- The Relational Database Standard

SQL

Fundamentals of Database Systems

by Elmasri and Navathe, Ed. 3)

(Based on Chapter 8 in

Contents
1 Data Definition in SQL 2 Retrieval Queries in SQL 2.1 Simple SQL Queries 2.2 Aliases, * and DISTINCT, Unspecified WHEREclause 2.3 Set Operations, Nesting of Queries, Set Comparisons 2.4 The EXISTS function, NULLs, Explicit Sets 2.5 Aggregate Functions and Grouping 2.6 Substring Comparisons, Arithmetic, ORDER BY 2.7 Summary of SQL Queries
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Contents
3 4 5 6 7 Specifying Updates in SQL Relational Views in SQL Creating Indexes in SQL Embedding SQL in a Programming Language Recent Advances in SQL

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1 Data Definition in SQL

Used to CREATE, DROP, and ALTER the descriptions of the tables (relations) of a database

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CREATE TABLE:

Specifies a new base relation by giving it a name, and specifying each of its attributes and their data types

(INTEGER, FLOAT, DECIMAL(i,j), CHAR(n), VARCHAR(n))

A constraint NOT NULL may be specified on an attribute

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Example for CREATE TABLE

CREATE TABLE DEPARTMENT (DNAME VARCHAR(10) NOT NULL, DNUMBER INTEGER NOT NULL, MGRSSN CHAR(9), MGRSTARTDATE CHAR(9) );

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CREATE TABLE:

In SQL2, can use the CREATE TABLE command for specifying the primary key attributes, secondary keys, and referential integrity constraints (foreign keys) Key attributes can be specified via the PRIMARY KEY and UNIQUE phrases
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Example for CREATE TABLE

CREATE TABLE DEPT ( DNAME VARCHAR(10) NOT NULL, DNUMBER INTEGER NOT NULL, MGRSSN CHAR(9), MGRSTARTDATE CHAR(9), PRIMARY KEY (DNUMBER), UNIQUE (DNAME), FOREIGN KEY (MGRSSN) REFERENCES EMP );
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DROP TABLE:

Used to remove a relation (base table) and its definition The relation can no longer be used in queries, updates, or any other commands since its description no longer exists

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Example for DROP TABLE:

DROP TABLE DEPENDENT;

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ALTER TABLE:

Used to add an attribute to one of the base relations The new attribute will have NULLs in all the tuples of the relation right after the command is executed; hence, the NOT NULL constraint is not allowed for such an attribute
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Example for ALTER TABLE:

ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE ADD JOB VARCHAR(12);

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ALTER TABLE:

The database users must still enter a value for the new attribute JOB for each EMPLOYEE tuple. This can be done using the UPDATE command.

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Features Added in SQL2

CREATE SCHEMA REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY OPTIONS Many other features

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CREATE SCHEMA:

Specifies a new database schema by giving it a name

Example:

CREATE SCHEMA COMPANY ;

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REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY OPTIONS:

In SQL2, we can specify CASCADE or SET NULL or SET DEFAULT on referential integrity constraints (foreign keys)

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REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY OPTIONS:

CREATE TABLE DEPT ( DNAME VARCHAR(10) NOT NULL, DNUMBER INTEGER NOT NULL, MGRSSN CHAR(9), MGRSTARTDATE CHAR(9), PRIMARY KEY (DNUMBER), UNIQUE (DNAME), FOREIGN KEY (MGRSSN) REFERENCES EMP ON DELETE SET DEFAULT ON UPDATE CASCADE );
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REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY OPTIONS:

CREATE TABLE EMP ( ENAME VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL, ESSN CHAR(9), BDATE DATE, DNO INTEGER DEFAULT 1, SUPERSSN CHAR(9), PRIMARY KEY (ESSN), FOREIGN KEY (DNO) REFERENCES DEPT ON DELETE SET DEFAULT ON UPDATE CASCADE, FOREIGN KEY (SUPERSSN) REFERENCES EMP ON DELETE SET NULL ON UPDATE CASCADE );
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Many other features

Many other features, e.g., joined relations (all not likely to be all implemented)

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Additional Data Types in SQL2

Has DATE, TIME, TIMESTAMP and INTERVAL data types.

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Additional Data Types in SQL2

DATE:

Made up of year-month-day in the format yyyymm-dd

TIME:

Made up of hour:minute:second in the format hh:mm:ss

Made up of hour:minute:second plus i additional digits specifying fractions of a second format is hh:mm:ss:ii...i
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TIME(i):

Additional Data Types in SQL2

TIMESTAMP:

Has both DATE and TIME components Specifies a relative value rather than an absolute value Can be DAY/TIME intervals or YEAR/MONTH intervals Can be positive or negative when added to or subtracted from an absolute value, the result is an absolute value
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INTERVAL:

2 Retrieval Queries in SQL

SQL has one basic statement for retrieving information from a database; the SELECT statement This is not the same as the SELECT operation of the relational algebra

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2 Retrieval Queries in SQL

Important distinction between SQL and the formal relational model; SQL allows a table (relation) to have two or more tuples that are identical in all their attribute values. Hence, an SQL relation (table) is a multi-set (sometimes called a bag) of tuples; it is not a set of tuples
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2 Retrieval Queries in SQL

SQL relations can be constrained to be sets by specifying PRIMARY KEY or UNIQUE attributes, or by using the DISTINCT option in a query

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SELECT-FROM-WHERE

Basic form of the SQL SELECT

SELECT-FROM-WHERE block

SELECT FROM WHERE

<attribute list> <table list> <condition>

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SELECT-FROM-WHERE

<attribute list>

is a list of attribute names whose values are to be retrieved by the query

<table list>

is a list of the relation names required to process the query

is a conditional (Boolean) expression that identifies the tuples to be retrieved by the query
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<condition>

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2.1 Simple SQL Queries

Basic SQL queries correspond to using the SELECT, PROJECT, and JOIN operations of the relational algebra All subsequent examples use the COMPANY database

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Example of a simple query on one relation

Query 0:

Retrieve the birthdate and address of the employee whose name is 'John B. Smith'.

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Example of a simple query on one relation

Q0:

SELECT BDATE, ADDRESS FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE FNAME='John' AND MINIT='B' AND LNAME='Smith

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2.1 Simple SQL Queries

Similar to a SELECT-PROJECT pair of relational algebra operations; the SELECT-clause specifies the projection attributes and the WHERE-clause specifies the selection condition However, the result of the query may contain duplicate tuples
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Example of a simple query on two relation

Query 1:

Retrieve the name and address of all employees who work for the 'Research' department.

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Example of a simple query on two relation

Q1:

SELECT FROM WHERE AND

FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT DNAME='Research DNUMBER=DNO

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Example of a simple query on two relation

Similar to a SELECT-PROJECT-JOIN sequence of relational algebra operations (DNAME='Research') is a selection condition

(corresponds to a SELECT operation in relational algebra) (corresponds to a JOIN operation in relational algebra)
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(DNUMBER=DNO) is a join condition

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SQL 92

Q1:

SELECT FROM WHERE

FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS EMPLOYEE JOIN DEPARTMENT ON DNO=DNUMBER DNAME='Research

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Example of a simple query on three relation

Query 2:

For every project located in 'Stafford', list the project number, the controlling department number, and the department manager's last name, address, and birthdate.

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Example of a simple query on three relation

Q2:

SELECT FROM WHERE AND AND

PNUMBER, DNUM, LNAME, BDATE,ADDRESS PROJECT, DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE DNUM=DNUMBER MGRSSN=SSN PLOCATION='Stafford

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Example of a simple query on three relation

In Q2, there are two join conditions The join condition DNUM=DNUMBER relates a project to its controlling department The join condition MGRSSN=SSN relates the controlling department to the employee who manages that department
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SQL 92

Q2:

SELECT FROM

WHERE

PNUMBER, DNUM, LNAME, BDATE,ADDRESS (PROJECT JOIN DEPARTMENT, ON DNUM=DNUMBER) AS PD JOIN EMPLOYEE ON MGRSSN=SSN PLOCATION='Stafford
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2.2 Aliases, * and DISTINCT, Empty WHEREclause

Representation of Attributes

In SQL, we can use the same name for two (or more) attributes as long as the attributes are in different relations A query that refers to two or more attributes with the same name must qualify the attribute name with the relation name by prefixing the relation name to the attribute name Example:

EMPLOYEE.LNAME, DEPARTMENT.DNAME
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ALIASES:

Some queries need to refer to the same relation twice In this case, aliases are given to the relation name

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Example for aliases

Query 8: For each employee, retrieve the employee's name, and the name of his or her immediate supervisor.

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Example for aliases

Q8:

SELECT FROM WHERE

E.FNAME, E.LNAME, S.FNAME, S.LNAME EMPLOYEE E, EMPLOYEE S E.SUPERSSN=S.SSN

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Example for aliases

In Q8, the alternate relation names E and S are called aliases for the EMPLOYEE relation

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Example for aliases

We can think of E and S as two different copies of the EMPLOYEE relation;

E represents employees in the role of supervisees and S represents employees in the role of supervisors

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AS

Aliasing can also be used in any SQL query for convenience Can also use the AS keyword to specify aliases

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Example for AS

Q8:

SELECT FROM WHERE

E.FNAME, E.LNAME, S.FNAME, S.LNAME EMPLOYEE AS E, EMPLOYEE AS S E.SUPERSSN=S.SSN

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UNSPECIFIED WHERE-clause:

A missing WHERE-clause indicates no condition; hence, all tuples of the relations in the FROM-clause are selected This is equivalent to the condition WHERE TRUE

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Example

Query 9:

Retrieve the SSN values for all employees.

Q9:

SELECT FROM

SSN EMPLOYEE

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CARTESIAN PRODUCT

If more than one relation is specified in the FROM-clause and there is no join condition, then the CARTESIAN PRODUCT of tuples is selected

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Example for

CARTESIAN PRODUCT

Q10:

SELECT FROM

SSN, DNAME EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT

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Note

It is extremely important not to overlook specifying any selection and join conditions in the WHERE-clause; otherwise, incorrect and very large relations may result

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USE OF *:

To retrieve all the attribute values of the selected tuples, a * is used, which

stands for all the attributes

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Examples of * :

Q1C:

SELECT FROM WHERE

* EMPLOYEE DNO=5

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Examples of * :

Q1D:

SELECT FROM WHERE AND

* EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT DNAME='Research' DNO=DNUMBER

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USE OF DISTINCT:

SQL does not treat a relation as a set;

duplicate tuples can appear

To eliminate duplicate tuples in a query result, the keyword DISTINCT is used

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Example for DISTINCT :

For example,

the result of Q11 may have duplicate SALARY values whereas Q11A does not have any duplicate values

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Example for DISTINCT :

Q11:

SELECT FROM SELECT FROM

SALARY EMPLOYEE DISTINCT SALARY EMPLOYEE

Q11A:

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2.3 Set Operations, Nesting of Queries, Set Comparisons

SET OPERATIONS:

SQL has directly incorporated some set operations There is a union operation (UNION), and in some versions of SQL there are set difference (MINUS) and intersection (INTERSECT) operations

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SET OPERATIONS:

The resulting relations of these set operations are sets of tuples;

duplicate tuples are eliminated from the result The set operations apply only to union compatible relations ;
the two relations must have

the same attributes and the attributes must appear in the same order
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Example for UNION :

Query 4:

Make a list of all project numbers for projects that involve an employee whose last name is 'Smith' as a worker or as a manager of the department that controls the project.

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Example for UNION :

Q4:

(SELECT FROM WHERE AND AND UNION (SELECT FROM WHERE AND AND

PNAME PROJECT, DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE DNUM=DNUMBER MGRSSN=SSN LNAME='Smith') PNAME PROJECT, WORKS_ON, EMPLOYEE PNUMBER=PNO ESSN=SSN LNAME='Smith')
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NESTING OF QUERIES:

A complete SELECT query, called a nested query , can be specified within the WHERE-clause of another query, called the outer query Many of the previous queries can be specified in an alternative form using nesting
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Example for Nested Query

Query 1:

Retrieve the name and address of all employees who work for the 'Research' department.

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Example for Nested Query

Q1:

SELECT FROM WHERE

FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS EMPLOYEE DNO IN (SELECT DNUMBER FROM DEPARTMENT WHERE DNAME='Research' )

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Example for Nested Query

The nested query selects the number of the 'Research' department The outer query select an EMPLOYEE tuple if its DNO value is in the result of either nested query

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NESTING OF QUERIES:

The comparison operator IN compares a value v with a set (or multi-set) of values V, and evaluates to TRUE if v is one of the elements in V In general, we can have several levels of nested queries

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NESTING OF QUERIES:

A reference to an unqualified attribute refers to the relation declared in the innermost nested query In this example, the nested query is not correlated with the outer query

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CORRELATED NESTED QUERIES:

If a condition in the WHERE-clause of a nested query references an attribute of a relation declared in the outer query , the two queries are said to be

correlated

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CORRELATED NESTED QUERIES:

The result of a correlated nested query is different for each tuple (or

combination of tuples) of the relation(s) the outer query

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Example for Correlated Nested Query

Query 12:

Retrieve the name of each employee who has a dependent with the same first name as the employee.

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Example for Correlated Nested Query

Q12:

SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME FROM EMPLOYEE AS E WHERE E.SSN IN (SELECT ESSN FROM DEPENDENT WHERE ESSN=E.SSN AND E.FNAME=DEPENDENT_NAME)

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Example for Correlated Nested Query

In Q12, the nested query has a different result for each tuple in the outer query

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Correlated Nested Query

A query written with nested SELECT... FROM... WHERE... blocks and using the = or IN comparison operators can always be expressed as a single block query.

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Correlated Nested Query

For example, Q12 may be written as in Q12A

Retrieve the name of each employee who has a dependent with the same first name as the employee.

Query 12A:

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Correlated Nested Query

Q12A:

SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME FROM EMPLOYEE E, DEPENDENT D WHERE E.SSN=D.ESSN AND E.FNAME=D.DEPENDENT_NAME

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Example for CONTAINS

In Q3, the second nested query, which is not correlated with the outer query, retrieves the project numbers of all projects controlled by department 5

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2.4 The EXISTS function, NULLs, Explicit Sets

THE EXISTS FUNCTION:

EXISTS is used to check whether the result of a correlated nested query is empty (contains no tuples) or not

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Example for EXISTS

We can formulate Query 12 in an alternative form that uses EXISTS as Q12B below.
Retrieve the name of each employee who has a dependent with the same first name as the employee.
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Query 12:

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Example for EXISTS

Q12B:

SELECT FNAME, LNAME FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE EXISTS ( SELECT * FROM DEPENDENT WHERE SSN=ESSN AND FNAME=DEPENDENT_NAME)

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Example for NOT EXISTS

Query 6:

Retrieve the names of employees who have no dependents.

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Example for NOT EXISTS

Q6:

SELECT FNAME, LNAME FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE NOT EXISTS ( SELECT * FROM DEPENDENT WHERE SSN=ESSN)

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Example for NOT EXISTS

In Q6, the correlated nested query retrieves all DEPENDENT tuples related to an EMPLOYEE tuple. If none exist , the EMPLOYEE tuple is selected. EXISTS is necessary for the expressive power of SQL.
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EXPLICIT SETS:

It is also possible to use an explicit (enumerated) set of values in the WHERE-clause rather than a nested query.

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Example for EXPLICIT SETS

Query 13:

Retrieve the social security numbers of all employees who work on project number 1, 2, or 3.

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Example for EXPLICIT SETS

Q13:

SELECT DISTINCT ESSN FROM WORKS_ON WHERE PNO IN (1, 2, 3)

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NULLS IN SQL QUERIES:

SQL allows queries that check if a value is NULL (missing or undefined or not applicable) SQL uses IS or IS NOT to compare NULLs because it considers each NULL value distinct from other NULL values, so equality comparison is not appropriate .
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Example for NULL

Query 14:

Retrieve the names of all employees who do not have supervisors.

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Example for NULL

Q14:

SELECT FROM WHERE

FNAME, LNAME EMPLOYEE SUPERSSN IS NULL

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Note:

If a join condition is specified, tuples with NULL values for the join attributes are not included in the result

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2.5 Aggregate Functions and Grouping

AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS:

Include COUNT, SUM, MAX, MIN, and AVG

Grouping

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Examples for Aggregate Functions

Query 15:

Find the maximum salary, the minimum salary, and the average salary among all employees.

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Examples for Aggregate Functions

Q15:

SELECT FROM

MAX(SALARY), MIN(SALARY), AVG(SALARY) EMPLOYEE

Some SQL implementations may not allow more than one function in the SELECTclause
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Examples for Aggregate Functions

Query 16:

Find the maximum salary, the minimum salary, and the average salary among employees who work for the 'Research' department.

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Examples for Aggregate Functions

Q16:

SELECT MAX(SALARY), MIN(SALARY), AVG(SALARY) FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT WHERE DNO=DNUMBER AND DNAME='Research'

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Examples for Aggregate Functions

Queries 17 and 18:

Retrieve the total number of employees in the company (Q17), and the number of employees in the 'Research' department (Q18).

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Examples for Aggregate Functions

Q17:

SELECT COUNT (*) FROM EMPLOYEE

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Examples for Aggregate Functions

Q18:

SELECT FROM WHERE AND

COUNT (*) EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT DNO=DNUMBER DNAME='Research'

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GROUPING:

In many cases, we want to apply the aggregate functions to subgroups of tuples in a relation Each subgroup of tuples consists of the set of tuples that have the same value for the grouping attribute(s)

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GROUPING:

The function is applied to each subgroup independently SQL has a GROUP BY-clause for specifying the grouping attributes, which must also appear in the SELECTclause

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Examples for Grouping

Query 20:

For each department, retrieve the department number, the number of employees in the department, and their average salary.

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Examples for Grouping

Q20:

SELECT DNO, COUNT (*), AVG (SALARY) FROM EMPLOYEE GROUP BY DNO

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Examples for Grouping

In Q20, the EMPLOYEE tuples are divided into groups

each group having the same value for the grouping attribute DNO

The COUNT and AVG functions are applied to each such group of tuples separately The SELECT-clause includes only the grouping attribute and the functions to be applied on each group of tuples
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GROUPING

A join condition can be used in conjunction with grouping

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Examples for Grouping

Query 21:

For each project, retrieve the project number, project name, and the number of employees who work on that project.

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Examples for Grouping

Q21:

SELECT PNUMBER, PNAME, COUNT (*) FROM PROJECT, WORKS_ON WHERE PNUMBER=PNO GROUP BY PNUMBER, PNAME

In this case, the grouping and functions are applied after the joining of the two relations
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THE HAVING-CLAUSE:

Sometimes we want to retrieve the values of these functions for only those groups that satisfy certain conditions The HAVING-clause is used for specifying a selection condition on groups (rather than on individual tuples)

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Examples for Having

Query 22:

For each project on which more than two employees work , retrieve the project number, project name, and the number of employees who work on that project.

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Examples for Having

Q22:

SELECT FROM WHERE GROUP BY HAVING

PNUMBER, PNAME, COUNT (*) PROJECT, WORKS_ON PNUMBER=PNO PNUMBER, PNAME COUNT (*) > 2

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2.6 Substring Comparisons, ORDER BY

Arithmetic,

SUBSTRING COMPARISON:

The LIKE comparison operator is used to compare partial strings Two reserved characters are used: '%' (or '*' in some implementations)

replaces an arbitrary number of characters, and replaces a single arbitrary character

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'_'

Example for SUBSTRING COMPARISON

Query 25:

Retrieve all employees whose address is in Houston, Texas. Here, the value of the ADDRESS attribute must contain the substring 'Houston,TX'.

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Example for SUBSTRING COMPARISON

Q25:

SELECT FROM WHERE

FNAME, LNAME EMPLOYEE ADDRESS LIKE %Houston,TX%

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Example for SUBSTRING COMPARISON

Query 26:

Retrieve all employees who were born during the 1950s. Here, '5' must be the 8th character of the string (according to our format for date), so the BDATE value is '_______5_', with each underscore as a place holder for a single arbitrary character.

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Example for SUBSTRING COMPARISON

Q26:

SELECT FROM WHERE

FNAME, LNAME EMPLOYEE BDATE LIKE '_______5_'

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SUBSTRING COMPARISON

The LIKE operator allows us to get around the fact that each value is considered atomic and indivisible; hence, in SQL, character string attribute values are not atomic

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ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS:

The standard arithmetic operators '+', ''. '*', and '/'(for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, respectively) can be applied to numeric values in an SQL query result.

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Example for ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS

Query 27:

Show the effect of giving all employees who work on the 'ProductX' project a 10% raise.

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Example for ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS

Q27:

SELECT FROM WHERE AND AND

FNAME, LNAME, 1.1*SALARY EMPLOYEE, WORKS_ON, PROJECT SSN=ESSN PNO=PNUMBER PNAME='ProductX'

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ORDER BY:

The ORDER BY clause is used to sort the tuples in a query result based on the values of some attribute(s)

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Example for ORDER BY

Query 28:

Retrieve a list of employees and the projects each works in, ordered by the employee's department, and within each department ordered alphabetically by employee last name.

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Example for ORDER BY

Q28:

SELECT

DNAME, LNAME, FNAME, PNAME FROM DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE, WORKS_ON, PROJECT WHERE DNUMBER=DNO AND SSN=ESSN AND PNO=PNUMBER ORDER BY DNAME, LNAME
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Example for ORDER BY

The default order is in ascending order of values We can specify

the keyword DESC if we want a descending order; the keyword ASC can be used to explicitly specify ascending order, even though it is the default.
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2.7 Summary of SQL Queries

A query in SQL can consist of up to six clauses, but only the first two, SELECT and FROM, are mandatory.

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Clauses in SQL

The clauses are specified in the following order:

SELECT <attribute list> FROM <table list> [WHERE <condition>] [GROUP BY <grouping attribute(s)>] [HAVING <group condition>] [ORDER BY <attribute list>]
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Clause in SQL SELECT, FROM

The SELECT-clause lists the attributes or functions to be retrieved The FROM-clause specifies all relations (or aliases) needed in the query but not those needed in nested queries

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Clause in SQL

WHERE, GROUP BY
The WHERE-clause specifies the conditions for selection and join of tuples from the relations specified in the FROM-clause GROUP BY specifies grouping attributes

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Clause in SQL HAVING, ORDER BY

HAVING specifies a condition for selection of groups ORDER BY specifies an order for displaying the result of a query

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Sequences of Query Evaluations

A query is evaluated by first applying the WHERE-clause, then GROUP BY and HAVING, and finally the SELECT-clause

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3 Specifying Updates in SQL

There are three SQL commands to modify the database; INSERT, DELETE, and UPDATE

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INSERT:

In its simplest form, it is used to add one or more tuples to a relation Attribute values should be listed in the same order as the attributes were specified in the CREATE TABLE command

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Example for INSERT:

U1:

INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE VALUES ('Richard','K','Marini', '653298653', '30-DEC-52', '98 Oak Forest,Katy,TX', 'M', 37000, 987654321', 4)
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INSERT

An alternate form of INSERT specifies explicitly the attribute names that correspond to the values in the new tuple Attributes with NULL values can be left out

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Example for INSERT:

Insert a tuple for a new EMPLOYEE for whom we only know the FNAME, LNAME, and SSN attributes.

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Example for INSERT:

U1A:

INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE (FNAME, LNAME, SSN) VALUES ('Richard', 'Marini', '653298653')

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Important Note:

Only the constraints specified in the DDL commands are automatically enforced by the DBMS when updates are applied to the database

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INSERT

Another variation of INSERT allows insertion of multiple tuples resulting from a query into a relation

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Example for INSERT:

Suppose we want to create a temporary table that has the name, number of employees, and total salaries for each department. A table DEPTS_INFO is created by U3A, and is loaded with the summary information retrieved from the database by the query in U3B.
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Example for INSERT:

U3A:

CREATE TABLE DEPTS_INFO (DEPT_NAME VARCHAR(10), NO_OF_EMPS INTEGER, TOTAL_SAL INTEGER);

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Example for INSERT:

U3B:

INSERT INTO DEPTS_INFO (DEPT_NAME, NO_OF_EMPS, TOTAL_SAL) SELECT DNAME, COUNT (*), SUM (SALARY) FROM DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE WHERE DNUMBER=DNO GROUP BY DNAME ;

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Note:

The DEPTS_INFO table may not be upto-date if we change the tuples in either the DEPARTMENT or the EMPLOYEE relations after issuing U3B. We have to create a view (see later) to keep such a table up to date.

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DELETE:

Removes tuples from a relation Includes a WHERE-clause to select the tuples to be deleted Tuples are deleted from only one table at a time (unless CASCADE is specified on a referential integrity constraint)

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DELETE:

A missing WHERE-clause specifies that all tuples in the relation are to be deleted; the table then becomes an empty table The number of tuples deleted depends on the number of tuples in the relation that satisfy the WHERE-clause Referential integrity should be enforced
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Examples for DELETE:

U4A:

DELETE FROM WHERE

EMPLOYEE LNAME='Brown'

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Examples for DELETE:

U4B:

DELETE FROM WHERE

EMPLOYEE SSN='123456789'

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Examples for DELETE:

U4C:

DELETE FROM WHERE

EMPLOYEE DNO IN (SELECT DNUMBER FROM DEPARTMENT WHERE DNAME='Research')

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Examples for DELETE:

U4D:

DELETE FROM

EMPLOYEE

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UPDATE:

Used to modify attribute values of one or more selected tuples A WHERE-clause selects the tuples to be modified An additional SET-clause specifies the attributes to be modified and their new values Each command modifies tuples in the same

relation

Referential integrity should be enforced

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Example for UPDATE:

Change the location and controlling department number of project number 10 to 'Bellaire' and 5, respectively.

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Example for UPDATE:

U5:

UPDATE SET WHERE

PROJECT PLOCATION = 'Bellaire', DNUM = 5 PNUMBER=10

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Example for UPDATE:

Give all employees in the 'Research' department a 10% raise in salary.

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Example for UPDATE:

U6:

UPDATE SET WHERE

EMPLOYEE SALARY = SALARY *1.1 DNO IN (SELECT DNUMBER FROM DEPARTMENT WHERE DNAME='Research')

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Example for UPDATE:

In this request, the modified SALARY value depends on the original SALARY value in each tuple The reference to the SALARY attribute on the right of = refers to the old SALARY value before modification The reference to the SALARY attribute on the left of = refers to the new SALARY value after modification
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4 Relational Views in SQL

A view is a single virtual table that is derived from other tables The other tables could be base tables or previously defined views. A view does not necessarily exist in physical form, which limits the possible update operations that can be applied to views
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Relational Views in SQL

There are no limitations on querying a view The CREATE VIEW command is used to specify a view by specifying a (virtual) table name and a defining query The view attribute names can be inherited from the attribute names of the tables in the defining query
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Examples for CREATE VIEW:

V1:

CREATE VIEW WORKS_ON1 AS SELECT FNAME, LNAME, PNAME, HOURS FROM EMPLOYEE, PROJECT, WORKS_ON WHERE SSN=ESSN AND PNO=PNUMBER ;
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Examples for CREATE VIEW:

V2:

CREATE VIEW DEPT_INFO( DEPT_NAME, NO_OF_EMPS, TOTAL_SAL) AS SELECT DNAME, COUNT (*), SUM (SALARY) FROM DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE WHERE DNUMBER=DNO GROUP BY DNAME ;

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View Attributes:

In V1 the names of the view attribute names are inherited In V2, the view attribute names are listed using a one-to-one correspondence with the entries in the SELECT-clause of the defining query

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Example for Queries on Views:

QV1:

Retrieve the last name and first name of all employees who work on 'ProjectX'.

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Example for Queries on Views:

QV1:

SELECT FROM WHERE

PNAME, FNAME, LNAME WORKS_ON1 PNAME='ProjectX' ;

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Queries on Views:

Without the view WORKS_ON1, this query specification would require two join conditions A view can be defined to simplify frequently occurring queries

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Views Consistency

The DBMS is responsible for keeping the view always up-to-date if the base tables on which the view is defined are modified Hence, the view is not realized at the time of view definition , but rather at the time we specify a query on the view
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DROP VIEW

A view is removed using the DROP VIEW command Example:

V1A: DROP VIEW V2A: DROP VIEW

WORKS_ON1 ; DEPT_INFO ;

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Notes

Views can also be used as a security and authorization mechanism (see Chapter 20)

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5 Creating Indexes in SQL

An SQL base relation generally corresponds to a stored file Statements can create and drop indexes on base relations These statements have been removed from SQL2 because they specify physical access paths - not logical concepts
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CREATE INDEX

One or more indexing attributes are specified for each index The CREATE INDEX statement is used Each index is given an index name I1:

CREATE INDEX LNAME_INDEX ON EMPLOYEE ( LNAME );

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CREATE INDEX

The index entries are in ascending (ASC) order of the indexing attributes; DESC specifies descending order An index can be created on a combination of attributes I2:

CREATE INDEX NAMES_INDEX ON EMPLOYEE ( LNAME ASC, FNAME DESC, MINIT );

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UNIQUE and CLUSTER

Two options on indexes are UNIQUE and CLUSTER

UNIQUE

To specify the key constraint on index attribute. The data file is ordered on a non-key field.

CLUSTER

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UNIQUE

To specify the key constraint on the indexing attribute or combination of attributes, the keyword UNIQUE is used I3:

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX SSN_INDEX ON EMPLOYEE ( SSN );

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UNIQUE

This is best done before any tuples are inserted in the relation An attempt to create a unique index on an existing base table will fail if the current tuples in the table do not obey the constraint

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CLUSTER

A second option on index creation is to specify that the index is a clustering index using the keyword CLUSTER A base relation can have at most one clustering index, but any number of nonclustering indexes I4:

CREATE INDEX DNO_INDEX ON EMPLOYEE ( DNO ) CLUSTER ;

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UNIQUE, CLUSTER vs Index

A clustering and unique index in SQL is similar to the primary index of Chapter 5 A clustering but non-unique index in SQL is similar to the clustering index of Chapter 5 A non-clustering index is similar to the secondary index of Chapter 5 Each DBMS will have its own index implementation technique; in most cases, some variation of the B+-tree data structure is used
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DROP INDEX

To drop an index, we issue the DROP INDEX command The index name is needed to refer to the index when it is to be dropped I5:

DROP INDEX DNO_INDEX;

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6 Embedding SQL in a Programming Language

SQL can also be used in conjunction with a general purpose programming language, such as PASCAL, COBOL, or PL/I The programming language is called the

host language

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The embedded SQL statement is distinguished from programming language statements by prefixing it with a special character or command so that a preprocessor can extract the SQL statements In PL/I the keywords EXEC SQL precede any SQL statement In some implementations, SQL statements are passed as parameters in procedure calls
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We will use PASCAL as the host programming language, and a "$" sign to identify SQL statements in the program Within an embedded SQL command, we may refer to program variables, which are prefixed by a "%" sign
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The programmer should declare program variables to match the data types of the database attributes that the program will process These program variables may or may not have names that are identical to their corresponding attributes
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Example:

Write a program segment (loop) that reads a social security number and prints out some information from the corresponding EMPLOYEE tuple

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Example
E1: LOOP:= 'Y'; while LOOP = 'Y' do begin writeln('input social security number:'); readln(SOC_SEC_NUM); $SELECT FNAME, MINIT, LNAME, SSN, BDATE, ADDRESS, SALARY INTO %E.FNAME, %E.MINIT, %E.LNAME, %E.SSN, %E.BDATE, %E.ADDRESS, %E.SALARY FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE SSN=%SOC_SEC_NUM ; writeln( E.FNAME, E.MINIT, E.LNAME, E.SSN, E.BDATE, E.ADDRESS, E.SALARY); writeln('more social security numbers (Y or N)? '); readln(LOOP) end;
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In E1, a single tuple is selected by the embedded SQL query; that is why we are able to assign its attribute values directly to program variables In general, an SQL query can retrieve many tuples The concept of a cursor is used to allow tuple-at-a-time processing by the PASCAL program
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CURSORS:

We can think of a cursor as a pointer that points to a single tuple (row) from the result of a query The cursor is declared when the SQL query command is specified

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OPEN

A subsequent OPEN cursor command fetches the query result and sets the cursor to a position before the first row in the result of the query; this becomes the current row for the cursor

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FETCH

Subsequent FETCH commands in the program advance the cursor to the next row and copy its attribute values into PASCAL program variables specified in the FETCH command

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SQLCODE

An implicit variable SQLCODE communicates to the program the status of SQL embedded commands An SQLCODE of 0 (zero) indicates successful execution Different codes are returned to indicate exceptions and errors
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END_OF_CURSOR

A special END_OF_CURSOR code is used to terminate a loop over the tuples in a query result

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CLOSE

A CLOSE cursor command is issued to indicate that we are done with the result of the query

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FOR UPDATE OF

When a cursor is defined for rows that are to be updated the clause FOR UPDATE OF must be in the cursor declaration, and a list of the names of any attributes that will be updated follows

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WHERE CURRENT OF

The condition WHERE CURRENT OF cursor specifies that the current tuple is the one to be updated (or deleted)

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Example:

Write a program segment that reads (inputs) a department name, then lists the names of employees who work in that department, one at a time. The program reads a raise amount for each employee and updates the employee's salary by that amount.
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E2: writeln('enter the department name:'); readln(DNAME); $SELECT DNUMBER INTO %DNUMBER FROM DEPARTMENT WHERE DNAME=%DNAME; $DECLARE EMP CURSOR FOR SELECT SSN, FNAME, MINIT, LNAME, SALARY FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE DNO=%DNUMBER FOR UPDATE OF SALARY; $OPEN EMP; $FETCH EMP INTO %E.SSN, %E.FNAME, %E.MINIT, %E.LNAME, %E.SAL; while SQLCODE = 0 do begin writeln('employee name: ', E.FNAME, E.MINIT, E.LNAME); writeln('enter raise amount: '); readln(RAISE); $UPDATE EMPLOYEE SET SALARY = SALARY + %RAISE WHERE CURRENT OF EMP; $FETCH EMP INTO %E.SSN, %E.FNAME, %E.MINIT, %E.LNAME, %E.SAL; end; $CLOSE CURSOR EMP;
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7 Joined Relations Feature in SQL2

Can specify a "joined relation" in the FROMclause Looks like any other relation but is the result of a join Allows the user to specify different types of joins

(regular "theta" JOIN, NATURAL JOIN, LEFT OUTER JOIN, RIGHT OUTER JOIN, CROSS JOIN, etc)
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Examples:

Q8:

SELECT

FROM WHERE

E.FNAME, E.LNAME, S.FNAME,S.LNAME EMPLOYEE E S E.SUPERSSN=S.SSN

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Examples

can be written as: Q8:

SELECT FROM

E.FNAME, E.LNAME, S.FNAME, S.LNAME (EMPLOYEE E LEFT OUTER JOIN EMPLOYEE S ON E.SUPERSSN=S.SSN)
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Examples

Q1:

SELECT FROM WHERE AND

FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT DNAME='Research' DNUMBER=DNO

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Examples

could be written as: Q1:

SELECT FROM WHERE

FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS (EMPLOYEE JOIN DEPARTMENT ON DNUMBER=DNO) DNAME='Research'

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Examples

or as: Q1:

SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS FROM (EMPLOYEE NATURAL JOIN DEPARTMENT AS DEPT(DNAME, DNO,MSSN, MSDATE) WHERE DNAME='Research'

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Examples

Q2:

SELECT PNUMBER, DNUM, LNAME, BDATE, ADDRESS FROM (PROJECT JOIN DEPARTMENT ON DNUM=DNUMBER) JOIN EMPLOYEE ON MGRSSN=SSN) ) WHERE PLOCATION='Stafford'

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