fundamentals

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 SPC
• Central Processor
• Function of SPC
• Special control –Ancillary control
• Processors duplicated –reliability
• Modern DSS – more processors –use
distributed software and hardware
architectures
• Separate processor for maintenance function
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Stored program Control System

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 DSS Fundamentals
• Earlier version of SPC to modern
• Analog and Digital Signals processed
• Optical switching –Large bandwidth .high
speed

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Digital Switch Evolution

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Basic Building Block of DSS

1st stage
2nd stage

3rd stage 4th stage

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 Basic Call Processing
• Intra LM calls
• Inter LM calls
• Incoming calls
• Outgoing Calls

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 Inter LM calls

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 Intra LM calls

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Incoming/Outgoing calls

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 MODULE 3
TELECOMMUNICATION TRAFFIC

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 Introduction
• In telecommunication ,traffic – important
parameter
• Trunk – entity that will carry one call
• Trunking – Arrangement of trunks and
switches within a telephone exchange
• ASA – Average Speed of Answer
• Busy hour 11 am

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Traffic variation in transmission route per
day

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 Unit of Traffic
• Traffic Intensity – Average number of calls in
progress.
• Unit of Traffic –Erlang (E)
• The average number of calls in progress
depends on number of calls arrive and their
duration.
• Holding time

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• Erlang basics
• The Erlang unit is the basic measure of telecommunications traffic intensity
representing continuous use of one circuit and it is given the symbol "E". It is effectively
call intensity in call minutes per sixty minutes. In general the period of an hour is used,
but it actually a dimensionless unit because the dimensions cancel out (i.e. minutes per
minute).
• The number of Erlangs is easy to deduce in a simple case. If a resource carries one
Erlang, then this is equivalent to one continuous call over the period of an hour.
Alternatively if two calls were in progress for fifty percent of the time, then this would
also equal one Erlang (1E). Alternatively if a radio channel is used for fifty percent of
the time carries a traffic level of half an Erlang (0.5E)
• From this it can be seen that an Erlang, E, may be thought of as a use multiplier where
100% use is 1E, 200% is 2E, 50% use is 0.5E and so forth.
• Interestingly for many years, AT&T and Bell Canada measured traffic in another unit
called CCS, 100 call seconds. If figures in CCS are encountered then it is a simple
conversion to change CCS to Erlangs. Simply divide the figure in CCS by 36 to obtain the
figure in Erlangs
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• Erlang function or Erlang formula and symbol
• It is possible to express the way in which the
number of Erlangs are required in the format
of a simple function or formula.

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• If T = h , A =C
• Single trunk - A ≤ 1
• Occupancy of the trunk : Traffic =
avg.proportion of time for which the trunk is
busy
• P(trunk busy) = P(proportion of time for which
the trunk is busy)

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 Problem 1
• On average, during the busy hour,a company
ma kes 120 outgoing calls of average duration
2 minutes.it receives 200 incoming calls of
average duration 3 minutes. Find
a) outgoing traffic = 4E
b) Incoming Traffic = 10E
c)Total Traffic = 14E

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 Problem 2
• During the busy hour,on average ,a customer
with a single telephone line makes three calls
and receives three calls.the average call
duration is 2 minutes.What is the probability
that a caller will find the line engaged?
• Ans =0.1E

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 Congestion
• When ???? All trunks are busy
• Message switching –Queuing systems/Delay
systems
• Circuit Switching – Lost call systems
• Traffic carried< Traffic offered to the system
• Traffic carried = Traffic offered – Traffic lost

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• Grade of Service (B) – Proportion of calls lost
or delayed due to congestion
• B = Ratio of number of calls lost to number of
calls offered
• B = Ratio of Traffic lost to Traffic offered
• = P(Congestion)

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• Larger B = Worse service
• Smaller B = Equipment not used efficiently
• During the busy hour ,1200 calls were offered to a
group of trunks and six calls were lost.Avg call duration
is 3 minutes.Find
• a) Traffic offered = 60 E
• b) Traffic carried = 59.7 E
• c)Traffic lost = 0.3 E
• d) Grade of Service = 0.005
• e) Total duration of period of congestion = 18 sec.
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 Traffic Measurement
• Traffic carried –counting calls in progress at
regular intervals during busy hour and
averaging the results.
• Modern system- processor used to store.

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 Mathematical Model
• To analyze traffic problems –mathematical
model of traffic
• A simple model based on assumptions
• a) Pure chance traffic
• b) Statistical Equilibrium

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 Pure chance Traffic
• Call arrivals and call terminations are
independent random events
• Total Traffic generated by a large number of
users are independent random events
• If so, their occurrence is not affected by
previous calls – memoryless traffic
• If sources # is small – and busy lines ,how will
be the rate at which new calls can be generated
? More or less
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• Assumption of random call arrivals and
terminations result in
• a) No of call arrivals in a given time has a
poisson distribution

• b) Interval T between call arrivals –ve exp

distribution

Where Ť is mean interval between call arrivals

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 Statistical equilibrium
• Generation of traffic is a stationary random
process. Probability don’t change during the
period considered.
• Mean no. of calls in progress remains
constant.
• This condition is satisfied during ______????
______

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Problem #3

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Problem #4

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 Simple Markov chain
• No. of calls in progress -0 to N
• N+1 states .Probability of change from one
state to one above or one below.
• P(j)-Probability of state j
• P(k)- probability of next state k
• Pj,k = ????
• Pk,j = ????
• P(0),P(1) , P(2) ….. – State probabilities
• Pj,k Pk,j - transition Probabilities
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Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 135
• If statistical equilibrium – then regular markov
chain.
• If δt –small interval. Events which can happen
in δt are

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• C =A

• If statistical equilibrium ,then ==

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Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 138
• If pure chance traffic

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 139

 Lost call systems
• Erlang determined the grade of service of a
lost call system havimg N trunks with traffic A
• Depends on
• a) Purechance
• b) Statistical equilibrium
• c) Full availibility
• d) Lost calls

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• Traffic offered is total arising from all
successful and unsuccessful calls

• Certain no of calls between 0≤ x ≤ N …

1st erlang distribution

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• Loss probability for a full availability trunks N
is

• Loss probability can be given as

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Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 143
Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 144
Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 145
 Loss systems in tandem
• Grade of service of a complete connection
• Let B1 ,B2 links offer traffic A erlangs
• Traffic offered to second link = A(1-B1)
• Traffic offered for whole link= A(1 – B1)(1– B2)
• Overall grade of service B= B1 + B2 – B1B2
• And B = B1 + B2 if B1B2 <<<1.
• For N ,link connection

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 146

Queuing systems-2nd erlang distribution
• Erlang determined the grade of service of a
lost call system havimg N trunks with traffic A
• Depends on
• a) Purechance
• b) Statistical equilibrium
• c) Full availibility
• d) Calls waiting in queue

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Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 148
• Assumption 2 implies ??? A< N
• But if A>N then queue more …not statistical.
• If x ≤ N ,no queue ,so

• If x ≥ N , for δt

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• Call transition

• Only N calls end out of x calls

• For statistical

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 Probablity of delay
• No of calls x ≥ N trunks

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Single Stage networks

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Triangular cross-point matrix for connecting
both way trunks

C1 = (N(N-1))/2

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Gradings

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Gradings

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 Design of progressive gradings
• For larger outgoing trunks, gradings contain
four or more groups

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 156

 Design of grading
• Outgoing trunks –N
• Switches – k
• Graded groups –g
• Individual trunks N= gk
• Full common N= k
• Individuals, Half and full common k < N < gk
• Optimal choice N = gk/2
• Then g = 2N/k
• g shd be symmetrical even no.
Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 157
Switching Techniques: Circuit Switching
Message Switching
packet Switching

Computer Networks MCA Sem-III Baljeet Kaur

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 158
 Introduction
• When there are many devices, it is necessary to develop suitable
mechanism for communication between any two devices.
• One alternative is to establish point-to-point communication
between each pair of devices using mesh topology. However,
mesh topology is impractical for large number of devices,
because the number of links increases exponentially (n(n-1)/2,
where n is the number of devices) with the number of devices.
• A better alternative is to use switching techniques leading to
switched communication network. In the switched network
methodology, the network consists of a set of interconnected
nodes, among which information is transmitted from source to
destination via different routes, which is controlled by the
switching mechanism. Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 159
A basic model of a switched communication is shown
in Fig. 4 The end devices that wish to communicate
with each other are called stations. The switching
devices are called nodes. Some nodes connect to other
nodes and some are to connected to some stations.
Key features of a switched communication network
are given below:
• Network Topology is not regular.
• Uses FDM or TDM for node-to-node
communication.
• There exist multiple paths between a source-
destination pair for better network reliability.
• The switching nodes are not concerned with the
contents of data.
Their purpose is to provide a switching facility that will
move data from node to node until they reach the
destination. Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 160
The switching performed by different nodes can
be categorized into the following three types:
• Circuit Switching
• Packet Switching
• Message Switching

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 161

 Circuit switching Technique
Communication via circuit switching implies that there is a dedicated communication
path between the two stations. The path is connected through a sequence of links
between network nodes. On each physical link, a logical channel is dedicated to the
connection. Circuit switching is commonly used technique in telephony, where the
caller sends a special message with the address of the callee (i.e. by dialling a
number) to state its destination. It involved the following three distinct steps,
Circuit Establishment: To establish an end-to-end connection before any transfer of
data.
– Some segments of the circuit may be a dedicated link, while some other segments may
be shared.
Data transfer:
– Transfer data is from the source to the destination.
– The data may be analog or digital, depending on the nature of the network.
– The connection is generally full-duplex.
Circuit disconnect:
– Terminate connection at the end of data transfer.
Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 162
– Signals must be propagated to deallocate the dedicated resources. A
Circuit switching Technique

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 163

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 164
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Provide initial delay for setting up the
• After path is established, call.
data communication • Inefficient for bursty traffic.
without delay. • Data rate should be same because of
• Very suitable for continuous fixed bandwidth.
• When load increases, some calls may
traffic.
be blocked.
• It establishes a dedicated • In data communication, traffic
path. between terminal and server are not
• No overhead after call setup. continuous. Sometimes more data
may come or sometimes there is no
• it is transparent and data data at all. Circuit switching is not
passes in order. efficient because of its fixed
bandwidth.
Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 165
In circuit switching, network resources are dedicated to a particular connection.
Although this satisfies the requirement of voice communication, it suffers from the
following two shortcomings for data communication:
– In a typical user/host data connection, line utilization is very low.
– Provides facility for data transmission at a constant rate.

• However, for information transmission applications, the circuit switching method is

very slow, relatively expensive and inefficient.
• First of all, the need to establish a dedicated connection before sending the message
itself inserts a delay time, which might become significant for the total message
transfer time. Moreover, the total channel remains idle and unavailable to the other
users once a connection is made. On the other hand once a connection is
established, it is guaranteed and orderly delivery of message is ensured.
Unfortunately, the data transmission pattern may not ensure this, because data
transmission is bursty in nature. As a consequence, it limits the utility of the method.

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 166

 Message Switching
The problem may be overcome by using an
approach known as message switching. Message
switching suffers from various problems ,To
overcome the limitations of message switching,
another switching technique, known as packet
switching was invented.
• In this switching method, a different strategy is
used, where instead of establishing a dedicated
physical line between the sender and the
receiver, the message is sent to the nearest
directly connected switching node. This node
stores the message, checks for errors, selects
the best available route and forwards the
message to the next intermediate
• The line becomes free again for other
messages, while the process is being continued
in some other nodes. Due to the mode of
action, this method is also known as store-and-
forward technology where the message hops
from node to node to its final destination. Each
node stores the full message, checks Dept.
for errors
of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 167
• In this switching technique, more devices can share the Basic idea:
network bandwidth, as compared with circuit switching • Each network node receives and stores the
technique.
message
• Temporary storage of message reduces traffic
congestion to some extent. Higher priority can be given • Determines the next leg of the route, and
to urgent messages, so that the low priority messages • Queues the message to go out on that link.
are delayed while the urgent ones are forwarded faster.
Through broadcast addresses one message can be sent
Advantages:
to several users.
• Last of all, since the destination host need not be active • Line efficiency is greater (sharing of links).
when the message is sent, message switching • Data rate conversion is possible.
techniques improve global communications. • Even under heavy traffic, packets are
• However, since the message blocks may be quite large accepted, possibly with a greater delay in
in size, considerable amount of storage space is delivery.
required at each node to buffer the messages. A
• Message priorities can be used, to satisfy
message might occupy the buffers for minutes, thus
blocking the internodal traffic. the requirements, if any.

Disadvantages: Message of large size

monopolizes the link and storage

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 168

 Packet Switching

The basic approach is not much different

from message switching. It is also based
on the same ‘store-and-forward’
approach. However, to overcome the
limitations of message switching,
messages are divided into subsets of
equal length called packets. This
approach was developed for long-
distance data communication (1970) and
it has evolved over time. In packet
switching approach, data are transmitted
in short packets (few Kbytes). A long
message is broken up into a series of
packets as shown in Fig. Every packet
contains some control information in its
header, which is required for routing and
other purposes. Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 169
• Main difference between Packet • There are two basic approaches
switching and Circuit Switching is commonly used to packet
that the communication lines are Switching: virtual-circuit packet
not dedicated to passing switching and datagram packet
messages from the source to the switching. In virtual-circuit packet
destination. In Packet Switching, switching a virtual circuit is made
before actual data is transmitted,
different messages (and even
but it is different from circuit
different packets) can pass switching in a sense that in circuit
through different routes, and switching the call accept signal
when there is a "dead time" in comes only from the final
the communication between the destination to the source while in
source and the destination, the case of virtual-packet switching
lines can be used by other this call accept signal is transmitted
sources. between each adjacent
intermediate node
Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 170
 Virtual Circuit Packet Switching Networks

• An initial setup phase is used to set up a route between the intermediate nodes
for all the packets passed during the session between the two end nodes. In each
intermediate node, an entry is registered in a table to indicate the route for the
connection that has been set up. Thus, packets passed through this route, can
have short headers, containing only a virtual circuit identifier (VCI), and not their
destination. Each intermediate node passes the packets according to the
information that was stored in it, in the setup phase. In this way, packets arrive at
the destination in the correct sequence, and it is guaranteed that essentially
there will not be errors.
• This approach is slower than Circuit Switching, since different virtual circuits may
compete over the same resources, and an initial setup phase is needed to initiate
the circuit. As in Circuit Switching, if an intermediate node fails, all virtual circuits
that pass through it are lost. The most common forms of Virtual Circuit networks
are X.25 and Frame Relay, which are commonly used for public data networks
(PDN).
Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 171
Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 172
 Datagram Packet Switching Networks
• This approach uses a different, more dynamic scheme, to determine the
route through the network links. Each packet is treated as an
independent entity, and its header contains full information about the
destination of the packet. The intermediate nodes examine the header
of the packet, and decide to which node to send the packet so that it
will reach its destination. In the decision two factors are taken into
account:
• The shortest ways to pass the packet to its destination - protocols such
as RIP/OSPF are used to determine the shortest path to the destination.
• Finding a free node to pass the packet to - in this way, bottlenecks are
eliminated, since packets can reach the destination in alternate routes.
• Thus, in this method, the packets don't follow a pre-established route,
and the intermediate nodes (the routers) don't have pre-defined
knowledge of the routes that the packets should be passed through.
Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 173
• Packets can follow different routes to the destination, and delivery is
not guaranteed (although packets usually do follow the same route,
and are reliably sent). Due to the nature of this method, the packets
can reach the destination in a different order than they were sent, thus
they must be sorted at the destination to form the original message.
This approach is time consuming since every router has to decide
where to send each packet. The main implementation of Datagram
Switching network is the Internet, which uses the IP network protocol.

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 174

Advantages:
• Call setup phase is avoided (for transmission of a few
packets, datagram will be faster).
• Because it is more primitive, it is more flexible.
• Congestion/failed link can be avoided (more reliable).

Problems:
• Packets may be delivered out of order.
• If a node crashes momentarily, all of its queued packets
are lost.
Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 175
In spite of increase in overhead, the
transmission time may decreases in packet
switching technique because of parallelism in
transmission

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 176

Virtual Circuit Versus Datagram Packet Switching
• Key features of the virtual circuit packet switching approach is as follows:
• Node need not decide route
• More difficult to adopt to congestion
• Maintains sequence order
• All packets are sent through the same predetermined route

On the other hand, the key features of the datagram packet switching are
as follows:
• Each packet is treated independently
• Call set up phase is avoided
• Inherently more flexible and reliable

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 177

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 178
 MODULE 4
TIME DIVISION SWITCHING AND SWITCHING SYSTEM
SOFTWARE

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 179

Introduction:

Time division switching makes use of time division multiplexing in

order to perform switching. TDM is a digital multiplexing technique which is
used to combine signals.
There are two popular methods used in TDS
• Space switch
• Time switch

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 180

 Space Switch:
A space switch is shown in figure. It
consists of M incoming and N outgoing
PCM highways.
The connection store for each column of
cross points is a memory with an address
location for each time slot which stores
the number of cross points to be operated
in that time slot
In each time slot, the number stored at
the corresponding store address is read
out and decoding logic converts this into
a pulse on a single lead to operate the
relevant crosspoint Fig: Space Switch

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 181

Figure below illustrates the working of a space switch

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Time Switch:
A time switch is also called as time slot interchange(TSI).

A limitation of space switch is that a

particular time slot t0 can be move to t0 of a
different trunk that is order of channels
cannot be changed.
A time switch can interchange the time
slots as shown in fig. To perform its
operation, a time switch contains a speech
store apart from connection store.
The limitation of a time switch is it can
allow change of channels only on the same
line or trunk but not between different
trunks.

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 183

Figure below illustrates the working of a time switch

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 184

S-T-S Switching network:

To overcome the limitations of

time switch and space switch, we go
for combination switches.
•STS switching network
•TST switching network

To establish a connection between X

time slot of an incoming PCM highway
and Y time slot of an outgoing PCM
highway, it is necessary to select a link
having address X free in its speech store
and address Y free in its connection
store.

Fig: STS Switching Network

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 185

T- S -T Switching network:

Fig shows a TST switching network.

Each of the m incoming and m
outgoing highways is connected to a
time switch. To establish a connection
between X and Y time slots, it is
necessary to choose a time slot Z
which is free in the connection store of
the incoming highway and the speech
store of the outgoing highway. The
connection is established by setting the
incoming time switch to shift from X
to Z switch to shift from Z to Y and
appropriate crosspoint at time Z in
each frame.

Fig: TST Switching Network

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 186

Grade of service of Time Division Switching Networks:

GOS is calculated in two ways

Mode 1: Connection is required to a particular free channel on a selected
outgoing highway
Mode2: Connection is required to a particular outgoing highway, but any free
channel on it may be used.

STS switching Network

B1 =[1-(1-b)2] k
B2 = [ B1 + c(1-B1)] n

TST switching Network

B1 =[1-(1-b)2] n
B2 = B 1

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 187

 Frame synchronization:
• Synchronization is one of the most critical functions performed at the receiver of a
synchronous communication system. To some extent, it is the basis of a
synchronous communication system.
• Carrier synchronization and symbol synchronization needs to estimate the phase of
synchronous signal which can be realized by using a PLL.
• Frame synchronization is realized in a different way inserting frame alignment
signal (distinctive bit sequence). Therefore, the basic task of frame synchronization
is how to detect the alignment symbol. Besides add frame alignment bits, some
code such as self-synchronizing code can be synchronized without add extra bits. In
this section, we only focus on the first method inserting frame alignment signal.

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 188

Frame Alignment:
To solve the problem of frame misalignment, the line terminating unit of
a PCM junction stores the incoming digits in a frame alignment buffer as
shown in figure.
Digits are read into this buffer at rate f a of the incoming line and read
out at the rate fb of the exchange clock.
The minimum size of the buffer should be at least equal to one frame.

Fig: Frame Alignment of PCM signals

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 189

Synchronization Networks:
To maintain the same clock
frequency in all the exchange, a
synchronization network is used in all
the exchanges.
We have two types of networks
•Unilateral
•Bilateral
In unilateral network, one exchange
acts as master and one exchange acts
as a Slave whereas in bilateral there
is mutual relationship ,each exchange
influences the frequency of the other

And in each type, we further

have Single ended and Double
ended networks.

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 190

Synchronization hierarchy of an integrated digital
network:

A synchronizing network for an IDN is shown in fig . The sync links

are provided by PCM systems that carry normal traffic between exchanges.

Frequency control is exerted downwards from the national reference

standard by unilateral links from each exchange to those in the next lower level.

However bilateral links are used for exchanges in the same level of the
hierarchy.

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Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 192
Introduction:

The basic software architecture of a typical digital

switch, classifies various types of software, describes
a basic call model and software linkages that are
required during a call, and discusses some basic call
features.

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 193

 Operating Systems
• Every digital switching system has an operating system as a
part of its software architecture.
• An operating system (OS) may be defined as software that
manages the resources of a computer system or controls and
tasks other pro- grams.
• . In theory there are different types of operating systems,
classified as serial batch systems, multiprogramming systems,
timesharing systems, and the real-time systems. The operating
systems employed by digital switching systems are real-time
operating systems.

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 194

Basic software architecture of a typical digital switching system

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 195

• Basic software architecture of a typical digital switching
system Therefore, it is conceivable for a digital switching
system to employ more than one OS.
• Kernel. The kernel or the nucleus of an operating system
comprises those functions of an OS that are most primitive to
the environment. It usually supports the following functions.
• - Process control and scheduling - Main memory management
• - Input/output control of requests for terminals and buffers
• - Domain protection of main memory read/write operations
etc.

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 196

 Database Management

• The databases that are employed in digital switching systems

are usually relational and sometimes distributed.
• A record in a relational database is flat, i.e., a simple two-
dimensional arrangement of data elements.
• A good example of a relational database system in a digital
switching system is a database system that keeps cross-
references of all directory numbers that are assigned to the line
equipment of subscribers.

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 197

• Each NCP has a replica of the subscriber database for
all other NCPs. Depending on the type of call, a NCP
may be required to route calls through other NCPs.
To accomplish this, the database information for all
NCPs needs to be distributed and always kept
synchronized.

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 198

 Software Architecture for Level 1 Control
Level 1 is the lowest level of control. This level is usually
associated with lines, trunks, or other low-level functions.
Most of the software at this level is part of the switching
software.
Software Architecture for Level 2 Control
The intermediate or level 2 controls are usually associated with
network controllers that may contain distributed databases,
customer data, and service circuit routines. Obviously these
functions are digital switching architecture- dependent; many
switching functions could be assigned at this level of control.

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 199

 Software Architecture for Level 3 Control
The highest or level 3 control is usually associated with
the central processor of a digital switching system.
Normally these processors are mainframe type
computers. Usually, the CP of a digital switching system
provides all high- level functions. These high-level
functions include the management of the data- base
system for office data, high-level subscriber data,
software patch levels, feature control

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 200

 Digital Switching System Software Classification

• The basic software functionality of a digital switching system

can be divided into five basic elements, and other functions
can be derived from these basic elements:
• - Switching software
• - Maintenance software - Office data
• - Translation data - Feature software
• Switching Software. The most important layer of software for
a digital switching system usually comprises
• - Call processing software
• - Switching fabric control software - Network control software
• - Periphery control software

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 201

Classification of digital switch software

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 202

A basic call model

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 203

 Connect sequence

• The connect sequence consists of software routines that scan the line and
detect request for originations.
• Once the line equipment informs the line scanning program that a line has
gone off-hook this is a request for dial tone.
• It will pass the control to the test line program. The function of this
program is to test the presence of false ground, high voltage, line cross
and other conditions.
• After these tests dial tone is returned to the subscriber, signaling the
customer to start dialing.
• Once the switch detects the start of dialing , the dial tone is removed and
a digit receiver is attached to the line equipment.
• After receiving correct number, Switching fabric establish the talking path.
After this the ringing service circuits attached to the called party. When
the called party answers the call automatic message accounting for billing
the call is started

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 204

Software linkages required during a typical
call

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 205

 Software linkages required during a typical call
• The line control programs scan the status of lines via the LMs and report
the status to the network status program, Which in turn works with the
network control programs.
• The line control program also works with line service circuit programs is
providing the dial tone, digit receivers and ringing circuits.
• The network control program orders network connection through the
switching fabric when a subscriber goes off-hook.and completes the
dialing of all digits for a call.
• The call processing programs are responsible for call processing functions
and interface with the feature programs, translation and office data,
automatic message accounting and maintenance pgms.
• The maintenance programs are responsible for system recovery ,system
diagnostics, back up and other maintenance related functions.

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 206

Simplified flow diagram for call-forwarding (CF) feature

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 207

 Simplified flow diagram for call-forwarding (CF) feature

• The feature is activated when the customer goes off-hook and dials an
activation code.
• The software checks for the correct validation code. If the code is wrong
the subscriber does not get the second dial tone.
• If the code is correct the subscriber will get second dial tone and is allowed
to dial the call forwarding number.
• The number is rung once, and the number is stored in the system memory
for future use.
• The feature operation : If the subscriber receives a call on the line that has
the CF feature activated.
• The systems rings the called subscriber once and then forwards the call to a
number previously stored.
• The feature can be deactivated by dialing the deactivation code. If it is
correct CF is deactivated. Otherwise request is ignored.

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 208

 MODULE 5
MAINTENANCE OF DIGITAL
SWITCHING SYSTEMS AND A
GENERIC DIGITAL SWITCHING
SYSTEM MODEL

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 209

• Scope
• This chapter introduces typical interfaces that
are utilized in maintaining central offices both
remotely and locally. Topics essential to CO
maintenance such as fault reports, software
patches, and the software and hardware
upgrade process, including firmware, are also
covered.

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 210

• Software Maintenance
• - Supplier-initiated software maintenance
• Software maintenance by site owners

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 211

Interfaces of a Typical Digital Switching
System Central Office

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 212

• These other departments interact with a
digital switch:
• Engineering support
• Billing center
• Security
• Special translation support
• Trunk and line assignment

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 213

• System Outage and Its Impact
• Digital Switching System Reliability Digital switch outages
represent the most visible measure of switching system reliability
and affect maintainability.
• The Various studies' have been conducted to better understand the
causes of digital switch outages. Traditionally, the causes of
outages have been classified into four categories:
• - Software deficiencies. This includes software "bugs" that cause
memory errors or program loops that can be cleared only by major
initialization.
• - Hardware failure. This relates to simplex and/or duplex hardware
fail- ures in the system which result in a system outage.

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 214

A Methodology for Reporting and Correction of Field Problems

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 215

 Hardware architecture
1. Central Processor
2. Network Control Processors
3. Interface Controllers
4. Interface Modules
5. Switching Fabric

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 216

Dept. of ECE, ATMECE, Mysuru 217
 Software Architecture
1. System-Level Software
2. Maintenance Software
3. Call Processing Software
4. Database Software

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 Recovery Strategy
• Level 1 Initialization (INIT 1)
• Level 2 Initialization (INIT 2).
• Level 3 Initialization (INIT 3)

• Manual Recovery

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 A Simple Call through a Digital Switching
System
The basic steps necessary to complete a simple call are as follows:
• 1. Detect off-hook condition.
• 2. Identify customer's line.
• 3. Test customer's line.
• 4. Provide dial tone to customer.
• 5. Provide digits analysis of dialed number.
• 6. Establish a path between the calling customer and the called
customer.
• 7. Ring the called customer.
• 8. Detect answer and establish cut-through path.
• 9. Supervise both lines for disconnect.
• 10. Detect on-hook condition and disconnect.
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Line-to-Line Intra-IC Call.

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Line-to-Trunk Intra-IC OGT Call

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Line-to-Line Inter-IC Call

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Line-to-Trunk Intra-IC OGT Call

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Line-to-Trunk Inter-IC OGT Call

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 Some Common Characteristics of Digital Switching System
• - Dual capability. Most digital switching systems covered, which are primarily class 5, can also have
tandem/toll or class 4 capabilities.
• - Termination capability. Most of the large digital switching systems can terminate approximately
100,000 lines or 60,000 trunks.
• - Traffic capacity. In a distributed environment, this depends on the digital switch configuration, and it
can go as high as 2,000,000 busy hour call attempts (BHCAs).
• - Architecture—hardware. Most digital switching systems have a quasi- distributed hardware
architecture (see chapter 2 for definitions), since they all maintain control of the switching functions
through an intermediate processor. All digital switching systems employ multiple processor subsystems.
• - Architecture—software. Most digital switching systems maintain a modular software design,
sometimes through layering or through functionalities. They have operating systems under which
application systems function. They all support database systems for office records, subscriber records,
administration records, etc. They all have maintenance subsystems that support diagnostic and switch
maintenance processes. They also support billing systems for subscribers such as the automatic
messaging system.
• - Switching fabric. Most digital switching systems utilize time-space- time (TST) mode for switching calls.
• - Remote operation. Most digital switching systems have remote switching modules (RSMs) to support
switching functions in a remote location. And most remote switching systems are standalone
capabilities, so if the main switching system (host) goes down, the remote units can still switch local
calls.

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 Analysis Report
1. System Description
2. Operation, Administration, and Maintenance
3. Reliability Analysis
4. Product Support

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