Nontraditional Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar The American University in Cairo Department of Mechanical Engineering
[email protected] (202) 797-5355

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Electrical Discharge Machining

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)

Thermal erosion process in which an electrically generated spark burns or vaporizes electrically conductive material. The spark is generated due to a gap between the work piece and a tool. The smaller the gap the better the accuracy and the slower the MRR. The spark generates a temperature of 14000-21000 oF. Introduced in the 1940s

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

EDM
Machining action forms a gap between the part and the electrode (tool) which causes a spark that removes the material Electrode is (+) and the part is (-) Electrodes can be made from
Brass Copper Graphite

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

EDM
Cutting action takes place in a dielectric fluid which helps to contain the spark and flush away chips Metal removal rates (MRR) are low compared to other process like milling
EDM, MRR= 1 cu. in to 15 cu. in per hr.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

EDM
Applications
Finish geometry for molds ( die sinking)

Ram Most common die material include:

Hardened Steel Heat-treated Steel Carbides
Punch & dies for blanking, shearing, and progressive

die tooling

Wire

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Materials That can be EDMed

Titanium Hot rolled Steel Cold Rolled Steel Copper Brass High Temperature Alloys

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Benefits
No cutting force generated Intricate details Superior surface finish Accuracy/Repeatability Smaller/Deeper Holes Well suited for automation Allows heat treatment before EDMing eliminating the risk of distortions.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Limitations
Low MRR Electrodes require lead-time and are consumable work piece must be electrically conductive

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

EDM Surface Layers Resulting surface has three distinct layers

Top layer: Expelled molten material and electrode material Recast (white) layer: Metallurgical altered. May be reduced using the right controls, or removed using polishing Heat affected layer: Affected by the process heat, but not melted.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

EDM Cycle
Cycle consists of 2 parts: On-time: Spark is on Off-time: Spark is off All work takes place during the on-time

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Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

EDM Cycle
Spark length is determined by: Work Material Electrode material Rough or finish cutting Desired surface finish Flushing conditions

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

EDM Cycle
Long On-time High MRR Rough surface Larger recast layer Deeper heat-affected layer
Short On-time Avoids problems above, but Metal may not be removed fast enough; disturbing the spark.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

EDM- Types

RAM EDM (Die sinker or vertical EDM) Uses a tool with the negative of the desired shape as an electrode. Wire EDM

Uses a wire as an electrode, mainly for cutting or contouring.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

RAM EDM Subsystems

Power Supply Dielectric System Electrode Servo System

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Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

RAM EDM Subsystems

Power Supply Provides a series of DC current discharges between the electrode and the work piece. Controls the servo system to maintain the gap. Power is automatically cutoff if a short circuit occurs.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

RAM EDM Subsystems

Dielectric System (dielectric = electrically nonconducting) Introduces clean dielectric fluid into the cutting zone. Flushes away cutting debris Fluid is pumped through nozzles or holes in the electrode and/or work piece. Low pressure holes are preferable.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

RAM EDM Subsystems

Electrode Shape is the negative of the cavity to be generated. Has a positive polarity. Made of high strength material with high melting point, easy to machine (Brass, Copper, Graphite) Orbiting could be used to contour complex shapes instead of straight sinking.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

RAM EDM Subsystems

Servo System It feeds the electrode into the work piece maintaining a constant gap. Continuous check for a short circuit.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Wire EDM
A wire (reel) is used as an electrode and fresh wire is introduced all the time through the wire subsystem. Uses deionized water which removes heat and reduces the recast layer. Wire diameter is usually 0.002-0.013 speed is about 20-25 sq. in/hr.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Wire EDM
Cut plates as thick as 300mm Could produce holes with different top/bottom profiles. This is important for extrusion applications Could be used for cutting stacked parts, but flushing is problematic

May be used for deep hole drilling L:D > 30:1

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Modern Wire EDM Components

Computer controls of cutter path Automatic self-threading features Multiheads for cutting more than one part at the same time Wire breakage prevention controls Programmed machine cycles (similar to CNC)

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Chemical Machining

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Chemical Machining
Was developed based on the observation that chemicals attack metals and etch them by using chemical dissolutions Chemical Milling Chemical Blanking

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Chemical Milling
Shallow cavities on sheets, plates, etc Selective attack by chemicals on workpiece Used in aerospace industry Used to fabricate microelectronic devices

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Chemical Blanking
Blanking of sheet metals Material removed by chemical dissolution Used to produce fine screens, flat springs, etc Very cheap but efficient

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Characteristics of chemical machining

Shallow removal of material(up to 12mm) Blanking of thin sheets Low tooling & equipment cost Suitable for low production runs Material removal rate(0.1mm/min)

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Photo Chemical Machining (PCM)

PCM is a material removal process using chemicals (etchants) to produce high precision parts. This process is also known as Photo Etching, Chemical Blanking and Photo Chemical Milling.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

PCM Process
1. Artwork- generate design using CAD systems, then plot it using a high precision laser plotter to produce photo-tool. Chemically clean the metal surface. Coat both sides of the plate with photoresist. (photoresist is a polymer that adheres to the metal when exposed to UV light).

2. 3.

http://web.mit.edu/ndemarco/www/chemmilling/slide6.html

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

PCM Process
1. 2. Expose plate and photo-tool to ensure image transfer. Spray metal with etchant or dip it in hot acidic solution to etch all material other than part covered with photoresist (1-15 min.). Rinse the plate to ensure photoresist and etchant removal.

3.

http://web.mit.edu/ndemarco/www/chemmilling/slide6.html

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Advantages
Low Tooling Cost- all tooling is produced by CAD systems at a low cost with a short creation time. Low Modification Cost- short runs are possible at a low cost, thus, design can be easily modified. Burr and Stress Free. Complex Designs. Thin Plates as thin as 0.005.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Materials
Aluminum Chromium Copper (oxygen free, rolled) Nickel Steel (carbon, stainless) Lead Zinc

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Applications
High Precision Parts and Decorative Items Gaskets Washers Sensors Nameplates Jewelry Microprocessor Chips

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Brief History
Electrochemical machining was adopted from marine animals which used to eat through the submersed steel. Oil rigs in the Caribbean sea were being eroded at unusually high rates. Underwater pictures showed marine animals eroding steel piping using electric currents.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Brief History
The process was adopted and used for hole cutting in metals. The reverse of the process was also adopted to reduce corrosion in marine structures (cathodic protection).

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Operating Principle
A cathode (usually a copper tool) supplies electrons to H+ ions in salt water. They are then reduced to H2. The anode of the circuit is the metal work piece. Electrons are withdrawn from it producing Fe++ from Fe. The Fe++ combines with the OH- ions in the salt water to produce iron hydroxide.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Operating Principle
The tool is usually a hollow copper tube so that the salt water could be pumped through it. The salt water acts as an electrolyte. An electrolyte is a solution that can conduct electricity due to molecule ionization. Salt water consists of Na+, Cl-, H+, OH- ions. Without the electrolyte the circuit would not be complete. Another use for the salt water is to remove the sludge, heat, and gas bubbles.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Operating Principle
The electrolyte is forced to flow between the two electrodes (the work piece and the tool) at high velocities to achieve all these goals (approx. 30 m/s). To cool the system the electrolyte temperature is between 20 and 50 degrees Celsius. The salt water provides all the necessary components for electrolysis. The electrolysis reactions (mentioned on a previous slide) consumes water, but not the salt. Thus water is continuously added to maintain a constant salt concentration.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Operating Principle
As the tool approaches the work piece it erodes the negative shape of it. Thus complex shapes are made from soft copper metal and used to produce negative duplicates of it. This process is called electrochemical sinking

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Operating Principle
The tool may also be connected to a CNC machine to produce even more complex shapes with a single tool.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Operating Principle
Several tools may be joined to provide a fast broaching technique on hardened material. Conventional machines may be easily changed to an ECM and is a common practice.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

ECM Machines
Though there are a few standard ECM machines, most of them are custom built to perform a certain task. They all have at least 4 main subsystems. The specifications of these subsystems are usually quite similar.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Main Subsystems
The power supply. The electrolyte circulation system. The control system. The machine.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

ECM Components (Power)

The power needed to operate the ECM is obviously electrical. There are many specifications to this power. The current density must be really high. The gap between the tool and the work piece must be low for higher accuracy, thus the voltage must be low to avoid a short circuit. The control system uses some of this electrical power.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

ECM Components (electrolyte circulation system)

The electrolyte must be injected in the gap at high speed (between 1500 to 3000 m/min). The electrolyte flow rate must be 1 L/min for every 100A of current. The inlet pressure must be between 0.15-3 MPa. All these requirements indicate that the electrolyte system must include a fairly strong pump.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

ECM Components (electrolyte circulation system)

The pump is not the only part of this system. As mentioned earlier, some of the electrolyte is consumed in the process, so the system must be able to compensate these losses. It must also have a filter, sludge removal system, and treatment units. There also must be a tank to store the electrolyte.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

ECM Components (control system)

Most ECM are numerically controlled, but there are a few manually controlled ECM. The control system on an ECM is almost identical to conventional and some non conventional machines. The main difference is that there are a few extra parameters These extra parameters are: Voltage Inlet and outlet pressure of electrolyte Temperature of electrolyte. The current is a dependant variable on the previous parameters and the feed rate.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

ECM Components (Machine)

The machine is a major subsystem of the ECM. It includes the table, the frame, work enclosure (prevents the electrolyte from spilling), the work head (where the tool is mounted) The tools (electrodes) are also part of the machine system

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Advantages
There is no cutting forces therefore clamping is not required except for controlled motion of the work piece. There is no heat affected zone. Very accurate. Relatively fast Can machine harder metals than the tool.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Advantages over EDM

Faster than EDM No tool wear at all. No heat affected zone. Better finish and accuracy.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Disadvantages
More expensive than conventional machining. Need bigger area for installation. Electrolytes may destroy the equipment. Not environmentally friendly (sludge and other waste) High energy consumption. Material has to be electrically conductive.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Applications
The most common application of ECM is high accuracy duplication. Because there is no tool wear, it can be used repeatedly with a high degree of accuracy. It is also used to make cavities and holes in various products. Sinking operations (RAM ECM) are also used as an alternative to RAM EDM. It is commonly used on thin walled, easily deformable and brittle material because they would probably develop cracks with conventional machining.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Economics
The process is economical when a large number of complex identical products need to be made (at least 50 units) Several tools could be connected to a cassette to make many cavities simultaneously. (i.e. cylinder cavities in engines) Large cavities are more economical on ECM and can be processed in 1/10 the time of EDM.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Products
The two most common products of ECM are turbine/compressor blades and rifle barrels. Each of those parts require machining of extremely hard metals with certain mechanical specifications that would be really difficult to perform on conventional machines. Some of these mechanical characteristics achieved by ECM are: Stress free grooves. Complex groove geometry. Any conductive metal can be machined. Repeatable accuracy of 0.0005. High surface finish. Fast cycle time.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Safety Considerations
There are many sensors to maintain the gap distance. These include short circuit, turbulence, passivation, contact and overcurrent sensors. In case of contact, immense heat would be generated melting the tool, evaporating the electrolyte and cause a fire. The worker must be very careful when handling this kind of electrical power. He must be insulated from the ground to prevent electrocution. The tool and the work piece must be grounded before any handling is performed.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Safety Consideration
Hydrogen gas emitted is very flammable, so it should be disposed of properly and fire precautions should be taken. The waste material is very dangerous and environmentally unfriendly (metal sludge) so it must be recycle or disposed of properly. Electrolyte is highly pressurized so worker must check for minor cracks in piping before leakage occurs.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Conclusion
ECM is relatively new, so it is not well known nor is it a popular process. Recent developments are making the process more and more accurate. Electrochemical Micromachining (ECMM) reached an accuracy of 10nm. It is economical in a few cases where repeatability of very hard material is required, but it is generally an expensive process. Its environmental issues are of a major concern, thus there is a lot of research being performed on clean ECM.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Ultrasonic Machining

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Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

History
The roots of ultrasonic technology can be traced back to research on the piezoelectric effect conducted by Pierre Curie around 1880. He found that asymmetrical crystals such as quartz and Rochelle salt (potassium sodium titrate) generate an electric charge when mechanical pressure is applied. Conversely, mechanical vibrations are obtained by applying electrical oscillations to the same crystals. One of the first applications for Ultrasonic was sonar (an acronym for sound navigation ranging). It was employed on a large scale by the U.S. Navy during World War II to detect enemy submarines. Frequency values of up to 1Ghz (1 billion cycles per second) have been used in the ultrasonic industry. Today's Ultrasonic applications include medical imaging (scanning the unborn fetus) and testing for cracks in airplane construction.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Ultrasonic waves
1. 2. 3. The Ultrasonic waves are sound waves of frequency higher than 20,000 Hz Ultrasonic waves can be generated using mechanical, electromagnetic and thermal energy sources. They can be produced in gasses (including air), liquids and solids. Magnetostrictive transducers use the inverse magnetostrictive effect to convert magnetic energy into ultrasonic energy. This is accomplished by applying a strong alternating magnetic field to certain metals, alloys and ferrites. Piezoelectric transducers employ the inverse piezoelectric effect using natural or synthetic single crystals (such as quartz) or ceramics (such as barium titanate) which have strong piezoelectric behavior. Ceramics have the advantage over crystals in that they are easier to shape by casting, pressing and extruding.

4.

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Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Principle of Ultrasonic Machining

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Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Principle of Ultrasonic Machining

1- This is the standard mechanism used in most of the universal Ultrasonic machines

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Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Principle of Ultrasonic Machining

In the process of Ultrasonic Machining, material is removed by micro-chipping or erosion with abrasive particles. In USM process, the tool, made of softer material than that of the workpiece, is oscillated by the Booster and Sonotrode at a frequency of about 20 kHz with an amplitude of about 25.4 um (0.001 in). It forces the abrasive grits, in the gap between the tool and the workpiece, to impact normally and successively on the work surface, thereby machining the work surface.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Principle of Ultrasonic Machining

During one strike, the tool moves down from its most upper

remote position with a starting speed at zero. It speeds up in this period and finally reaches the maximum at the mean position. Afterwards, it slows down its speed and eventually reaches zero again at the lowest position. When the grit size is close to the mean position, the tool hits the grit with its full speed. The smaller the grit size, the lesser the momentum it receives from the tool. Therefore, there is an effective speed zone for the tool and, correspondingly there is an effective size range for the grits.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Principle of Ultrasonic Machining

In the machining process, the tool, at some point, impacts on the largest grits, which are forced into the tool and workpiece. As the tool continues to move downwards, the force acting on these grits increases rapidly, therefore some of the grits may be fractured. As the tool moves further down, more grits with smaller sizes come in contact with the tool, the force acting on each grit becomes less. Eventually, the tool comes to the end of its strike, the number of grits under impact force from both the tool and the workpiece becomes maximum. Grits with size larger than the minimum gap will penetrate into the tool and work surface to different extents according to their diameters and the hardness of both surfaces.

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Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Various work samples machined by USM

1- The first picture on the left is a plastic sample that has inner grooves that are machined using USM. 2- The Second picture (in the middle is a plastic sample that has complex details on the surface 3- The third picture is a coin with the grooving done by USM

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Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Mechanism
Piezoelectric Transducer Piezoelectric transducers utilize crystals like quartz whose dimensions alter when being subjected to electrostatic fields. In this case, the charge is directionally proportional to the applied voltage. To obtain high amplitude vibrations the length of the crystal must be matched to the frequency of the generator. This produces resonant conditions.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Mechanism
Piezoelectric Transducer

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Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Mechanism
Magnetostrictive transducer Magnetostrictive transducers work on the principle that if a piece of Ferro-magnetic material (like nickel) is magnetized, then a change in dimension occurs. The transducer has solenoid type winding of wire over a stack of nickel laminations (which has rapid dimensional change when placed in magnetic fields) and is fed with an A.C supply with frequencies up to 25,000 c/s.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Mechanism
Abrasive Slurry
The abrasive slurry contains fine abrasive grains. The grains are usually boron carbide, aluminum oxide, or silicon carbide ranging in grain size from 100 for roughing to 1000 for finishing. It is used to microchip or erode the work piece surface and it is also used to carry debris away from the cutting area.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Mechanism
Tool holder
The shape of the tool holder is cylindrical or conical, or a modified cone which helps in magnifying the tool tip vibrations. In order to reduce the fatigue failures, it should be free from nicks, scratches and tool marks and polished smooth.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Mechanism
Tool Tool material should be tough and ductile. Low carbon steels

and stainless steels give good performance. Tools are usually 25 mm long ; its size is equal to the hole size minus twice the size of abrasives. Mass of tool should be minimum possible so that it does not absorb the ultrasonic energy.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Materials that can be USMed

Hard materials like stainless steel, glass, ceramics, carbide, quatz and semi-conductors are machined by this process. It has been efficiently applied to machine glass, ceramics, precision minerals stones, tungsten. Brittle materials

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Applications
It is mainly used for (1) drilling (2) grinding, (3) Profiling (4) coining (5) threading (6) piercing of dies (7) welding operations on all materials which can be treated suitably by abrasives.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

CNC Ultrasonic Machines

4-axis CNC drills holes as small as 0.010", multi-sided holes, multiple hole and slot patterns, and many other complicated, irregular shapes in hard, brittle materials such as ceramic and glass with precision to 0.0005".

900 Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

watt Sonic-mill, Ultrasonic2002 Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar Mill

Limitations
Under ideal conditions, penetration rates of 5 mm/min can be obtained. Power units are usually 500-1000 watt output. Specific material removal rate on brittle materials is 0.018 mm cubic/Joule. Normal hole tolerances are 0.007 mm and a surface finish of 0.02 to 0.7 micro meters.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Advantages of USM
Machining any materials regardless of their conductivity USM apply to machining semi-conductor such as silicon, germanium etc. USM is suitable to precise machining brittle material.

USM does not produce electric, thermal, chemical abnormal surface. Can drill circular or non-circular holes in very hard materials Less stress because of its non-thermal characteristics

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Disadvantages of USM
USM has low material removal rate. Tool wears fast in USM. Machining area and depth is restraint in USM.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Safety Considerations
The worker must be wearing eye goggles to prevent the abrasive particles or the microchips from getting into his eye.

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Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Plasma Cutting

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Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Plasma Arc Cutting

PAC is a thermal material removal process that is primarily used for cutting thick sections of electrically conductive materials.

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Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

PAC Process
Plasma is composed of free electrons that have become disassociated from the main gas atoms, positive ions and neutral atoms with a temperature of plasma that can be high as 33000 degrees, which causes rapid metal cutting. The flowing gas is delivered to the torch at pressures up to 1.4Mpa resulting in a plasma high velocity.

www.plasma.org

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Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

PAC Process
The high gas flow rate facilitate the removal of molten metal from the cut zone.

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Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Types of Torches
1. 2. 3. 4. Air Plasma Torch Oxygen-Injected Torch Water Injected Torch Dual Gas Torch

Air Plasma (Benedict 337)

Water Injected (Benedict 340)

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Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Types of Arcs
1. 2. Transferred Arc - the generated arc is between the electrode and the workpiece. Non-Transferred Arc - the generated arc is between the electrode and the nozzle and heat is carried to the work-piece by the plasma gas.

Benedict 336

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Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Advantages - Disadvantages
Cuts any metal. 5 to 10 times faster than oxy-fuel. 150 mm thickness ability. Easy to automate.
Large heat affected zone. Difficult to produce sharp corners. Smoke and noise. Burr often results.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Applications
Pipe industry preparing pipe edges for welding. industries for shape cutting

Cpam.engr.wesc.edu

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Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Other Plasma Uses

Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)- plasma arc is produced and aimed at the weld area to weld. Applications- Used for butt and lap joints because of higher energy concentrations and better arc stability.

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Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Safety Precautions
Machine the heat affected zone (0.75-5 mm). Regulate gas pressure (approx. 11.4 MPa). Maintain constant distance between torch and work piece. High labor safety (i.e. goggles, gloves, etc). Proper training for operators. Protection against glare, spatter and noise from the plasma.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

LASER MACHINING

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Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Outline:
Laser Technology Processes:

Cutting Drilling Welding Rapid Prototyping Other: Precise Measurement, Heat Treatment, Scribing

General Advantages and Disadvantages Economics Safety measures Useful Links and References

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Laser Technology*
Thermal nontraditional machining process High energy laser beam melts and vaporizes material Beam*:

Continuous Pulse
Examples of lasing materials*:

Co2 YAG

*see comment

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Outline

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Laser Technology
Beam generation*

Schematic diagram of a laser beam machine1

*see comment

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Outline

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Laser Technology

Important physical parameters of workpiece

materials*:

Reflectivity Thermal conductivity Specific heat Latent heat

Features of laser beam:

High power Monochromatic* Coherent* Non-contact

*see comment

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Outline

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Laser Technology
Beam Delivery Systems: Hard optic Delivery
Moving workpiece relatively inexpensive can accommodate large heavy lasers operate quick (20 m/min) but heavy large piece limited

Hard optic Delivery3

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Outline

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Laser Technology

Moving laser Relatively inexpensive Can accommodate large and heavy piece But compact laser system required (solution: optical fiber), but the load of laser is a constant, easy to design
Hard optic Delivery3

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Outline

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Laser Technology
Fiber optic Delivery*

quick move (more than 100 m/min) 3D structure but expensive

Fiber optic delivery3

*see comment

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Outline

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Processes

Applications of Laser in manufacturing3 Outline

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Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Processes: Cutting
Cutting starts by drilling

a hole then moving the beam in a programmed path. A stream of assist gas* is used to:

blow the molten metal Cool workpiece Minimize heat affected zone

Laser Processing System3

*see comment

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Outline

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Processes: Cutting
Cutting Speed depends on*:

Material Thickness
Range of thickness*:

Metals up to 0.5in Nonmetal up to 1in

*see comment

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Outline

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Processes: Cutting

Applications

Examples of laser cutting using pulsed CO2 Laser3

Height following Laser nozzle3 Outline

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Processes: Cutting
Advantages:
Narrow kerf* and heat affected zone No post-cut finishing is required* Economic alternative for materials that are difficult to cut by conventional methods* Narrow slots Closely spaced patterns Does not require smooth surface

*see comment

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Outline

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Processes: Drilling

Repeated pulsed laser beams* Hole diameter depends on the material thickness* Drill micro-holes in metals as thick as 0.1in L:D ratio: 10:1 Cutting Speed decreases depth increases but:
Generates irregular holes Recast layer increases Heat affected zone increases

*see comment

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Process: Drilling
Applications:
Bleeder holes for fuel pump covers Drilling holes in delicate medical materials Drilling holes in small polymer tubes Drills tiny holes in turbine blades of jet engine

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Processes: Drilling
Advantages:
Burr free holes Eliminates drill breakage and wear Drills in difficult to access areas, curved surfaces and parts incased in glass Drills holes of almost any shape High quality and precision holes Close tolerances

Limitations:
Holes up to 1 deep in plastics and ferrous metals, and 0.125 in reflective materials.

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Outline

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Processes: Welding

Could be used with or without filler* Solidifies quickly Filler material is used if gap is large Can be used to produce deep penetration welds Effective with thin workpiece

*see comment

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Processes: Welding
Applications
Razor blades* Electronic circuits

Razor blades are spot welded using laser

*see comment

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Processes: Welding
Advantages:
Does not require vacuum Better quality of weld Beam easily shaped, directed, and focused No direct contact is necessary to produce a weld Encapsulated and inaccessible areas can be welded* Can be made with access to only one side of joint
Increase speed and strength of welding Produces maximum penetration and minimum distortion in the material

*see comment

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Processes: Rapid Prototyping

Powder metal is used* Metal is melt and

fused using laser beams A physical prototype is built layer by layer 3D CAD files are used

Schematic diagram of a rapid prototyping machine

*see comment

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Processes: Rapid Prototyping

Applications:

Models created by rapid prototyping

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Processes: Rapid Prototyping

Advantages:
Speeds up the design and manufacturing process Reduces product development cost Allows for instant feedback to design engineers Allows for design corrections at an early stage The model is used in pre-production planning and tool design

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Processes: Rapid Prototyping

Disadvantages:
The generated model has shrinkage cracks The model has high hardness, which makes it brittle Thick walled structures cant be built up very well

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Processes: Measurements

Uses Helium-Neon laser beam* To align and calibrate machine tools Useful in Large assembly jigs Non-contact: used to inspect hot rolled material

*see comment

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Processes: Heat Treatment

Produces hardened surfaces For wide variety of geometries Can work on limited area Produces little distortion

Cam Part

14

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Processes: Scribing
Composed of series of closely

placed holes To produce lines and characters with different fonts on materials As wide as laser beam Set to a specific tolerance depth

Application of scribing

Cut, Scribe and Weld operations

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

General Advantages
Operates in fully automated environment Minimum heat affected zone compared to other

thermal processes Clean Small clamping force is applied Can be used with metals, nonmetals, and composites Excellent surface quality Minimum thermal stresses on the material No tooling required

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

General Disadvantages

Requires specially trained operators Not for mass metal removal processes Requires greater control of joint tolerances Expensive equipment Consumes much energy

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Economics
Expensive equipment Requires skilled operators

Compensated by:
Fast material removal rate (0.5-7.5m/min) high

production rates Finishing costs are eliminated Can be automated reducing operational costs*

*see comment

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Economics
Comparison between automated and non-automated production in good and lean times*

*see comment

Before and after automation

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Economics
Cost of Laser Cutting Machine New: $200,000 Used: starting $30,000 CNC: $750,000

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Safety Measures
Lasers can burn and blind:

Eyes and skin should be protected from scattered beams Even low powers can cause damage to retina
Operator should wear gas masks to protect against

generated fumes

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

The American University In Cairo

Powder Injection Molding

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Overview
Metal injection molding, be Why P.I.M ? Materials involved
Ferrous Alloys, Non-ferrous Alloys, Ceramics

Equipment used

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Process Description Mixing

Finished Product

Injection

Sintering

Debinding
Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Applications
Thread Looper Barrel Block

Problem: numerous machining and polishing operations

Solution: PIM

Problem: many sequential traditional processes to finish the part

Solution: PIM
Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Applications
Biopsy Jaw Needle Carriers

Problem: EDM is costly Solution: PIM

Problem: too intricate to deal with Solution: PIM

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Advantages
Excellent physical and mechanical properties Net shape products

Tight tolerance range

Unlimited shapes and geometries The process can be easily automated High production rates Low Cost due to tooling and labor

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Limitations
Time length for production [ ranges from 3 to 5 days ] Process limited to small sizes

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

WaterJet Machining

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Waterjet Evolution
1930s : Mining to remove stone and coal 1960s : Need to cut advanced materials for aerospace industry 1970s : First attempts to employ WaterJet to cut advanced composites for aerospace applications 1980s: First commercial AWJ machines

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Theory
Waterjet cutting works by forcing a large volume of water through a small orifice in a nozzle. The constant volume of water traveling through a reduced cross sectional area causes the particles to rapidly accelerate. This accelerated stream leaving the nozzle impacts the material to be cut. The extreme pressure of the accelerated water particles contacts a small area of the work piece. In this small area the work piece develops small cracks due to stream impact. The waterjet washes away the material that "erodes" from the surface of the work piece. The crack caused by the waterjet impact is now exposed to the waterjet. The extreme pressure and impact of particles in the following stream cause the small crack to propagate until the material is cut through.
Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Theory

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Components

Pump Nozzle Orifice Control System

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Components - Pump
50 100 hp electric driven pump Hydraulic Based Operation Pressures Up to 60,000 psi (4000 bar) Smooth Output

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Components - Pump

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Components - Nozzle

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Components - Nozzle

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Components Nozzle

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Components - Orifice
Jewel Orifice : Diamond 0.01 diameter

Garnet Abrasive Particles

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Components Control System

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Advantages
No heat affected zone Stress-free cutting No residual stresses Wide range of materials Environmentally friendly No need for surface finish No tool changing Minimal Fixturing Required Faster than any other technique Saves Raw Material Flexible Machining Integration Does Not Need a Starting Hole Ability to Cut in Any Direction

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Comparison to Other Methods

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

WaterJet vs. Laser

No Heat Affected Zone Can Cut Through Reflective Materials Can Cut Uneven Surfaces Smoothly Environmentally friendly Can Cut Up to 12 in hard materials (Ti, SS) & 24 in Rubber Minimal Heat Affected Zone Reflects on Shiny Surfaces Laser Defracts and Looses its Focus Produces Toxic Fumes Max. Depth 0.5 0.75

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

WaterJet vs. WireEDM

Can Cut through any material No Need for a Starting Hole No Heat Affected Zone Limited to Conducting Materials A Starting Hole is Needed for the Wire Heat Affected Zone

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

WaterJet vs. Milling

Excellent Use of Raw Material No Tool Changing No Fixturing Required No CleanUp is Required Faster Large Amounts of Waste of Raw Material Frequent Tool Changing Fixturing is essential Requires Periodical CleanUp Slow

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Applications

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Applications

Aerospace

Automotive
Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Applications

Food Processing
Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Applications

Electronics and PCBs

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Applications

How Accurate We can get

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Applications

Marble Industry
Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Applications

Lining
Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Applications

Concrete
Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Applications

Aluminum
Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Applications

Polymers and Composites

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002

Applications

Steels With Different Thickness

Nontraditional to Manufacturing Processes

Dr. Lotfi K. Gaafar 2002