Methods of Proof
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Proof methods
We will discuss the following proof methods:
1. Direct proofs
2. Indirect proofs
3. Proof by contradiction
4. Counterexamples
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Direct proofs
Consider an implication: p→q
If p is false, then the implication is always true
Thus, show that if p is true, then q is true
To perform a direct proof, assume that p is
true, and show that q must therefore be
true
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Direct proof example
Show that the square of an even number is an
even number
Rephrased: if n is even, then n2 is even
Assume n is even
Thus, n = 2k, for some k (definition of even
numbers)
n2 = (2k)2 = 4k2 = 2(2k2)
As n2 is 2 times an integer, n2 is thus even
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Indirect proofs
Consider an implication: p→q
It’s contrapositive is ¬q→¬p
Is logically equivalent to the original implication!
If the antecedent (¬q) is false, then the
contrapositive is always true
Thus, show that if ¬q is true, then ¬p is true
To perform an indirect proof, do a direct
proof on the contrapositive
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Indirect proof example
If n2 is an odd integer then n is an odd integer
Prove the contrapositive: If n is an even integer,
then n2 is an even integer
Proof: n=2k for some integer k (definition of even
numbers)
n2 = (2k)2 = 4k2 = 2(2k2)
Since n2 is 2 times an integer, it is even
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Which to use
When do you use a direct proof versus an
indirect proof?
If it’s not clear from the problem, try direct
first, then indirect second
If indirect fails, try the other proofs
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Example of which to use
Prove that if n is an integer and n3+5 is odd, then n is
even
Via direct proof
n3+5 = 2k+1 for some integer k (definition of odd
numbers)
n3 = 2k+6
Umm…
n 3 2k 6
So direct proof didn’t work out. Next up: indirect
proof
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Example of which to use
Prove that if n is an integer and n3+5 is odd, then n is
even
Via indirect proof
Contrapositive: If n is odd, then n3+5 is even
Assume n is odd, and show that n3+5 is even
n=2k+1 for some integer k (definition of odd numbers)
n3+5 = (2k+1)3+5 = 8k3+12k2+6k+6 = 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3)
As 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3) is 2 times an integer, it is even
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Proof by contradiction
Given a statement p, assume it is false
Assume ¬p
Prove that ¬p cannot occur
A contradiction exists
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Proof by contradiction example 1
Theorem (by Euclid): There are infinitely many
prime numbers.
Proof. Assume there are a finite number of primes
List them as follows: p1, p2 …, pn.
Consider the number q = p1p2 … pn + 1
This number is not divisible by any of the listed primes
If we divided pi into q, there would result a remainder of 1
We must conclude that q is a prime number, not among
the primes listed above
This contradicts our assumption that all primes are in the list
p1, p2 …, pn. 11
Proof by contradiction example 2
Prove that if n is an integer and n3+5 is odd, then n is even
Rephrased: If n3+5 is odd, then n is even
Assume p is true and q is false
Assume that n3+5 is odd, and n is odd
n=2k+1 for some integer k (definition of odd numbers)
n3+5 = (2k+1)3+5 = 8k3+12k2+6k+6 = 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3)
As 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3) is 2 times an integer, it must be
even
Contradiction!
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Proof by contradiction example 3
Prove that √2 is irrational
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A note on proofs by contradiction
You can DISPROVE something by using a proof
by contradiction
You are finding an example to show that something is
not true
You cannot PROVE something by example
Example: prove or disprove that all numbers are
even
Proof by contradiction: 1 is not even
(Invalid) proof by example: 2 is even
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Disprove by example
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Disprove by example
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Mistakes in proofs
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