Algorithm Design Technique
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Dynamic Programming : Dynamic programming is a technique for solving problems by breaking them down into smaller subproblems, solving each subproblem once, and storing the solution to each subproblem so that it can be reused in the future. Some characteristics of dynamic programming include: Optimal substructure: Dynamic programming problems typically have an optimal substructure, meaning that the optimal solution to the problem can be obtained by solving the subproblems optimally and combining their solutions. Overlapping subproblems: Dynamic programming problems often involve overlapping subproblems, meaning that the same subproblems are solved multiple times. To avoid solving the same subproblem multiple times, dynamic programming algorithms store the solutions to the subproblems in a table or array, so that they can be reused later. Bottom-up approach: Dynamic programming algorithms usually solve problems using a bottom-up approach, meaning that they start by solving the smallest subproblems and work their way up to the larger ones. Efficiency: Dynamic programming algorithms can be very efficient, especially when the subproblems overlap significantly. By storing the solutions to the subproblems and reusing them, dynamic programming algorithms can avoid redundant computations and achieve good time and space complexity. Applicability: Dynamic programming is applicable to a wide range of problems, including optimization problems, decision problems, and problems that involve sequential decisions. It is often used to solve problems in computer science, operations research, and economics. Algorithm Design Techniques Iterative techniques, Divide and Conquer, Dynamic Programming, Greedy Algorithms.
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Overview of Approximation and Randomized Algorithms KARAN 461.pptxkaranjogi2021 Randomized algorithms are computational methods that make random choices during execution to achieve improved performance, simplicity, or probability guarantees. Unlike deterministic algorithms, which follow a strict sequence of operations, randomized algorithms use random numbers or coin flips to guide their decisions. This incorporation of randomness allows them to handle complex problems more efficiently, particularly in cases where deterministic solutions are too slow or difficult to design.
Key Concepts
At the heart of a randomized algorithm is the use of a random source, often a pseudo-random number generator. The algorithm's behavior can vary from one run to another even on the same input. However, it is designed in such a way that, on average or with high probability, it produces the correct or near-optimal solution.
Randomized algorithms fall into two primary categories:
Las Vegas Algorithms: These always produce the correct result, but their runtime may vary depending on the random choices made. The randomness only affects efficiency, not correctness. An example is Randomized QuickSort, where the pivot is chosen randomly to avoid worst-case scenarios.
Monte Carlo Algorithms: These may produce an incorrect result with a small probability, but they generally run faster or are simpler than deterministic counterparts. An example is the Miller-Rabin primality test, which determines whether a number is prime with high probability.
Divide and conquer algorithm
Divide and conquer algorithmCHANDAN KUMAR This is a very important type of algorithm paradigm which is mostly used to solve any kind of problems like sorting ( merge sort, quick sort), binary search, Tower of Hanoi, etc.
PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUES
PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUESsudhanagarajan5 The document provides an overview of problem solving techniques in computer science. It discusses:
- Algorithms and programs as solutions to problems expressed in programming languages.
- Key aspects of problem solving including problem definition, getting started, working backwards, and utilizing past experiences.
- General problem solving strategies such as "divide and conquer" and dynamic programming.
- Algorithm design techniques like top-down design and choosing appropriate data structures.
- Implementing algorithms through modularization, variable naming, documentation, debugging, and testing.
- Verifying algorithms through input/output assertions, symbolic execution, and proving program segments.
- Analyzing algorithm efficiency by reducing redundant computations, early termination detection, and trading storage for
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More from Bharat Bhushan (20)
NIMCET 2023 : Questions
NIMCET 2023 : QuestionsBharat Bhushan This document contains a test examination with multiple choice questions on mathematics, English, computer science, and reasoning. There are 52 questions in total covering topics like trigonometry, sets, relations, sequences, coding/decoding, direction sense, data interpretation from tables, and basic computer concepts. The test is for a batch of NIMCET conducted in March 2022 by Buddha Science and Technical Institute located in Kokar, Ranchi.
Heuristics Search Techniques in AI 
Heuristics Search Techniques in AI Bharat Bhushan What is Heuristics?
A heuristic is a technique that is used to solve a problem faster than the classic methods. These techniques are used to find the approximate solution of a problem when classical methods do not. Heuristics are said to be the problem-solving techniques that result in practical and quick solutions.
Heuristics are strategies that are derived from past experience with similar problems. Heuristics use practical methods and shortcuts used to produce the solutions that may or may not be optimal, but those solutions are sufficient in a given limited timeframe.
History
Psychologists Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky have developed the study of Heuristics in human decision-making in the 1970s and 1980s. However, this concept was first introduced by the Nobel Laureate Herbert A. Simon, whose primary object of research was problem-solving.
Why do we need heuristics?
Heuristics are used in situations in which there is the requirement of a short-term solution. On facing complex situations with limited resources and time, Heuristics can help the companies to make quick decisions by shortcuts and approximated calculations. Most of the heuristic methods involve mental shortcuts to make decisions on past experiences.
Heuristic techniques
The heuristic method might not always provide us the finest solution, but it is assured that it helps us find a good solution in a reasonable time.
Based on context, there can be different heuristic methods that correlate with the problem's scope. The most common heuristic methods are - trial and error, guesswork, the process of elimination, historical data analysis. These methods involve simply available information that is not particular to the problem but is most appropriate. They can include representative, affect, and availability heuristics.
We can perform the Heuristic techniques into two categories:
Direct Heuristic Search techniques in AI
It includes Blind Search, Uninformed Search, and Blind control strategy. These search techniques are not always possible as they require much memory and time. These techniques search the complete space for a solution and use the arbitrary ordering of operations.
The examples of Direct Heuristic search techniques include Breadth-First Search (BFS) and Depth First Search (DFS).
Weak Heuristic Search techniques in AI
It includes Informed Search, Heuristic Search, and Heuristic control strategy. These techniques are helpful when they are applied properly to the right types of tasks. They usually require domain-specific information.
The examples of Weak Heuristic search techniques include Best First Search (BFS) and A*.
Heuristics Search Techniques
Heuristics Search TechniquesBharat Bhushan What is Heuristics?
A heuristic is a technique that is used to solve a problem faster than the classic methods. These techniques are used to find the approximate solution of a problem when classical methods do not. Heuristics are said to be the problem-solving techniques that result in practical and quick solutions.
Heuristics are strategies that are derived from past experience with similar problems. Heuristics use practical methods and shortcuts used to produce the solutions that may or may not be optimal, but those solutions are sufficient in a given limited timeframe.
History
Psychologists Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky have developed the study of Heuristics in human decision-making in the 1970s and 1980s. However, this concept was first introduced by the Nobel Laureate Herbert A. Simon, whose primary object of research was problem-solving.
Why do we need heuristics?
Heuristics are used in situations in which there is the requirement of a short-term solution. On facing complex situations with limited resources and time, Heuristics can help the companies to make quick decisions by shortcuts and approximated calculations. Most of the heuristic methods involve mental shortcuts to make decisions on past experiences.
Heuristic techniques
The heuristic method might not always provide us the finest solution, but it is assured that it helps us find a good solution in a reasonable time.
Based on context, there can be different heuristic methods that correlate with the problem's scope. The most common heuristic methods are - trial and error, guesswork, the process of elimination, historical data analysis. These methods involve simply available information that is not particular to the problem but is most appropriate. They can include representative, affect, and availability heuristics.
We can perform the Heuristic techniques into two categories:
Direct Heuristic Search techniques in AI
It includes Blind Search, Uninformed Search, and Blind control strategy. These search techniques are not always possible as they require much memory and time. These techniques search the complete space for a solution and use the arbitrary ordering of operations.
The examples of Direct Heuristic search techniques include Breadth-First Search (BFS) and Depth First Search (DFS).
Weak Heuristic Search techniques in AI
It includes Informed Search, Heuristic Search, and Heuristic control strategy. These techniques are helpful when they are applied properly to the right types of tasks. They usually require domain-specific information.
The examples of Weak Heuristic search techniques include Best First Search (BFS) and A*.
Hill Climbing Algorithm in Artificial Intelligence
Hill Climbing Algorithm in Artificial IntelligenceBharat Bhushan Hill Climbing Algorithm in Artificial Intelligence
Hill climbing algorithm is a local search algorithm which continuously moves in the direction of increasing elevation/value to find the peak of the mountain or best solution to the problem. It terminates when it reaches a peak value where no neighbor has a higher value.
Hill climbing algorithm is a technique which is used for optimizing the mathematical problems. One of the widely discussed examples of Hill climbing algorithm is Traveling-salesman Problem in which we need to minimize the distance traveled by the salesman.
It is also called greedy local search as it only looks to its good immediate neighbor state and not beyond that.
A node of hill climbing algorithm has two components which are state and value.
Hill Climbing is mostly used when a good heuristic is available.
In this algorithm, we don't need to maintain and handle the search tree or graph as it only keeps a single current state.
Features of Hill Climbing:
Following are some main features of Hill Climbing Algorithm:
Generate and Test variant: Hill Climbing is the variant of Generate and Test method. The Generate and Test method produce feedback which helps to decide which direction to move in the search space.
Greedy approach: Hill-climbing algorithm search moves in the direction which optimizes the cost.
No backtracking: It does not backtrack the search space, as it does not remember the previous states.
State-space Diagram for Hill Climbing:
The state-space landscape is a graphical representation of the hill-climbing algorithm which is showing a graph between various states of algorithm and Objective function/Cost.
On Y-axis we have taken the function which can be an objective function or cost function, and state-space on the x-axis. If the function on Y-axis is cost then, the goal of search is to find the global minimum and local minimum. If the function of Y-axis is Objective function, then the goal of the search is to find the global maximum and local maximum.
Hill Climbing Algorithm in Artificial Intelligence
Hill Climbing Algorithm in Artificial IntelligenceBharat Bhushan Hill Climbing Algorithm in Artificial Intelligence
Hill climbing algorithm is a local search algorithm which continuously moves in the direction of increasing elevation/value to find the peak of the mountain or best solution to the problem. It terminates when it reaches a peak value where no neighbor has a higher value.
Hill climbing algorithm is a technique which is used for optimizing the mathematical problems. One of the widely discussed examples of Hill climbing algorithm is Traveling-salesman Problem in which we need to minimize the distance traveled by the salesman.
It is also called greedy local search as it only looks to its good immediate neighbor state and not beyond that.
A node of hill climbing algorithm has two components which are state and value.
Hill Climbing is mostly used when a good heuristic is available.
In this algorithm, we don't need to maintain and handle the search tree or graph as it only keeps a single current state.
Features of Hill Climbing:
Following are some main features of Hill Climbing Algorithm:
Generate and Test variant: Hill Climbing is the variant of Generate and Test method. The Generate and Test method produce feedback which helps to decide which direction to move in the search space.
Greedy approach: Hill-climbing algorithm search moves in the direction which optimizes the cost.
No backtracking: It does not backtrack the search space, as it does not remember the previous states.
State-space Diagram for Hill Climbing:
The state-space landscape is a graphical representation of the hill-climbing algorithm which is showing a graph between various states of algorithm and Objective function/Cost.
On Y-axis we have taken the function which can be an objective function or cost function, and state-space on the x-axis. If the function on Y-axis is cost then, the goal of search is to find the global minimum and local minimum. If the function of Y-axis is Objective function, then the goal of the search is to find the global maximum and local maximum.
Control Strategies in AI 
Control Strategies in AI Bharat Bhushan Control Strategies
Control Strategy in Artificial Intelligence
scenario is a technique or strategy, tells us about which rule has to be applied next while searching for the solution of a problem within problem space.
It helps us to decide which rule has to apply next without getting stuck at any point.
Characteristics of Control Strategies
A good Control strategy has two main
characteristics:
Control Strategy should cause Motion
Control strategy should be Systematic
Co ntrol Strategy should cause Motion
Each rule or strategy applied should cause the motion because if there will be no motion than such control strategy will never lead to a solution. Motion states about the change of state and if a state will not change then there be no movement from an initial state and we would never solve the problem.
Co ntrol Strategy should be Systematic
Though the strategy applied should create the
motion but if do not follow some systematic
strategy than we are likely to reach the same state
number of times before reaching the solution
which increases the number of steps. Taking care of only first strategy we may go through particular useless sequences of operators several times. Control Strategy should be systematic implies a need for global motion as well as for local motion.
Control Strategies in AI 
Control Strategies in AI Bharat Bhushan Control Strategies
Control Strategy in Artificial Intelligence
scenario is a technique or strategy, tells us about which rule has to be applied next while searching for the solution of a problem within problem space.
It helps us to decide which rule has to apply next without getting stuck at any point.
Characteristics of Control Strategies
A good Control strategy has two main
characteristics:
Control Strategy should cause Motion
Control strategy should be Systematic
Co ntrol Strategy should cause Motion
Each rule or strategy applied should cause the motion because if there will be no motion than such control strategy will never lead to a solution. Motion states about the change of state and if a state will not change then there be no movement from an initial state and we would never solve the problem.
Co ntrol Strategy should be Systematic
Though the strategy applied should create the
motion but if do not follow some systematic
strategy than we are likely to reach the same state
number of times before reaching the solution
which increases the number of steps. Taking care of only first strategy we may go through particular useless sequences of operators several times. Control Strategy should be systematic implies a need for global motion as well as for local motion.
Production System in AI
Production System in AIBharat Bhushan Problem Characteristics in Artificial Intelligence,
Unit -2 Problem Solving and Searching Techniques
o choose an appropriate method for a particular problem first we need to categorize the problem based on the following characteristics.
Is the problem decomposable into small sub-problems which are easy to solve?
Can solution steps be ignored or undone?
Is the universe of the problem is predictable?
Is a good solution to the problem is absolute or relative?
Is the solution to the problem a state or a path?
What is the role of knowledge in solving a problem using artificial intelligence?
Does the task of solving a problem require human interaction?
1. Is the problem decomposable into small sub-problems which are easy to solve?
Can the problem be broken down into smaller problems to be solved independently?
See also Water Jug Problem in Artificial Intelligence
The decomposable problem can be solved easily.
Example: In this case, the problem is divided into smaller problems. The smaller problems are solved independently. Finally, the result is merged to get the final result.
Is the problem decomposable
2. Can solution steps be ignored or undone?
In the Theorem Proving problem, a lemma that has been proved can be ignored for the next steps.
Such problems are called Ignorable problems.
In the 8-Puzzle, Moves can be undone and backtracked.
Such problems are called Recoverable problems.
In Playing Chess, moves can be retracted.
Such problems are called Irrecoverable problems.
Ignorable problems can be solved using a simple control structure that never backtracks. Recoverable problems can be solved using backtracking. Irrecoverable problems can be solved by recoverable style methods via planning.
3. Is the universe of the problem is predictable?
In Playing Bridge, We cannot know exactly where all the cards are or what the other players will do on their turns.
Uncertain outcome!
For certain-outcome problems, planning can be used to generate a sequence of operators that is guaranteed to lead to a solution.
For uncertain-outcome problems, a sequence of generated operators can only have a good probability of leading to a solution. Plan revision is made as the plan is carried out and the necessary feedback is provided.
4. Is a good solution to the problem is absolute or relative?
The Travelling Salesman Problem, we have to try all paths to find the shortest one.
See also Generate and Test Heuristic Search - Artificial Intelligence
Any path problem can be solved using heuristics that suggest good paths to explore.
For best-path problems, a much more exhaustive search will be performed.
5. Is the solution to the problem a state or a path
The Water Jug Problem, the path that leads to the goal must be reported.
Production System in AI
Production System in AIBharat Bhushan Production System in Artificial Intelligence (AI)
A production system in AI helps create AI-based computer programs. With the help of it, the automation of various types of machines has become an easy task. The types of machines can be a computer, mobile applications, manufacturing tools, or more. The set of rules in a production system in Artificial Intelligence defines the behavior of the machine. It helps the machine respond to the surroundings.
A production system in AI is a type of cognitive architecture that defines specific actions as per certain rules. The rules represent the declarative knowledge of a machine to respond according to different conditions. Today, many expert systems and automation methodologies rely on the rules of production systems.
Global Database
A global database consists of the architecture used as a central data structure. A database contains all the necessary data and information required for the successful completion of a task. It can be divided into two parts as permanent and temporary. The permanent part of the database consists of fixed actions, whereas the temporary part alters according to circumstances.
Learn more about Artificial Neural networks in this insightful Artificial Intelligence Training now!
Production Rules
Production rules in AI are the set of rules that operates on the data fetched from the global database. Also, these production rules are bound with precondition and postcondition that gets checked by the database. If a condition is passed through a production rule and gets satisfied by the global database, then the rule is successfully applied. The rules are of the form A®B, where the right-hand side represents an outcome corresponding to the problem state represented by the left-hand side.
Control System
The control system checks the applicability of a rule. It helps decide which rule should be applied and terminates the process when the system gives the correct output. It also resolves the conflict of multiple conditions arriving at the same time. The strategy of the control system specifies the sequence of rules that compares the condition from the global database to reach the correct result.
Simplicity
The production rule in AI is in the form of an ‘IF-THEN’ statement. Every rule in the production system has a unique structure. It helps represent knowledge and reasoning in the simplest way possible to solve real-world problems. Also, it helps improve the readability and understanding of the production rules.
Problem Characteristics in Artificial Intelligence
Problem Characteristics in Artificial IntelligenceBharat Bhushan Problem Characteristics in Artificial Intelligence,
Unit -2 Problem Solving and Searching Techniques
o choose an appropriate method for a particular problem first we need to categorize the problem based on the following characteristics.
Is the problem decomposable into small sub-problems which are easy to solve?
Can solution steps be ignored or undone?
Is the universe of the problem is predictable?
Is a good solution to the problem is absolute or relative?
Is the solution to the problem a state or a path?
What is the role of knowledge in solving a problem using artificial intelligence?
Does the task of solving a problem require human interaction?
1. Is the problem decomposable into small sub-problems which are easy to solve?
Can the problem be broken down into smaller problems to be solved independently?
See also Water Jug Problem in Artificial Intelligence
The decomposable problem can be solved easily.
Example: In this case, the problem is divided into smaller problems. The smaller problems are solved independently. Finally, the result is merged to get the final result.
Is the problem decomposable
2. Can solution steps be ignored or undone?
In the Theorem Proving problem, a lemma that has been proved can be ignored for the next steps.
Such problems are called Ignorable problems.
In the 8-Puzzle, Moves can be undone and backtracked.
Such problems are called Recoverable problems.
In Playing Chess, moves can be retracted.
Such problems are called Irrecoverable problems.
Ignorable problems can be solved using a simple control structure that never backtracks. Recoverable problems can be solved using backtracking. Irrecoverable problems can be solved by recoverable style methods via planning.
3. Is the universe of the problem is predictable?
In Playing Bridge, We cannot know exactly where all the cards are or what the other players will do on their turns.
Uncertain outcome!
For certain-outcome problems, planning can be used to generate a sequence of operators that is guaranteed to lead to a solution.
For uncertain-outcome problems, a sequence of generated operators can only have a good probability of leading to a solution. Plan revision is made as the plan is carried out and the necessary feedback is provided.
4. Is a good solution to the problem is absolute or relative?
The Travelling Salesman Problem, we have to try all paths to find the shortest one.
See also Generate and Test Heuristic Search - Artificial Intelligence
Any path problem can be solved using heuristics that suggest good paths to explore.
For best-path problems, a much more exhaustive search will be performed.
5. Is the solution to the problem a state or a path
The Water Jug Problem, the path that leads to the goal must be reported.
Problem Characteristics in Artificial Intelligence
Problem Characteristics in Artificial IntelligenceBharat Bhushan Artificial Intelligence is a “way of making a computer, a computer-controlled robot, or software think intelligently, in the similar manner the intelligent humans think”.
Since artificial intelligence (AI) is mainly related to the search process, it is important to have some methodology to choose the best possible solution.
To choose an appropriate method for a particular problem first we need to categorize the problem based on the following characteristics.
Is the problem decomposable into small sub-problems which are easy to solve?
Can solution steps be ignored or undone?
Is the universe of the problem is predictable?
Is a good solution to the problem is absolute or relative?
Is the solution to the problem a state or a path?
What is the role of knowledge in solving a problem using artificial intelligence?
Does the task of solving a problem require human interaction?
1. Is the problem decomposable into small sub-problems which are easy to solve?
Can the problem be broken down into smaller problems to be solved independently?
See also Water Jug Problem in Artificial Intelligence
The decomposable problem can be solved easily.
Example: In this case, the problem is divided into smaller problems. The smaller problems are solved independently. Finally, the result is merged to get the final result.
Is the problem decomposable
2. Can solution steps be ignored or undone?
In the Theorem Proving problem, a lemma that has been proved can be ignored for the next steps.
Such problems are called Ignorable problems.
In the 8-Puzzle, Moves can be undone and backtracked.
Such problems are called Recoverable problems.
In Playing Chess, moves can be retracted.
Such problems are called Irrecoverable problems.
Ignorable problems can be solved using a simple control structure that never backtracks. Recoverable problems can be solved using backtracking. Irrecoverable problems can be solved by recoverable style methods via planning.
3. Is the universe of the problem is predictable?
In Playing Bridge, We cannot know exactly where all the cards are or what the other players will do on their turns.
Uncertain outcome!
For certain-outcome problems, planning can be used to generate a sequence of operators that is guaranteed to lead to a solution.
For uncertain-outcome problems, a sequence of generated operators can only have a good probability of leading to a solution. Plan revision is made as the plan is carried out and the necessary feedback is provided.
4. Is a good solution to the problem is absolute or relative?
The Travelling Salesman Problem, we have to try all paths to find the shortest one.
See also Generate and Test Heuristic Search - Artificial Intelligence
Any path problem can be solved using heuristics that suggest good paths to explore.
For best-path problems, a much more exhaustive search will be performed.
5. Is the solution to the problem a state or a path
The Water Jug Problem, the path that leads to the goal must be reported.
Introduction to Artificial Intteligence
Introduction to Artificial IntteligenceBharat Bhushan ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE : Introduction ,
Introduction to Artificial Intelligence, Background and Applications, Turing Test and Rational
Agent approaches to AI, Introduction to Intelligent Agents, their structure, behavior and
environment.
2. Problem Solving and Searching Techniques
Problem Characteristics, Production Systems, Control Strategies, Breadth First Search, Depth First
Search, Hill climbing and its Variations, Heuristics Search Techniques: Best First Search, A*
algorithm, Constraint Satisfaction Problem, Means-End Analysis, Introduction to Game Playing,
Min-Max and Alpha-Beta pruning algorithms.
3. Knowledge Representation
Introduction to First Order Predicate Logic, Resolution Principle, Unification, Semantic Nets,
Conceptual Dependencies, Frames, and Scripts, Production Rules, Conceptual Graphs.
Programming in Logic (PROLOG)
4. Dealing with Uncertainty and Inconsistencies
Maintenance System, Default Reasoning, Probabilistic Reasoning, Bayesian Probabilistic
Inference, Possible World Representations.
5. Understanding Natural Languages
Parsing Techniques, Context-Free and
Transformational Grammars, Recursive and Augmented Transition Nets.
Introduction to Artificial Intteligence
Introduction to Artificial IntteligenceBharat Bhushan ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE : Introduction ,
Introduction to Artificial Intelligence, Background and Applications, Turing Test and Rational
Agent approaches to AI, Introduction to Intelligent Agents, their structure, behavior and
environment.
2. Problem Solving and Searching Techniques
Problem Characteristics, Production Systems, Control Strategies, Breadth First Search, Depth First
Search, Hill climbing and its Variations, Heuristics Search Techniques: Best First Search, A*
algorithm, Constraint Satisfaction Problem, Means-End Analysis, Introduction to Game Playing,
Min-Max and Alpha-Beta pruning algorithms.
3. Knowledge Representation
Introduction to First Order Predicate Logic, Resolution Principle, Unification, Semantic Nets,
Conceptual Dependencies, Frames, and Scripts, Production Rules, Conceptual Graphs.
Programming in Logic (PROLOG)
4. Dealing with Uncertainty and Inconsistencies
Maintenance System, Default Reasoning, Probabilistic Reasoning, Bayesian Probabilistic
Inference, Possible World Representations.
5. Understanding Natural Languages
Parsing Techniques, Context-Free and
Transformational Grammars, Recursive and Augmented Transition Nets.
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF ALGORITHMS by Bharat Sir 
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF ALGORITHMS by Bharat Sir Bharat Bhushan DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF ALGORITHMS
1. Introduction
Basic Design and Analysis techniques of Algorithms, Correctness of Algorithm.
2. Algorithm Design Techniques
Iterative techniques, Divide and Conquer, Dynamic Programming, Greedy Algorithms.
3. Sorting and Searching Techniques
Elementary sorting techniques–Bubble Sort, Insertion Sort, Merge Sort, Advanced Sorting
techniques - Heap Sort, Quick Sort, Sorting in Linear Time - Bucket Sort, Radix Sort and Count
Sort, Searching Techniques, Medians & Order Statistics, complexity analysis;
4. Lower Bounding Techniques
Decision Trees
5. Balanced Trees
Red-Black Trees
6. Advanced Analysis Technique
Amortized analysis
7. Graphs
Graph Algorithms–Breadth First Search, Depth First Search and its Applications, Minimum
Spanning Trees.
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF ALGORITHMS
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF ALGORITHMSBharat Bhushan This document outlines the units of a course on design and analysis of algorithms taught by Bharat Bhushan. The course covers basic design techniques like iteration, divide and conquer, and dynamic programming. It also covers sorting algorithms like bubble sort, merge sort, and quick sort. Additionally, the course addresses searching techniques, lower bounding techniques, advanced analysis like amortized analysis, and graph algorithms like breadth first search and minimum spanning trees. The overall document provides an overview of the topics and units to be covered in the algorithms course.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE 
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE Bharat Bhushan ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
1. Introduction
Introduction to Artificial Intelligence, Background and Applications, Turing Test and Rational
Agent approaches to AI, Introduction to Intelligent Agents, their structure, behavior and environment.
2. Problem Solving and Searching Techniques
Problem Characteristics, Production Systems, Control Strategies, Breadth First Search, Depth First
Search, Hill climbing and its Variations, Heuristics Search Techniques: Best First Search, A*
algorithm, Constraint Satisfaction Problem, Means-End Analysis, Introduction to Game Playing,
Min-Max and Alpha-Beta pruning algorithms.
3. Knowledge Representation
Introduction to First Order Predicate Logic, Resolution Principle, Unification, Semantic Nets,
Conceptual Dependencies, Frames, and Scripts, Production Rules, Conceptual Graphs.
Programming in Logic (PROLOG)
4. Dealing with Uncertainty and Inconsistencies
Maintenance System, Default Reasoning, Probabilistic Reasoning, Bayesian Probabilistic
Inference, Possible World Representations.
5. Understanding Natural Languages
Parsing Techniques, Context-Free and
Transformational Grammars, Recursive and Augmented Transition Nets.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE SYLLABUS 
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE SYLLABUS Bharat Bhushan ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
1. Introduction
Introduction to Artificial Intelligence, Background and Applications, Turing Test and Rational
Agent approaches to AI, Introduction to Intelligent Agents, their structure, behavior and environment.
2. Problem Solving and Searching Techniques
Problem Characteristics, Production Systems, Control Strategies, Breadth First Search, Depth First
Search, Hill climbing and its Variations, Heuristics Search Techniques: Best First Search, A*
algorithm, Constraint Satisfaction Problem, Means-End Analysis, Introduction to Game Playing,
Min-Max and Alpha-Beta pruning algorithms.
3. Knowledge Representation
Introduction to First Order Predicate Logic, Resolution Principle, Unification, Semantic Nets,
Conceptual Dependencies, Frames, and Scripts, Production Rules, Conceptual Graphs.
Programming in Logic (PROLOG)
4. Dealing with Uncertainty and Inconsistencies
Maintenance System, Default Reasoning, Probabilistic Reasoning, Bayesian Probabilistic
Inference, Possible World Representations.
5. Understanding Natural Languages
Parsing Techniques, Context-Free and
Transformational Grammars, Recursive and Augmented Transition Nets.
Cyber Security 
Cyber Security Bharat Bhushan Presentation on Cyber Security by Bharat Bhushan, Assistant Professor, Ram Lakhan Singh Yadav College, Kokar, Ranchi.
Cyber Security 
Cyber Security Bharat Bhushan Presentation on Cyber Security by Bharat Bhushan, Assistant Professor, Ram Lakhan Singh Yadav College, Kokar, Ranchi.
Digital Content Creation By Bharat Sir Kokar
Digital Content Creation By Bharat Sir KokarBharat Bhushan रांची, 24 जुलाई : विश्व संवाद केंद्र झारखंड के तत्वाधान में डिजिटल कंटेंट क्रिएशन एंड यूटिलाइजेशन फॉर स्टूडेंट्स एंड इनफार्मेशन प्रोफेशनल विषय पर एक दिवसीय प्रशिक्षण कार्यक्रम का आयोजन बुद्धा साइंस एंड टेक्निकल इंस्टीट्यूट, कोकर के सभागार में आयोजित किया गया। कार्यक्रम का उद्घाटन इंटरनेशनल रिसर्च एंड डेवलपमेंट एसोसिएशन के वाइस प्रेसिडेंट शशि भूषण पांडे ने दीप प्रज्वलित कर किया ।
इंफॉर्मेशन साइंटिस्ट भारत भूषण ने छात्रों को डिजिटल कंटेंट क्रिएट करने और उसका उपयोग अपने और देश हित में कैसे कर सकते हैं इस विषय पर छात्रों को प्रशिक्षित किया।
कार्यक्रम के समापन में मुख्य अतिथि के तौर पर राम लखन सिंह यादव कॉलेज के प्रिंसिपल डॉ. जे.पी. सिंह ने छात्रों को कहा कि आज का दौर टेक्नोलॉजी और इंफॉर्मेशन का है। आज वही सबसे ज्यादा विकसित राष्ट्र कहलाएगा जिसके पास जितना ज्यादा से ज्यादा विकसित टेक्नोलॉजी होगा। कार्यक्रम के दौरान बेहतर प्रदर्शन करने वाले छात्रों को डॉ. जे.पी. सिंह ने मेडल देकर सम्मानित किया।
कार्यक्रम को सफल बनाने में सुप्रिया भारती, सावित्री कुमारी, हरेंद्र कुमार, निशांत दीप दास, छाया महतो, अंकित रंजन एवं किशोरी शाह का मुख्य योगदान रहा।
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Physical Properties
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Displacement Reaction
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- 1. Presentation on By BHARAT BHUSHAN Asst. Professor, Department of Computer Sc. RLSY College, Ranchi Buddha Science and Technical Institute, Ranchi www.bharatsir.com Dynamic Programming in Algorithm Design Technique
- 2. www.bharatsir.com || Mo No : 09835376044 || WhtasApp : 09006365889 Algorithm Design Dynamic Programming Dynamic Programming (DP) is an algorithmic technique for solving an optimization problem by breaking it down into simpler sub problems and utilizing the fact that the optimal solution to the overall problem depends upon the optimal solution to its sub problems. Dynamic programming approach is similar to divide and conquer in breaking down the problem into smaller and yet smaller possible sub-problems. But unlike, divide and conquer, these sub-problems are not solved independently.
- 3. www.bharatsir.com || Mo No : 09835376044 || WhtasApp : 09006365889 Algorithm Design Dynamic Programming Approach Work The following are the steps that the dynamic programming follows: It breaks down the complex problem into simpler sub problems. It finds the optimal solution to these sub-problems. It stores the results of sub problems. The process of storing the results of sub problems is known as memorization. It reuses them so that same sub-problem is calculated more than once. Finally, calculate the result of the complex problem.
- 4. www.bharatsir.com || Mo No : 09835376044 || WhtasApp : 09006365889 Algorithm Design Approaches of Dynamic Programming There are two approaches to dynamic programming: Top-down approach Bottom-up approach Top-down approach : The top-down method solves the overall problem before you break it down into sub problems. This process works to solve larger problems by finding the solution to sub problems recursively, caching each result.
- 5. www.bharatsir.com || Mo No : 09835376044 || WhtasApp : 09006365889 Algorithm Design Approaches of Dynamic Programming Bottom-up approach : The bottom-up approach is also one of the techniques which can be used to implement the dynamic programming. It uses the tabulation technique to implement the dynamic programming approach. It solves the same kind of problems but it removes the recursion. If we remove the recursion, there is no stack overflow issue and no overhead of the recursive functions. In this tabulation technique, we solve the problems and store the results in a matrix.
- 6. www.bharatsir.com || Mo No : 09835376044 || WhtasApp : 09006365889 Algorithm Design Examples The following computer problems can be solved using dynamic programming approach − Fibonacci number series Knapsack problem Tower of Hanoi All pair shortest path by Floyd-Warshall Shortest path by Dijkstra Project scheduling
- 7. www.bharatsir.com || Mo No : 09835376044 || WhtasApp : 09006365889 Algorithm Design Advantages of Dynamic Programming 1. Dynamic programming can be used to obtain local as well as the total optimal solution. 2. Dynamic programming algorithms are generally compact code pieces as they are based on recursive functions. 3. The linear and non-linear problem, both kind of problems can be solved using dynamic programming. 4. Dynamic programming algorithms are easy to debug.
- 8. www.bharatsir.com || Mo No : 09835376044 || WhtasApp : 09006365889 Algorithm Design Disadvantages of Dynamic Programming 1. Dynamic programming uses recursion, which requires more memory in the call stack, and leads to a stack overflow condition in the runtime. 2. It takes memory to store the solutions of each sub-problem. There is no guarantee that the stored value will be used later in execution.
- 9. Bharat Bhushan, Assistant Professor, RLSY College, Ranchi Algorithm Design