Engineering Materials and their Properties

• Since the earliest days of the evolution of

mankind, the main distinguishing features
between human begins and other mammals has
been the ability to use and develop materials to
satisfy our human requirements. Nowadays we use
many types of materials, fashioned in many
different ways, to satisfy our requirements for
housing, heating, furniture, clothes, transportation,
entertainment, medical care, defense and all the
other trappings of a modern, civilised society.
• The knowledge of materials and their properties is
of great significance for a design engineer. The
machine elements should be made of such a
material which has properties suitable for the
conditions of operation.
Engineering Materials and their Properties
(Contd.)
• In addition to this, a design engineer must
be familiar with the effects which the
manufacturing processes and heat
treatment have on the properties of the
material.
• Almost every substance known to man has
found its way into the engineering
workshop at some time or other. The most
convenient way to study the properties and
uses of engineering materials is to classify
them into ‘families’ as shown in figure
below:
Classification of Engineering Materials
Classification of Engineering Materials (Contd.)

• Non – metallic (synthetic

materials )
• These are non – metallic materials
that do not exist in nature,
although they are manufactured
from natural substances such as
oil, coal and clay. Some typical
examples are classified as shown in
figure below:
 Classification of Engineering Materials (Contd.)

• The ferrous metals are those which have

the iron as their main constituent, such
as cast iron, wrought iron and steel.
• These are metals and alloys containing a
high proportion of the element iron.
• They are the strongest materials
available and are used for applications
where high strength is required at
relatively low cost and where weight is
not of primary importance.
 Classification of Engineering Materials
(Contd.)
• The non-ferrous metals are those which
have the metal other than iron as their
main constituent, such as copper,
aluminium, brass, tin, zinc etc.
• They are used where their special
properties such as corrosion resistance,
electrical conductivity and thermal
conductivity are required. Copper and
aluminum are used as electrical
conductors and, together with sheet zinc
and sheet lead, are use as roofing
materials.
• They are mainly used with other metals
to improve their strength.
 Classification of Engineering Materials (Contd.)

• The non-ferrous metals are usually

employed in industry due to the
following characteristics:
• Ease of fabrication (casting, rolling,
forging, welding and machining).
• Resistance to corrosion.
• Electrical and thermal conductivity,
and
• Weight.
 Classification of Engineering Materials (Contd.)

Selection of Materials for Engineering

Purposes
• The selection of a proper material,
for engineering purposes, is one of
the most difficult problem for the
designer. The best material is one
which serves the desired objective at
the minimum cost. The following
factors should be considered while
selecting the material:
 Classification of Engineering Materials (Contd.)
Commercial factors such as:
1) Availability of the materials,
2) Suitability of the materials for the
working conditions in service, and
3) The cost of the materials.
Engineering properties of materials
such as:
• Electrical conductivity, strength,
toughness, ease of forming by
extrusion, forging and casting,
machinability and corrosion resistance
Classification of Engineering Materials (Contd.)

• The physical properties of the

metals include:
• luster, colour, size, and shape,
density, electric and thermal
conductivity, and melting point.
• The important properties, which
determine the utility of the
material, are physical, chemical and
mechanical properties. For the
purpose of this class we shall
discuss the physical and
mechanical. Table 4.1. Physical
Properties of Metals.
Metal Density (kg/m3) Melting point (◦c) Thermal conductivity Coefficient of linear
(W/m◦C) expansion at 20◦C
(µm/m/◦C)
Aluminium 2700 660 220 23.0
Brass 8450 950 130 16.7
Bronze 8730 1040 67 17.5
Cast iron 7250 1300 54.5 9.0
Copper 8900 1083 393.5 16.7
Lead 11,400 327 33.5 29.1
Monel metal 8600 1350 25.2 14.0
Nickel 8900 1453 63.2 12.8
Silver 10,500 960 420 18.9
Steel 7850 1510 50.2 11.1
Tin 7400 232 67 21.4
Tungsten 19,300 3410 201 4.5
Zinc 7200 419 113 33.0
Cobalt 8850 1490 69.2 12.4
Molybdenum 10, 200 2650 13 4.8

Vanadium 6000 1750 - 7.75

 Mechanical Properties of Metals
The mechanical Properties of Metals
are those which are associated with
the ability of the material to resist
mechanical forces and load. These
include:
1). Strength. It is the ability of a
material to resist the external
applied forces without breaking or
yielding. The internal resistance
offered by a part to an externally
applied force is called stress.
 Mechanical Properties of Metals
(Cont’d)
2). Stiffness. It is the ability of a
material to resist deformation under
stress. The modulus of elasticity is
the measure of stiffness.
3). Elasticity. It is the property of a
material to regain its original shape
after deformation when the external
forces are removed. The property is
desirable for materials used in tools
and machines. It may be noted that
steel is more elastic than rubber.
 Mechanical Properties of Metals
(Cont’d)
4). Plasticity. It is the property of a material
which regains the deformation produced
under load permanently. This property of
material is necessary for forgings, in
stamping images on coins and in
ornamental work.
5). Ductility. It is the property of a material
enabling it to be drawn into wire with the
application of a tensile force. A ductile
material must be both strong and plastic.
The ductility is usually measured by
terms, percentage elongation and
percentage reduction in area.
Mechanical Properties of Metals (Cont’d)
6). Brittleness. It is the property of a
material opposite to ductility. It is
the property of breaking of a
material with little permanent
distortion.
7). Malleability. It is a special case of
ductility which permits materials to
be rolled or hammered into thin
sheets. The malleable materials
commonly used in engineering
practice are lead, soft steel wrought
iron, copper and aluminum.
 Mechanical Properties of Metals
8). Toughness. It is the property of a
material to resist fracture due to
high impact loads like hammer
blows. The toughness of the material
decreases when it is heated.
9). Machinability. It is the property of a
material which refers to a relative
case with which a material can be
cut.. It may be noted that brass can
be easily machined than steel.
 Mechanical Properties of Metals
(Cont’d)
10). Resilience. It is the property of a
material to absorb energy and to resist
shock and impact loads. It is measured by
the amount of energy absorbed per unit
volume within elastic limit. This property
is essential for spring materials.
11). Creep. When a part is subjected to a
constant stress at high temperature for a
long period of time, it will undergo a slow
and permanent deformation called creep.
This property is considered in designing
internal combustion engines, boiler and
turbines.
 Mechanical Properties of Metals
(Cont’d)
12). Fatigue. When a material is subjected
to repeated stresses, it fails at stress
below the yield point stresses. Such type
of failure of a material is known as
fatigue.
13). Hardness. It is a very important
property of the metals and has a wide
variety of meanings. It embraces many
different properties such as resistance to
wear, scratching, deformation and
machinability, etc. It also means the
ability of a metal to cut another metal.
 Mechanical Properties of Metals
(Cont’d)
• The hardness of a metal may-be
determined by the following test:
• Brinell hardness test,
• Rockwell hardness test,
• Vickers hardness (also called
Diamond Pyramid) test.
 Engineering Materials(Contd.)
NON-METAL MATERIALS
• PLASTIC
• Plastic may be defined as an organic
polymer, which can be molded into
desired shape and size with the help of
heat, pressure or both. The plastic, in its
liquid form is known as resin. The plastics
may contain a number of constituent
including binders, fillers, dyes or pigments,
plasticizer, lubricants, solvents and
catalyses.
• All the plastics are, usually classified on
basis of the nature of binder used in their
manufacture. The binder may be natural
synthetic polymers.
 Engineering Materials (Contd.)
Types of Plastic
• Plastics are normally divided into two categories
on the basis of the type of resin used their
preparation. i.e. Thermoplastic and Thermosetting
plastics.
Thermoplastic
• Thermoplastics resins are the polymer whose
plasticity increases with the increase in
temperature. They can be soften and hardened
by heating and cooling any number of times. They
can be rolled or extruded simply by heating the
material. Some of the plastics are Polyethylene,
polypropylene, polyvinylchloride (PVC), Polytetra
flunoroethylene.
 Engineering Materials
(Contd.)
Properties of Thermoplastics
• Excellent electrical insulation
• High resistance to chemical
• Excellent Light transmitting power
• Ease of fabrication and resistance of
moisture
• Excellent mechanical properties
• Easy to molding and remolding.
 Engineering Materials(Contd.)
Uses of Thermoplastics
• It is used for insulating coatings for
electric wires, films sheets, pipes,
bottles, buckets etc.
• It is used for Refrigerator door liners,
hot drink cups, radio and television
cabinets, food containers.
• It is used for light cover, lamp shades,
lenses, sign boards plastic jeweler
• It is used for toys, flash light cases,
helmets, plastic films.
 Engineering Materials(Contd.)
THERMOSETTING PLASTICS.
• Thermosetting plastics are formed by
condensation polymerization.
Thermosetting plastics cannot be soft end,
once they are molded, even at high
temperature. Some of the Thermosetting
plastics are Polyester, Phenol formaldehyde,
Urea formaldehyde, Melamine
formaldehyde.
Properties of Thermosetting plastics.
• Excellent electrical insulation
• Thermosetting plastics are hard, tough,
non-swelling and more brittle than
thermoplastic
 Engineering Materials (Contd.)
• They have excellent tensile strength and
flame resistance
• They have excellent adhesive properties,
resistance to chemicals
• These plastics cannot be mechanically
deformed or softened of high
temperature.
• It cannot be remolded into any new shape
• Uses of Thermosetting plastics
• It is used for insulation for wire and cable
• It is used for making electric iron handle,
socket bases, fan-motor housings, switch
covers.
 Engineering Materials(Contd.)
• It is used for making dials, electric mixer
housing, cosmetic boxes, distributor
heads.
• It is used for plastic rockery and
automobile parts.
 Engineering Materials (Contd.)
RUBBER
• Rubber may be defined as an organic
polymer, which elongates on stretching
and regains its original shape after the
removal of the stress. Today the rubber is
considered to be one of the most
important materials in the world. A major
portion of a rubber is consumed in the
field of manufacture of types and tubes
for the vehicles.
• Rubber may be classified as natural and
synthetic rubber.
 Engineering Materials(Contd.)
• Properties of Rubber
• It possesses the quality of flexibility
• It can with stand shock and vibration
• It is possible to produce rubber with a are
desirable property by the process of
vulcanizing and compounding
• They have high resistance to abrasion and
weathering
• They have excellent oil, grease and solvent
vesistoma
• Synthetic rubber has resistance to aid and
petroleum
 Engineering Materials (Contd.)
• Uses of Rubber
• Rubber is used to manufacture tires and
inner tubes in automobiles.
• It is used as a lining material in
machineries to act as a cushion and
produce air liquid tightness
• Synthetic rubber is used to manufacture
container and pipes to carry kerosene, and
petrol.
• Rubber is used to manufacture of conveyor
belts, shoe soles, flooring, electric wire
insulation, Erasers Holes, taps gloves
apron and adhesives etc.
 Engineering Materials (Contd.)
GLASS
• Glass is a mixture of silica, chalk and
potash or soda. It is amorphous
transparent. In recent times, glass has
come out as the most versatile
engineering material. All the ingredient
of glass are thoroughly ground, sieved
and mixed in required quantities. This
mixture is place furnace and fused at a
temperature of 11000C. The molten glass
can be given any desired shape.
 Engineering Materials (Contd.)
• Properties of Glass
• The properties of glass vary with reference
to the composition of constituents, the
nature of surface, heat treatment
condition and its thickness.
• It can be polished to a very high degree
• It refracts or transmits light
• It is a good electrical insulator
• It is not affected by air, water and ordinary
chemical reagents
• It is capable of being worked in an
innumerable number of ways. It can
blown, drawn or pressed.
 Engineering Materials (Cont’d.)
Uses of Glass
• Glass is used to manufacture lenses,
prisms, mirrors, etc which are used in
optical instrument. Glass can be
reinforced with metallic fibers to make it
suitable for use in wind screens of
automobile and as window panels in
residential buildings to prevent it from
shattering.
HEAT ENGINE

38
 External Combustion Engine
Here, the working medium, the steam, is generated in
a boiler, located outside the engine and allowed in to
the cylinder to operate the piston to do mechanical
work.

39
 Internal Combustion Engine
INTRODUCTION

The internal combustion engine is a heat

engine that converts chemical energy in a fuel
into mechanical energy
Chemica
l
Hea
t Mechanic
al
This thermal energy raises the temperature and
pressure of the gases within the engine, and the high-
pressure gas then expands against the mechanical
mechanisms of the engine. This expansion is converted
by the mechanical linkages of the engine to a rotating
crankshaft, which is the output of the engine.
 CLASSIFICATION OF I.C. ENGINES
Internal combustion engines may be
classified as given below:
• According to cycle of operation:
(i)Two stroke cycle engines
(ii)Four stroke cycle engines.
• According to cycle of combustion:
(i)Otto cycle engines (combustion at
constant volume)
(ii)Diesel cycle engines (combustion at
constant pressure)
(iii) Dual-combustion or Semi-Diesel cycle
engine (combustion partly at constant
volume and partly at constant pressure).
 CLASSIFICATION OF I.C. ENGINES
(Cont’d.)
• According to arrangement of
cylinder:
Single cylinder engine.
In-line or straight engines.
V-engine, etc.
• According to their uses:
(i)Stationary engine (ii) Portable
engine
(iii)Marine engine (iv)
 CLASSIFICATION OF I.C. ENGINES
(Cont’d.)
• According to the speed of the engine:
(i)Low speed engine (ii) Medium
speed engine
(iii)High speed engine
• According to method of ignition:
(i)Spark-ignition engine
(ii) Compression-ignition engine.
• According to method of cooling the
cylinder:
(i) Air-cooled engine. (ii) Water-cooled
engine.
 APPLICATION OF I.C. ENGINES
The I.C. engines are generally used for:
(i)Road vehicles (e.g., motorcycle,
buses etc.)
(ii)Aircraft
(iii)Locomotive
(iv) Construction in civil engineering
equipment such as bull-dozer, scraper,
and power shovels.
(v) Pumping set
(vi) Hospital
(vii) Several industrial applications.
 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF I.C ENGINE
• Cylinder: A cylindrical vessel in which a piston
makes an up and down motion.
• Piston: A cylindrical component making an up
and down movement in the cylinder.
 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF I.C ENGINE
• Piston ring: It is a split expansion ring, placed in the groove of
the piston. The function of the ring are as follows :
 It forms a gas tight combustion chamber for all positions of piston
and to reduces contact area between cylinder wall and piston wall
 Preventing friction losses and excessive wear and controls the
cylinder lubrication.
Compression ring: They prevent leakage of gases from the cylinder
and helps increasing compression pressure inside the cylinder.
Oil ring: They control the distribution of lubrication oil in the cylinder
and the piston.
 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF I.C ENGINE
• Crankshaft:
• It is the main shaft of an engine which converts the
reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion of
the flywheel. Usually the crankshaft is made of drop
forged steel or cast steel.
• journal, The part to which connecting rod is attached is
known as crank journal. Crankshaft is provided with
counter weights throughout its length to have counter
balance of the unit
 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF I.C ENGINE
• Piston Pin:
 It is also called wrist pin or gudgeon pin.
 Piston pin is used to join the connecting rod to the
piston.
• Connecting rod:
 It is special type of rod
 It transmits power of combustion to the crankshaft and
makes it rotate continuously. It is usually made of drop
forged steel.
 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF I.C ENGINE (CONT’D.)
Crankcase: Cover bottom of the cylinder and holds
engines lubricating oil and other components. It provides
a reservoir for the lubricating oil. It also serves as a
mounting unit for such accessories as the oil pump, oil
filter, starting motor and ignition components.
Flywheel
•It stores energy during power stroke and returns back
the energy during the idle. The rear surface of the
flywheel serves as one of the pressure surfaces for the
clutch plate.
•Sometime the flywheel serves the purpose of a pulley for
transmitting power.
 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF I.C ENGINE (CONT’D.)
Camshaft:
 It is a shaft which raises and lowers the inlet and
exhaust valves at proper times. Camshaft is driven by
crankshaft by means of gears, chains or sprockets.
•The speed of the camshaft is exactly half the speed of
the crankshaft in four stroke engine. Camshaft operates
the ignition timing mechanism, lubricating oil pump and
fuel
•pump. It is mounted in the crankcase, parallel to the
crankshaft.
 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF I.C ENGINE (CONT’D.)
Timing gear:
•Timing gear is a combination of gears, one gear of which
is mounted at one end of the camshaft and the other gear
at the crankshaft. Camshaft gear is bigger in size than
that of the crankshaft gear and it has twice as many teeth
as that of the crankshaft gear. For this reason, this gear is
commonly called half time gear. Timing gear controls the
timing of ignition, timing of opening and closing of valve
as well as fuel injection timing.
 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF I.C ENGINE (CONT’D.)
• Inlet manifold:
• It is that part of the engine through which air or air-fuel
mixture enters into the engine cylinder. It is fitted by
the side of the cylinder head.
• Exhaust manifold:
• It is that part of the engine through which exhaust
gases go out of the engine cylinder. It is capable of
withstanding high temperature of burnt gases. It is
fitted by the side of the cylinder head.
 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF I.C ENGINE (CONT’D.)
• Cylinder block: It is the solid casting body which
includes the cylinder and water jackets (cooling fins in
the air cooled engines).
• Cylinder head: It is a detachable portion of an engine
which covers the cylinder and includes the combustion
chamber, spark plugs or injector and valves.
major components of spark ignition engine
(Cont’d.)
major components of spark ignition engine
(Cont’d.)
 TERMS CONNECTED WITH I.C.
ENGINES
• Top dead center -When the piston is at the top of its stroke, it is
said to be at the top dead center (TDC),
• Bottom dead center - when the piston is at the bottom of its
stroke, it is said to beat its bottom dead center (BDC).
• Scavenging The process of removal of burnt or exhaust gases
from the engine cylinder is known as scavenging.
 TERMS CONNECTED WITH I.C.
ENGINES
Bore- Bore is the diameter of the engine cylinder.
Stroke - It is the linear distance traveled by the piston
from Top dead center (TDC) to Bottom dead center
(BDC).
 TERMS CONNECTED WITH I.C.
ENGINES
Stroke-bore ratio -The ratio of length of stroke (L) and diameter
of bore (D) of the cylinder is called stroke-bore ratio (L/D). In
general, this ratio varies between 1 to 1.45 and for tractor engines,
this ratio is
about 1.25.
Swept volume - It is the volume (A x L) displaced by one stroke of
the piston where A is the cross sectional area of piston and L is the
length of stroke
 TERMS CONNECTED WITH I.C. ENGINES
(Cont’d.)
• Compression ratio – It is the ratio of the volume of
the cylinder at the beginning of the compression stroke
to that at the end of compression stroke, i.e. ratio of
total cylinder volume to clearance volume. The
Compression ratio of diesel engine varies from 14:1 to
22:1 and that of carburetor type engine (spark ignition
engine) varies from 4:1 to 8:1.
 TERMS CONNECTED WITH I.C. ENGINES
(Cont’d.)
• Piston displacement: The volume
displaced or covered by the piston when it
moves from TDC to BDC
• Clearance volume: The volume contained
in the cylinder above the top of the piston,
when the piston is at top dead centre is
called the “clearance volume”.
• Compression ratio: It is ratio of total
cylinder volume to clearance volume.
VS  VC
Compression ratio (r); r
VC
• Where; = Swept volume, = Clearance
 TERMS CONNECTED WITH I.C. ENGINES
(Contd.)
• Ignition Delay (I.D.): It is the time interval between
ignition initiation and the actual start of combustion.
• Air-Fuel Ratio (A/F): It is the ration of the air to mass
of fuel input into engine.
• Fuel-Air Ratio (F/A):It is the ratio of fuel to mass of
air input into engine.
 FOUR STROKE ENGINES (Spark Ignition
Engines)
• Otto engines. The four stroke-cycles is used
in petro engines, gas engines, light oil engines
in which the mixture of air and fuel are drawn
in the engine cylinder. Since ignition in these
engines is due to a spark, therefore they are
called spark ignition engines. The various
strokes of a four stroke cycle engine are
discussed below.
• Suction stroke. During this stroke (also known as
induction stroke) the piston moves from top dead
centre (T.D.C.) to bottom dead centre (B.T.C.); the inlet
valve opens and proportionate fuel air mixture is
sucked in the engine cylinder. The exhaust valve
remains closed throughout the stroke.
 FOUR STROKE ENGINES (Cont’d.)
Compression stroke: In this stroke, both valves are
closed and the piston starts its movement to the
minimum volume position (upward direction in the
cylinder) and compresses the fuel mixture. During the
compression process, pressure, temperature and the
density of the fuel mixture increases.
Power stroke: When the piston reaches the minimum
volume position, the spark plug ignites the fuel mixture
and burns. The fuel produces power that is transmitted
to the crank shaft mechanism.
Exhaust stroke: In the end of the power stroke, the
exhaust valve opens. During this stroke, the piston starts
its movement in the minimum volume position. The open
exhaust valve allows the exhaust gases to escape the
cylinder. At the end of this stroke, the exhaust valve
closes,
Internal Combustion Engine

65
 Internal Combustion Engine
Four-Stroke Cycle C.I. Engine

66
Dr. Eng. Mohamed Hassan Ahmed Mohamed 27.06.25
Internal Combustion Engine
 Internal Combustion Engines
– four stroke -

Advantages:
•dedicated lubrication system
makes to engine more wear
resistant
•better efficiency that 2-stroke
engine no oil in the fuel – less
pollution
Drawbacks:
•complicated constriction
•should work in horizontal
position due to lubrication
 Internal Combustion Engines
– multi-cylinder -
Cylinder inline
layouts
flat

V
 Diesel engines (four stroke cycle) or
Compression ignition engines.
Diesel engines (four stroke cycle) or
Compression ignition engines.
• Intake stroke: Only air is drawn into the
cylinder.
• Compression stroke: The air is compressed in
the cylinder which raises its temperature very
high.
• Power stroke: Just at the end of the
compression stroke, a fine spray of diesel is
injected into the hot compressed air which
ignites the fuel instantly, and expanding gases
drive the piston for the power stroke.
• Exhaust stroke: Similar to the exhaust stroke
for the petrol engine in all the burnt gases are
 Firing order
Firing order: The order or sequence in which
the firing takes place, in different cylinders of a
multicylinder engine is called Firing Order. In
case of SI engines, the distributor connects the
spark plugs of different cylinders according to
Engine Firing Order.
Advantages
(a)A proper firing order reduces engine vibrations
(b)Maintains engine balancing. (c) Secures an
even flow of power.
Firing order differs from engine-to-engine.
Probable firing orders for different engines are :
− 3 cylinder = 1-3-2 − 4-cylinder engine (inline)
 Diesel engines (four stroke cycle) or
Compression ignition engines.
• Special features of diesel engine
• Engine has high compression ratio ranging from 14:1 to
22:1.
• During compression stroke, the engine attains high
pressure ranging from 30 to 45 kg/cm2 and high
temperature of about 500°C.
• At the end of the compression stroke, fuel is injected
into the cylinder through injectors (atomizers) at a very
high pressure ranging from 120 to 200 kg/cm2.
• Ignition takes place due to heat of compression only.
• There is no external spark in diesel engine.
• Diesel engine has better slogging or lugging ability i.e.
it maintains higher torque for a longer duration of time
at a lower speed.
 FOUR STROKE ENGINES (Cont’d.)
Internal Combustion Engines (Diesel )
Advantages:
•self ignition (without electrical spark plug)
•better efficiency
•reliability
•higher durability
•supplied with worse fuels
Drawbacks:
•more NOx production
•more expensive production
•more weight
•louder
•lower revolutions
 TWO-CYCLE ENGINE
• In two stroke cycle engines, the whole sequence of events
i.e., suction, compression, power and exhaust are
completed in two strokes of the piston i.e. one revolution
of the crankshaft. There is no valve in this type of engine.
•  Gas movement takes place through holes called ports in
the cylinder. The crankcase of the engine is air tight in
which the crankshaft rotates.
• Upward stroke of the piston (Suction +
Compression)
• When the piston moves upward it covers two of the ports.
• This traps the charge of air- fuel mixture drawn already in
to the cylinder.
• The piston compresses the charge and also uncovers the
suction port.
• Now fresh mixture is drawn through this port into the
crankcase.
 TWO-CYCLE ENGINE
• Just before the end of this stroke, the mixture in the
cylinder is ignited.
• Thus, during this stroke both suction and compression
events are completed.
 TWO-CYCLE ENGINE
• Downward stroke (Power + Exhaust)
• Burning of the fuel rises the temperature and pressure of the
gases .
• When the piston moves down, it closes the suction port.
• Further piston uncovers first the exhaust port and then the
transfer port. Now fresh charge in the crankcase moves in to the
cylinder through the transfer port During the downward stroke of
the piston power and exhaust events arecompleted..
• Advantages:
• Lack of valves, which simplifies construction
and lowers weight
• fire once every revolution, which gives a
significant power boost
• can work in any orientation
• good power to weight ratio
• Drawbacks:
• lack of a dedicated lubrication system makes
the engine to wear faster.
• necessity of oil addition into the fuel
• low efficiency
• produce a lot of pollution
COMPARISON BETWEEN A PETROL ENGINE
AND DIESEL ENGINE
S/No Petrol engine Diesel engine

1 Air petrol mixture is sucked in Only air is sucked during suction

the engine cylinder during stroke.
suction stroke.
2 Power is produced by spark Power is produced by
ignition. compression ignition.

3 Spark plug is used. Employs an injector.

4 Occupies less space. Occupies more space.

5 Light in weight. Heavy in weight.

6 Petrol being volatile is Diesel is non-dangerous as it is

dangerous non-volatile.
7 Used in cars and motor cycles Used in heavy duty vehicles like
trucks, buses and heavy
machinery.
 ENGINE EMISSIONS AND AIR
POLLUTION
The exhaust of automobiles is one of the major contributors to the
world's air pollution problem. Recent research and development
has made major reductions in engine emissions, but a growing
population and a greater number of automobiles means that the
problem will exist for many years to come.
Four major emissions produced by internal combustion engines
are hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen
(NOx), and solid particulates.
1- Hydrocarbons: are fuel molecules which did not get burned
and smaller non-equilibrium particles of partially burned fuel.
2- Carbon monoxide: occurs when not enough oxygen is present to fully
react all carbon to CO2 or when incomplete air-fuel mixing occurs due to
the very short engine cycle time.
3- Oxides of nitrogen: are created in an engine when high combustion
temperatures cause some normally stable N2 to dissociate into monatomic
nitrogen N, which then combines with reacting oxygen.
4- Solid particulates: are formed in compression ignition engines and
are seen as black smoke in the exhaust of these engines. Other emissions
found in the exhaust of engines include aldehydes, sulfur, 27.06.25
lead, and