#Ch2.1 Component Modeling
#Ch2.1 Component Modeling
Control Engineering
Component Modeling
Ram Pd.
Pandey
2021
Chapter 2:
Component Modeling
1) Differential equation and transfer function notations
2) Modeling of Mechanical Components: Mass, spring and damper
3) Modeling of Electrical Components: Inductance, Capacitance,
Resistance, DC and AC motor , Transducers and Operational Amplifiers
4) Electric circuit analogies ( force-voltage analogy and force-current analogy)
5) Linearized approximations of non-linear characteristics
Basics:
• The control systems can be represented with a set of mathematical
equations known as mathematical model. These models are
useful for analysis and design of control systems.
• Analysis of control system means finding the output when we know
the input and mathematical model.
• Design of control system means finding the mathematical model
when we know the input and the output.
• The following mathematical models are mostly used.
1. Differential equation model
2. Transfer function model
3. State space model
Chapter 2:
Component Modeling
1) Differential equation and transfer function notations
2) Modeling of Mechanical Components: Mass, spring and damper
3) Modeling of Electrical Components: Inductance, Capacitance,
Resistance, DC and AC motor , Transducers and Operational Amplifiers
4) Electric circuit analogies ( force-voltage analogy and force-current analogy)
5) Linearized approximations of non-linear characteristics
Differential equation
• Differential equation model is a time domain mathematical model
of control systems.
• Describes dynamics of the system[ Eg mechanical, electrical,
thermal system etc]
• Obtained by using physical laws [ Eg Newton’s law for mechanical system
and Kirchhoff’s laws for electrical systems. ]
• Follow these steps for differential equation model.
1. Apply basic laws to the given control system.
2. Get the differential equation in terms of input and
output by eliminating the intermediate variables
Example for differential
Consider the followingequation:
electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit consists of resistor,
circuit is 𝑣𝑖 and the voltage across the capacitor is the output voltage 𝑣𝑜. Write differential equation of
inductor and capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected in series. The input voltage applied to this
system.
Solution
Step 1: Apply basic laws to the given control system
𝑣𝑖 = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑑𝑖 𝐿 + 𝑣0
KVL equation for this circuit is:
𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2𝐿𝐶
𝑣0 𝑑𝑡𝑅2 + 𝑣 +
0 1 1
+ 𝑣0 𝑣𝑖
𝑑𝑡0
𝑑𝑣 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿
=
2 𝐶 𝐶
• Following steps are used to obtain the transfer function of the given system:
1. Write the differential equations for the given system:
2. Take the Laplace transform of the equations obtained in step 1, with assumptions all initial conditions are zero.
3. Take the ratio of transformed output to input.
4. The ratio of transformed output to input, obtained in step 3 is the required transfer function of the given system
Example of Transfer Function:
Derive Transfer function for the system shown in figure:
Solution,
Step 1) Write the differential equations for the given
+ 1 𝑣0 1
Previously, we got the differential equation of an 𝑑2𝑣0 𝑅
system:
+ 𝑣𝑖
𝑑𝑡0
𝑑𝑣 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿
=
electrical system as:
2 𝐶 𝐶
Step 2) Take the Laplace transform of the equations obtained in step 1, with assumptions all initial conditions are zero.
𝑠 1 1
Apply Laplace transform on both sides,
𝑠2𝑉 𝑠 𝑅 𝑜 𝑉 𝑠 𝑉 𝑠 𝑉𝑖
0
𝐿 0
𝐿
+ + (𝑠)
𝐿 1 𝐶 = 1 𝐶
𝑠2 𝑅 𝑠 + 𝑉 𝑠 𝑉𝑖
𝐿 𝑜 𝐿
+ = (𝑠)
Step 3) Take the ratio of transformed output to input. 𝐿 𝐶 𝐶
1
𝑉0 𝑠
𝐿𝐶
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑠 2 𝑅 𝑠+ 1
𝐿
(𝑠)
Step 4) The ratio of transformed output to input, obtained in step+3 is the
𝐿𝐶
1
required transfer function of the given system
𝑉 0
𝑠 = 𝐿𝐶
𝑇. 𝐹 = 𝑉 𝑠2 𝑅 𝑠+ 1
𝐿
𝑖
(𝑠) + system.
The above equation is a transfer function of the second order electrical 𝐿𝐶 The transfer function model of this system is shown in
figure.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Transfer
Function:
Advantages of Transfer function:
• Gives gain of the system
• Convert time-domain equations to simple algebraic equations
• Determine poles, zeros & characteristic equation ( i.e denominator=0)
• Stability study
• Determine output response for given input
• Obtain differential equation
𝑭𝑴 ∝ 𝒂 𝑭𝑩 ∝ 𝒗 𝑭𝑲 ∝ 𝒙
𝑭𝑴 = 𝑴𝒂 = 𝑴𝒅𝟐𝒙 𝑭𝒗 = 𝑩𝒗 = 𝑩𝒅𝒙 𝑭𝑲 = 𝑲𝒙
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝑭 = 𝑭𝑲 = 𝑲𝒙
𝟐
𝑭 = 𝑭𝑴 = 𝑴𝒅𝟐𝒙 𝑭 = 𝑭𝒗 = 𝑩𝒅𝒙
𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝑭 = applied force
Where,
𝑭 = applied force
Where,
𝑭 = applied force
Where,
𝐹 𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝐹𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑑2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝐹 =𝑀
Example :Modeling of Translational
Mechanical Systems
Example:
Write the differential equations governing the mechanical system shown in fig 1 & determine the transfer function.
Signal Laplace
Transform
𝑓(𝑡) 𝐹(𝑠)
𝑥1 𝑋1(𝑠)
𝑥 𝑋(𝑠)
Solution:
Step 1: Assume the system is in equilibrium.
Step 2: Assume some displacement for each mass (i.e 𝑥1 &
𝑥). For given system,
Input = Applied force=𝑓(𝑡)
=𝑥
Output= Final displacement
FBD of 𝑀1 FBD of 𝑀2
in the system.
• Let the displacement of mass 𝑀1 be 𝑥1. The • The displacement of mass 𝑀2 is 𝑥. The
opposing forces acting on mass 𝑀1 are marked opposing forces acting on 𝑀2 are marked as
𝑓𝑚2, 𝑓𝑏2, 𝑓𝑏 & 𝑓𝑘
𝑓𝑚1, 𝑓𝑏1, 𝑓𝑏, 𝑓𝑘1 & 𝑓𝑘.
as
𝑑 2𝑥 1
𝑓𝑚1 = 𝑀1 𝑑 2𝑥
𝑑𝑡2 𝑓𝑚2 = 𝑀2 2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
𝑓𝑏1 = 𝐵1 1 ;
𝑑𝑡
𝑓𝑏2 = 𝐵𝑑𝑥
𝑓𝑘1 = 𝐾1𝑥1 2
𝑑𝑡
𝑓𝑏 = 𝐵𝑑 𝑑
𝑓𝑏 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑥1 − 𝑥 ; 𝑥 − 𝑥1 ;
Step 4: Apply Newton's law of motion to each diagram, using the convention that any force acting in the
direction of assumed displacement is positive.
displacement (𝜃)
having moment of inertia (J), then it is friction of the dashpot. This opposing Opposing torque is proportional to angular
opposing torque 𝑻𝑱
opposed by an torque is proportional to the angular of the torsional
due to the velocity(𝐰) of the body. Assume the spring. Assume that the moment of
moment of moment of inertia and elasticity are inertia and friction are negligible.
inertia. negligible.
opposing torque is proportional to angular
acceleration(𝒂) of the body. Assume elasticity
and friction are negligible.
𝑻𝑱 ∝ 𝒂 𝑻𝑩 ∝ 𝒘 𝑻𝑲 ∝ 𝜽
𝒅𝟐𝜽 𝑻𝑩 = 𝑩𝒘 = 𝑩𝒅𝜽 𝑻𝑲 = 𝑲𝜽
𝑻𝑱 = 𝑱𝒂 = 𝑱 𝒅𝒕
𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝑻 = 𝑻𝑲 = 𝑲𝜽
𝒅𝟐𝜽
𝑻 = 𝑻𝑱 = 𝑱 𝑻 = 𝑻𝑩 = 𝑩𝒅𝜽
𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝑻= applied torque
where,
𝑻𝑱 =opposing torque due to moment of inertia 𝑻𝑩 =opposing torque due to the rotational
𝑲 =torsional spring constant
torsional spring
𝑱 = moment of inertia 𝑩 = rotational friction coefficient 𝜽 = angular displacement
friction of dashpot
𝜶 = angular acceleration 𝝎 =angular velocity
𝜽 = angular displacement 𝜽 =angular displacement
2) Modeling of Rotational
Mechanical
So, for rotational system: Systems
&
• Three forces that resists rotational motion of applied torque T are inertial
𝑇𝐽 , 𝑇𝐵 𝑇𝐾
,damping and spring torque i.e
0
𝑇 = 𝑇𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 + 𝑇 𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 +
𝑇𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔= −∑𝑇
∑𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑑2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑇=𝐽 +𝐵 +
𝑘𝜃
𝑑𝑡2 𝑑𝑡
Example : Modeling of Rotational
Mechanical Systems
Example 1: Modeling of Rotational Mechanical
Systems
Summary for Modeling of
Mechanical
Translational systemSystems Rotational motion
Mechanical Components Force that resists Mechanical Components Torque that resist
for translational motion translational motion For rotational motion rotational motion
Mass(𝑀) Inertial force: Moment of Inertia(J) Inertial torque:
𝑑 2𝑥
𝐹𝑀 =𝑀 𝑇𝐼 = 𝑑
𝐽𝜃
2
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑇𝐷 = 𝐵𝑑 𝜃
Damper(𝐵) Damping force:
𝑑𝑥
2
𝐹𝐷 = 𝐵 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Mass(𝑀),Spring(𝐾) & Damper(𝐵) &
𝐹 =𝑀 +𝐵 + +𝑘𝜃
Torsional spring(K)
𝑘𝑥
Damper(𝐵)
𝑑𝑡2
𝑑𝑡
Chapter 2:
Component Modeling
1) Differential equation and transfer function
notations
2) Modeling of Mechanical Components: Mass,
spring and damper
3) Modeling of Electrical Components: Inductance, Capacitance,
Resistance, DC and AC motor , Transducers and Operational Amplifiers
4) Electric circuit analogies ( force-voltage analogy and force-current analogy)
5) Linearized approximations of non-linear characteristics
Basic Elements of Electrical Systems: Resistance
vR (t ) iR (t )R
VR (s) I R (s)R
Basic Elements of Electrical Systems: Inductance
vc(t ) C c1
• The Laplace transform
i of the above equation (assuming
(t )dt
there is no charge stored in the capacitor) is
1
Vc (s) Cs Ic
(s)
Modeling of Electrical Components: Inductance,
Capacitance, and Resistance
• Resistance, Inductance, and capacitance are the basic components of the electrical system.
• For modelling electrical system , the electrical network is formed by using R, L & C and voltage or
current source.
• Differential equation can be formed by using KCL for various nodes & KVL for various closed loop.
• Transfer function can be obtained by taking Laplace Transform of the differential equations and
rearranging them as a ratio of output to input
• The describing equation of above basic electrical components are given below:
Example: Modelling of Electrical Components: Inductance,
Capacitance, and Resistance
Example 1: Modelling of Electrical Components: Inductance,
Capacitance, and Resistance
Q) The two-port network shown in the following figure has 𝑣𝑖(𝑡) as the input voltage and
𝑣𝑜(𝑡)
𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑜 𝑠
𝑠
as the output voltage. Find the transfer function of the network.
44
Example 1: Modelling of Electrical Components: Inductance,
Capacitance, and Resistance
1 1
v i (t ) i(t ) R C v o (t ) C
i(t )dt initial conditions to zero.
i(t )dt transform of both equations, considering
• Taking Laplace
Vi (s) I (s)R 1 I (s) Vo (s)
1 I
Cs Cs ( s )
V i ( s ) I ( s ) ( R 1 ) CsV o ( s ) I
Cs (s)
• Substitute I(s) in equation on left
V i (s) CsVo (s)(R
1 Cs
)
Vo ( s ) 1
V i (s) Cs( R
1 Cs
)
V o (s) 1 1
The system has one pole at 1 RCs s
Vi (s) 1 0 RC
RCs 45
Modelling of DC motor
Modelling of DC Motor :
• Speed control of dc motor can be done using field control and
armature control method.
• Two types:
i) Field Controlled dc motor [ vary field
current]
ii) Armature Controlled dc motor [vary armature current]
i) Field Controlled dc motor [ vary field current] ii) Armature Controlled dc motor [vary armature
current]
𝑖𝑎 = 𝑖𝑓 =
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑎 =
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
i) T.F for Field Controlled dc motor [ vary
𝑑𝑖
field
developedcurrent] d) From field circuit:
𝑻𝒅(𝒕)
a) Motor electromagnetic torque
𝑉𝑓 = 𝑖𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝑓𝑑
𝑇𝑑 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑎𝜙 𝑖𝑎 𝑡 ∴ ∝ 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝜙 &𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 + 𝐿𝑓
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐼) 𝑡
𝑇𝑑 𝑡
𝑉𝑓 = 𝑅𝑓 +
Taking Laplace Transform on both sides.
𝐽𝑠 𝑠𝐿𝑓 . 𝐼𝑓 (𝑠)
where,
𝐾𝑎= constant 𝑉𝑓 = 𝑅𝑓 + +𝐵 𝜃 𝑠 ………. 2 𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚
�𝑡 𝑠
𝑠𝐿𝑓 . 𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐼𝑓 (1)
𝜙 = air-gap flux= 𝐾𝑓𝑖𝑓(𝑡) 𝜃 𝑠 �1
=
𝑇𝑑 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑓𝑖𝑓(𝑡) 𝑖 𝑡 = armature current 𝑉𝑓 𝑅𝑓 + 𝐽𝑠𝐾𝑡
𝑖𝑎 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑎𝐾𝑓. 𝑖𝑎 𝑡 . 𝑖𝑓(𝑡) 𝑠 𝑠𝐿𝑓 𝐾𝑡+ 𝐵 𝑠
𝑅𝑓
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝐾𝑡 =
=𝐾𝐾𝑡𝑎.𝐾𝑖𝑓𝑓. 𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑡 = =
𝑒, 𝐵 𝑠
𝑠𝐿
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑠 1
𝑇𝑑 𝑡 ∝ 𝑖𝑓(𝑡) 𝑓 � 𝐵 +
𝐽
+ 𝑅 1
=
𝑑2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
��
𝑠 1 + 𝑠𝑇 1 +�
b) Torque used:
𝑇𝐿 + 𝑡 �
𝑡 𝑑𝑡2 𝑑 𝑠𝑇
�
=𝐽 𝐵
𝑡
𝐾
where, � �
𝑇𝑑 𝑡 = 𝑇𝐿 𝐾
c) Torque developed = Torque used
(𝑡)
𝐾𝑡𝑖𝑓 𝑡
𝑑2𝜃
+ 𝑡
𝑑𝜃 = 𝑅𝑡𝑓.
𝑡 𝑑𝑡2 𝑑 𝐵𝐿
=𝐽 𝐵 𝑇𝑒 = = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑡 𝑅
𝐽
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑓
𝐾𝑡𝐼𝑓 𝑠 = 𝐽𝑠 +
Taking Laplace Transform on both sides,
𝐵 𝑠. 𝜃(𝑠)
𝑇𝑚 = = 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑓
�
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐼𝑓 𝑠 =𝐽𝑠 + 𝐵 𝑠 …………
𝜃 𝑠 (1)
�𝑡 �
�
ii) T.F for Armature Controlled dc motor [ vary
armature current]torque 𝑻 (𝒕)
𝑑𝑖
𝒅
d) From armature circuit:
𝑇𝑑 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑎 𝜙 𝑖𝑎(𝑡)
a) Motor developed electromagnetic
𝑉𝑎 𝑡 = 𝐿𝑎 +𝑅 𝑎 𝑎𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑒
𝑎
𝑡𝑑
(𝑡) 𝑑𝑖𝑎 𝑏 𝑑𝜃
= 𝐾𝑎𝐾𝑓𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑎(𝑡) = 𝑎 𝑡 + 𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑎 𝑡 𝑡𝑑
𝑡𝑑
𝐿 + 𝐾
= 𝐾𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑡 𝑡 𝑏 𝑡
where, Taking Laplace Transform,
𝑉𝑎 𝑠 = 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑠𝐿𝑎 𝐼𝑎 𝑠 +
where,
𝐾𝑡 = 𝐾𝑎𝐾𝑓𝑖𝑓 = 𝐾𝑏 𝑠 𝜃(𝑠)
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑅𝑎 + + 𝐾𝑏 𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐 𝑎 𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚
𝑠𝐿𝑎 𝐽𝑠 +𝐾𝐵 𝑠 𝑠𝜃 𝑠 𝑒𝐼 (1)
𝑇𝑑(𝑡) ∝ 𝑖𝑎(𝑡)
𝑡
𝑅𝑎 + 𝜃 𝑠𝐽𝑠 +
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑠
b) Torque used:
2
𝑇𝐿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡2
+ 𝑡 𝑠 𝐿𝑎 𝐾+𝑡 𝐵 𝐾𝑏𝐾𝑡 𝜃 𝑠
𝑑
=𝐽 𝐵
𝑡 𝜃 𝐾
=
𝑠𝑎
𝑉 𝑠[ 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑡𝐽𝑠 + +
𝑠 𝑠 𝐿𝑎 𝐵 𝐾𝑏𝐾𝑡]
𝑇𝑑 𝑡 = 𝑇𝐿 (𝑡)
c) Torque developed = Torque used
=
𝐿𝑎 𝐾𝐽 𝑠 + 1 +
𝑑2𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑠 𝑅𝑎𝐵 1 𝐵
𝑎 𝑡 𝐾𝑏𝐾𝑡
𝐾𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑡 = 𝑡𝐽 2 𝑡𝑑
𝑑𝑡 +𝑠𝑅
+𝐵
𝑡 = �𝑡
�
𝐽𝑠 + 𝐵 𝑠 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑅𝑎
𝐽
𝐼𝑎 𝑠 𝜃 …………
𝑇𝑚 = = 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
�
= 𝑠 (1) �
�𝑡
� 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
�
i) Field Control type speed control system ii) Armature Control type speed control system of
of a dc motor a dc motor
𝜃 1 𝐾𝑡 𝜃 𝐾𝑡
𝑇. 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑇. 𝐹 𝑠 =
𝑅𝑓 + 𝐽𝑠 + 𝐵 𝑠[ 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐽𝑠 + +
= =
𝑉𝑓 𝑠𝐿𝑓 𝑉𝑎 𝑠 𝐿𝑎 𝐵 𝐾𝑏𝐾𝑡]
𝑠 𝑠
𝑠
𝟏 𝒌𝒕 𝜽 𝟏 𝜽
𝑽𝒂(𝒔 𝒌𝒕 𝑱𝒔 + 𝑩 𝒔 𝒔�
𝑹𝒂 + 𝒔
) + ---
𝒔𝑳𝒂 �
𝑬𝒃(𝒔
)
𝒌𝒃
Summary: Modelling of DC motor
i) Field Controlled dc motor ii) Armature Controlled dc
motor
• Three phase squirrel cage induction motors have constant speed and
make them the first choice for industrial drives . But in control
system the basic requirement of motor is a high starting torque
over a wide range of speeds.
• AC motors holds way in fractional horse power range upto about
1
3
𝐻𝑝. Above this, the efficiency falls off
significantly..
Modelling of AC
AC servomotor motor
• The servomotors basically two phase induction motor and is used in low power servomechanism.
• It basically consists of a stator and a rotor as shown in fig below:
1) Stator
• carries two windings, uniformly distributed and displaced by 90oin space, from each other.
• One winding is called as main winding or fixed winding. The reference winding is excited by a constant voltage a.c. supply. or reference
winding
• The other winding is called as control winding. It is excited by the variable control voltage, which is obtained from a servo amplifier.
• The winding are 90oaway from each other and control voltage is 90oout of phase with respect to the voltage applied to the reference
winding. This is necessary to obtain rotating magnetic field.
• To reduce the loading on the amplifier, the input impedance i.e. the impedance of the control winding in increased by using a tuning
capacitor in parallel with the control winding
2) Rotor: squirrel cage rotor
• Built with high resistance so that X/R ratio is small and torque slip characteristics is nearly linear in contrast to the highly non-linear
characteristics with large X/R ratio.
• Diameter is kept small in order to reduce inertia and thus obtain good accelerating characteristics
Torque-Speed characteristics of AC
Servomotor Torque
Speed
𝑇𝑠 = 𝐾𝑚𝑒𝑒
• Stall(Starting) torque is the function of control winding voltage;
𝑛𝑙 𝑤 = no load
𝐾𝑚𝑒𝑒
• And slope of the curve= where,
𝑤 𝑛𝑙
speed
• speed
The torque This slope is denotedofby
characteristics acmotor viscousare
servo meter shown in, 𝐵
coefficient 𝑚
above figure and its torque equation is given by the
𝑇 = 𝐾𝑚𝑒𝑒 − 𝐵𝑚 𝜔
following an expression.
𝐾𝑚
where,
𝐵𝑚 = 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
.. = 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
T.F of AC
1) Motor developed torque:
𝑇𝑚
Servomotor
=𝐾 𝑒 −
𝑚 𝑒
𝐵𝑚𝑤
𝐽𝑑2𝜃
2) Load torque:
𝑇𝐿 =
+
𝑑𝑡2
𝐵𝐿𝑤
𝐽𝑑2
𝜃𝑑𝑡2 + 𝐵𝐿𝑤 = 𝐾𝑚𝑒𝑒
− 𝐵𝑇𝑚𝐿𝑤= 𝑇𝑚
3) At balanced condition:
𝐽𝑑 2
+ 𝐵𝑤 =
𝜃𝑑𝑡2
𝐾𝑚𝑒𝑒
where, 𝐵 = viscous damping coefficient due to motor and load= 𝐵𝐿
− 𝐵𝑚
𝐾= = 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐵
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇𝑚 =𝐽 = 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐵
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Modeling of
the important type of transducer Transducers
• Transducers are the electrical components which convert one form of energy into another form. The potentiometer is
which is used for mechanical displacement either linear or angular. Thus, it is an
electromechanical transducer which converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy.
• The potentiometer is the electrical type of transducer or sensor and it is of resistive type because it works on the
principle of change of resistance of the wire with its length. The resistance of the wire is directly proportional to the
length of the wire, thus as the length of the wire changes the resistance of the wire also changes.
• The potentiometer is an electric circuit in which the resistance can be changed manually by the sliding contacts. The
typical potentiometer is shown in the figure below. Here the voltage Vs is applied across the two points of the wire A
voltage 𝑉𝑜 is measured between the points A and C.
and B. C is the variable contact point between A and B and its position can be changed by the sliding contact. The
changes. Accordingly the output voltage 𝑉𝑜 between A and C also changes. The point C is the slider whose position is
• As per the resistance law of the conductor, the resistance of the conductor AC changes as the length of the wire AC
changed by the operator or by the motion of the body whose displacement is to be measured. The relationship
𝑉𝑜
between the length of the conductors and the voltage across them can be expressed as:
� =𝐴
𝐴𝐶 𝐵
� 𝑠
Figure :Potentiometer
1a) Potentiometer (POT): displacement transducer
• Two types: Linear POT & Rotatory POT
output voltage.
𝑣+ = 𝑣𝑖 ………
i.e., the
…… 1
𝑣 − = 𝐼𝑓 𝑅 … … … …
… (2) 𝑣0
𝑜𝑟, �𝐼 …………….
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜, � 𝑣0 =𝑅𝐼𝑓𝑓(𝑅.𝑓 (3)
+ 𝑅)
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 +𝑅
= 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑣0 2 &
(3) 𝑣− 𝑅 𝑅 ……………
= 𝑓 … (4)
𝐴𝑠 𝑤𝑒 + 𝑅
𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤,
𝑣+ −
𝑣0 = 𝑣− 𝑣0
𝑜𝑟, 𝑣0 = 𝐴𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑖 𝑣
𝑅𝑓
−
�
𝐴𝑣𝑜𝑙
𝑣0 𝑣0+ 𝑅
�
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑣𝑖 𝑅 …………
− 𝐴𝑣𝑜 𝑅1 … . . . (5)
𝑙 +𝑅
(i.e., the ratio of 𝑣0 to 𝑣𝑖 with no feedback applied) is infinite, we have:
• As the output from op-amp is no more than 15V and its open-loop voltage gain
𝑣0
=0……………………
𝐴𝑣𝑜 … . .
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 & 6 ,
6 𝑣0
𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
𝑙
0 = 𝑣𝑖
5 − 𝑅𝑓 𝑅
𝑣0 𝑅 +𝑓𝑅
𝑜 =
𝑣𝑖 + 𝑅
𝑟, 𝑣
�𝑅
�
∴𝐴 =1+ …………
0
= 𝑣𝑖 … . (7) 𝑓
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 − 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟.
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅 7 ,
𝑣0 = 1 𝑣𝑖 … … … … … . .
. (8)
𝑓
+
𝑅
• Voltage follower or Buffer
𝐼𝑓 𝑅𝑓 = 0, 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚
𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑣𝑖 7 ,
𝑣0
𝑜𝑟,=𝑣0 =
𝐴 = 1𝑣𝑖
This shows that the output exactly tracks the input voltage in sign & magnitude. Therefore, this circuit is
known as voltage follower or buffer.
ii) Inverting Mode
Input signal 𝑣𝑖 is applied to the inverting terminal − 𝑣𝑒 pin of op-amp. The non-inverting terminal
is
𝑣+ = 0
i.e, grounded.
𝑣+ − 𝑣− ≅ 0
As we know,
𝑅
𝑣01 = −𝑓 1
𝑅
If only 𝑣2 is applied, then
𝑣1output is
given by, 𝑅
𝑣02 = −𝑓 2
𝑅
If only 𝑣3 is applied, then
𝑣 output voltage is given by,
2
𝑅
𝑣03 = −𝑓 3
𝑅
𝑣3 together, then the output can
If all three signals are applied
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝑜𝑟, 𝑣0 =
𝑅1𝑓𝑣𝑓 + 𝑅 𝑣 +
− 2 2 𝑅
If 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅𝑓𝑅, then,
3
𝑣3
𝑣0 = −(𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3)
Thus, the output signal is the sum of all the input signals.
iii) Subtractor (Differential Amplifier)
The circuit that performs the subtraction of two input signals is known as Subtractor.
𝑜𝑟, 𝑣0 = 𝑅𝑓 𝑣2 𝑅𝑓� − 𝑅𝑓 𝑣
� � �
�
1
− 2 2
+ 2 3 1
If 𝑅𝑓1 = 𝑅𝑓2 = 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3, then 1 �
𝑣0 = − 𝑣2 − 𝑣1
� �
= 𝑣1 − 𝑣2
iv) Integrator
A circuit that performs the mathematical integration of input signal is an
integrator. For example, if the input signal to the integrator is a square wave,
𝑣+ = 0
the output will be a triangular wave.
𝑣+ − 𝑣− ≅ 0
As we know,
∴ 𝑣− = 𝑣+ = 0
𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣− 𝑑(𝑣0 − 𝑣−)
𝑜𝑟, +𝐶 =0
𝑅 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣0 𝑣𝑖
𝑜𝑟, 𝐶 =−
𝑑𝑡 𝑅
1 𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝑣0 = − 𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝑅𝐶
1 𝑜𝑟, ∫ 𝑑𝑣 = − ∫ 𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑡
0
𝑅𝐶
1 𝑜𝑟, 𝑣0 = − ∫ 𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝑅𝐶
v) Differentiator
A circuit that performs the mathematical differentiation of input signal is called a differentiator. For example, if
the input to the differentiator is triangular wave, the output will be a square wave.
𝑣+ = 0
𝐴𝑠 𝑣+ − 𝑣− ≅ 0
∴ 𝑣− = 𝑣+ = 0
KCL at terminal 𝑣− gives,
𝐼𝑐 + 𝑑(𝑣
𝐼=0
𝑖 − 𝑣−) 𝑣0
− 𝑣−
𝑜𝑟, 𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑣𝑖 + =
0 𝑅
0
𝑑 𝑖
𝑑𝑣 𝑑
∴ 𝑣 = −𝑅𝐶𝑡 = −𝜏𝑡
Chapter 2:
Component Modeling
1) Differential equation and transfer function
notations
2) Modeling of Mechanical Components: Mass,
spring and damper
3) Modeling of Electrical Components: Inductance, Capacitance,
Resistance, DC and AC motor , Transducers and Operational Amplifiers
4) Electric circuit analogies ( force-voltage analogy and force-current analogy)
5) Linearized approximations of non-linear characteristics
2.4)Electric Circuit Analogies (force-voltage analogy and force-
current analogy)
1. For a force-voltage analogy, RLC series circuit is used.
2. For a force-current analogy, RLC parallel circuit is used.
Electric circuit analogies:
• Two systems are said to be analogous to each other if the following
two conditions are satisfied.
i. The two systems are physically different
ii. Differential equation modelling of these two systems are
same
• Electrical systems and mechanical systems are two physically different
systems. There are two types of electrical analogies of translational
mechanical systems. Those are:
3. force voltage analogy
4. force current analogy.
2.4)Electric Circuit Analogies (force-voltage analogy and force-
𝐹 𝑉
Translational RLC series
𝑀 𝐿
𝐵 𝑅
𝐾 1
𝑑𝑖 𝐶
From Newton’s law, Apply KVL,
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑀 + 𝐹𝐵 +
𝑑𝑡
𝑥 𝑞
𝐹𝐾 1
𝑉 = 𝑖𝑅𝑑𝑞+𝐶 𝐿+ ∫
= 𝑅𝑑 𝑞 + 𝐿 𝑞2
𝑖 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑀𝑎 + 𝐵𝑣 +
𝑥̇ 𝐼
2
+ 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑘𝑥
=𝑀𝑑 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶𝑑2𝑞
…….. 𝑑𝑞
𝐵 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑘 𝑥 = +𝑅 + 𝑞 …………
2
1 2
(𝑎) 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 … (1) 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝐶
F-V analogy (Special case-I)
Special case-I
Special case-I
(𝑭 − 𝑽
𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚)
Example for
(𝑭 − 𝑽
𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚)
Example for
(𝑭 − 𝑽
𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚)
Example for
Torque-Voltage analogy (T-V
analogy) Mechanical System Electrical System
𝑇
Rotational
𝑉
Figure: Rotational Mechanical System Figure: RLC series circuit RLC series
𝐽 𝐿
𝐵 𝑅
𝐾 1
𝐶
𝑑𝑖
From D-Alembert’s principle, Apply KVL,
𝑇 = 𝑇𝐽 + 𝑇𝐵
1𝐿 𝜃 𝑞
+ 𝑇𝐾 𝑉 = 𝑖𝑅𝑑𝑞 + +
𝜃̇
= 𝑇𝑎 + 𝐵𝑤 +
𝐼
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑘𝜃 𝑅𝑑 𝑞 + 𝐿 𝑞2
∫ 𝑖=𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃 + 𝑑𝑑𝑡
2𝑞
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑞
=𝐽
𝑑𝑡
2 + 𝐵
𝑑𝑡 …….. =𝐶𝐿 2 + 𝑅 + 1𝑞 … … …
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶
+𝑘𝜃 (𝑏) … … (1)
(𝑻 − 𝑽
𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚)
Example for
Summary of 𝑭 − 𝑽 & 𝑻 − 𝑽 analogy
𝐹 𝑉
(Rotational) (RLC series)
𝑇 𝑉
𝑀 𝐿
𝐽 𝐿
𝐵 𝑅
𝐵 𝑅
𝐾
1
𝐾
𝐶 1
𝑥 𝐶
𝑞
𝜃 𝑞
𝑥̇ 𝐼
𝜃̇ 𝐼
Force-Current analogy (𝐹 − 𝐼
analogy) Force-Current analogy
𝐹 𝐼
(Translational) (RLC parallel)
𝑀 𝐶
𝐵 1
𝑅
𝐾 1
Apply KVL,
𝑉 𝑑
𝐿
𝑖 = 1 + ∫ 𝑉 𝑑𝑡 𝑉
From D-Alembert’s principle,
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑀 + 𝐹𝐵 + 𝐹𝐾 𝑅 𝐿 𝑑
+𝐶
1 𝑑𝜙 𝑑2 𝑡
= 𝑀𝑎 + 𝐵𝑣 + 𝑘𝑥
𝑑 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 +
=𝜙
𝑅
+
𝐿 𝜙 2 𝑥 𝜙
=𝑀 +𝐶
𝑑𝑡𝑑2 𝜙 𝑑𝑡 1 𝑑𝜙 𝜙
𝐵 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑘 𝑥 ……..
𝑥̇ 𝐸
2
= 𝐶 2+ + ………
𝑑𝑡 (𝑎) (2) 𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡
𝐿
Special case-I
Special case-I
Special case-I
(𝑭 − 𝑰
𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚)
Example for
(𝑭 − 𝑰
𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚)
Example for
Torque-Current analogy (𝑇 − 𝐼
analogy) Torque-Current analogy
𝑇 𝐼
(Rotational) (RLC parallel)
𝐽 𝐶
𝐵 1
𝑅
𝑉 1 𝐾 1
From D-Alembert’s principle, Apply KVL,
𝑇 = 𝑇𝐽 + 𝑇𝐵 𝑖 = + ∫𝑑𝑉
𝑅 𝐿
𝑉 𝑑𝑡 𝐿
+ 𝑇𝐾 +𝐶
= 𝑇𝑎 + 𝐵𝑤 + 𝑑𝑡
𝑘𝜃 = + + 𝜃 𝜙
𝑑 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑅 𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑𝜙 𝐿 𝜙
𝜃̇
=𝐽 + 𝐵 𝑑 𝜙 1 𝑑𝜙 𝜙
𝐸
2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 …….. 𝐶
=𝐶𝑑 2𝜙
𝑑𝑡 2 + + ………
2
+𝑘𝜃 (𝑏) 𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡
2
(2)
𝐿
(𝑻 − 𝑰
𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚)
Example for
Torque-Current analogy
𝑇 𝐼
(Rotational) (RLC parallel)
𝐽 𝐶
𝐵 1
𝑅
𝐾 1
𝐿
𝜃 𝜙
𝜃̇ 𝐸
Summary of 𝑭 − 𝑰 & 𝑻 − 𝑰 analogy
• A normal operation of the system may be around an equilibrium point in control engineering, and the
signals may be considered small signals around the equilibrium.
• However, if the system operates around an equilibrium point and if the signals involved are small signals,
then it is possible to approximate the nonlinear system by a linear system.
• Such a linear system is equivalent to the nonlinear system considered within a limited operating range.
Such a linearized model (linear, time-invariant model) is very important in control engineering.
• The linearization procedure to be presented in the following is based on the expansion of nonlinear
function into a Taylor series about the operating point and the retention of only the linear term.
Because we neglect higher-order terms of the Taylor series expansion, these neglected terms must
be small enough; that is, the variables deviate only slightly from the operating condition.
• To obtain a linear mathematical model for a nonlinear system, we assume that the variables deviate only
slightly from some operating condition. The necessary conditions during the linearized approximations
of non -linear characteristics are given below:
1. Principle of Homogeneity
2. Principle of Superposition
• Most physical processes are non-linear, & we therefore develop non-linear mathematical models. We can
linearize the non-linear models . The principal of linearization is shown in figure:
𝑑𝑥𝑤
W:
𝑑 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑤 𝑢
𝑤
)𝑡
If x experiences a small deviation ∆𝑥, from 𝑥𝑤 in the working point, and 𝑢 has a small deviation ∆𝑢, from 𝑢 𝑤 , we may
𝑑(𝑥𝑤 + ∆𝑥)
𝑤 + ∆𝑥, 𝑢
write,
𝑑 𝑤 +∆𝑢
= 𝑓 𝑡𝑥 𝛿
= 𝑓 𝑥𝑤 , 𝑢𝑤 𝑓 ∆𝑥 + … … .𝛿+ ∆𝑢 + … (𝑖. 𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑟
ቤ 𝑓
𝛿𝑢 � .. 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠)
+ ቤ�
𝛿𝑥 and we
�
�
𝛿𝑓
We assume higher order to be negligible
𝑑𝑥�
+ =𝑓 𝑥 𝛿𝑓 ∆𝑢 + …
get,
𝑑∆𝑥
𝑑� 𝑑𝑡 𝑤
𝛿 𝛿
,𝑢 𝑤 + ቤ� ∆𝑥 + … … . + � . .
𝑡 𝑑∆ 𝑥 ቤ� 𝑢 �
𝑥𝑑 = 𝑎∆𝑥 +
𝑏∆𝑥
where, 𝑡
𝛿 𝛿
𝑎 =𝑓 & 𝑏 =𝑓
𝛿 𝛿
ቤ ቤ
𝑥 𝑢
� �
� �
Example for
𝑑𝑥
We will linearize the equation:linearization
= 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑢
𝑑𝑡 𝑥+
2𝑢
=−
𝑑∆
𝑥𝑑 = 𝑎∆𝑥 +
𝑏∆𝑥
𝑡
where,
𝛿 1 𝛿
𝑎 =𝑓 ቤ = − � & 𝑏 =𝑓 ቤ =
𝛿𝑥 𝑊 𝛿𝑢
�� 2
To find 𝑎 and 𝑏 in the
𝑊
when 𝑢𝑤 = 1, the steady state model is
�
solved. 𝑑𝑥 2
working point
=0= 𝑥 +
− 𝑤
𝑑𝑡 2𝑢𝑤
𝑥𝑤 = 4𝑢 � =
2
4
𝑎 = −0.25
�
𝑏=
& 2