Sql1 vol2

Oracle Database 11g: SQL
Fundamentals I
Volume II • Student Guide

D49996GC11
Edition 1.1
April 2009
D59981

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Authors

Copyright © 2009, Oracle. All rights reserved.

Puja Singh
Brian Pottle

Disclaimer

Technical Contributors
and Reviewers
Claire Bennett
Tom Best
Purjanti Chang
Ken Cooper
László Czinkóczki
Burt Demchick
Mark Fleming
Gerlinde Frenzen
Nancy Greenberg
Chaitanya Koratamaddi
Wendy Lo
Timothy Mcglue
Alan Paulson
Bryan Roberts
Abhishek Singh
Lori Tritz
Michael Versaci
Lex van der Werff

This document contains proprietary information and is protected by copyright and
other intellectual property laws. You may copy and print this document solely for your
own use in an Oracle training course. The document may not be modified or altered in
any way. Except where your use constitutes "fair use" under copyright law, you may
not use, share, download, upload, copy, print, display, perform, reproduce, publish,
license, post, transmit, or distribute this document in whole or in part without the
express authorization of Oracle.
The information contained in this document is subject to change without notice. If you
find any problems in the document, please report them in writing to: Oracle University,
500 Oracle Parkway, Redwood Shores, California 94065 USA. This document is not
warranted to be error-free.
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Oracle is a registered trademark of Oracle Corporation and/or its affiliates. Other
names may be trademarks of their respective owners.

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Editors
Raj Kumar
Amitha Narayan
Vijayalakshmi Narasimhan

Graphic Designer
Satish Bettegowda

Publishers
Sujatha Nagendra
Syed Ali

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Contents

Preface
I

Introduction
Lesson Objectives I-2
Lesson Agenda I-3
Course Objectives I-4
Course Agenda I-5
Appendixes Used in the Course I-7
Lesson Agenda I-8
Oracle Database 11g: Focus Areas I-9
Oracle Database 11g I-10
Oracle Fusion Middleware I-12
Oracle Enterprise Manager Grid Control 10g I-13
Oracle BI Publisher I-14
Lesson Agenda I-15
Relational and Object Relational Database Management Systems I-16
Data Storage on Different Media I-17
Relational Database Concept I-18
Definition of a Relational Database I-19
Data Models I-20
Entity Relationship Model I-21
Entity Relationship Modeling Conventions I-23
Relating Multiple Tables I-25
Relational Database Terminology I-27
Lesson Agenda I-29
Using SQL to Query Your Database I-30
SQL Statements I-31
Development Environments for SQL I-32
Lesson Agenda I-33
The Human Resources (HR) Schema I-34
Tables Used in the Course I-35
Lesson Agenda I-36
Oracle Database 11g Documentation I-37
Additional Resources I-38

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Summary I-39
Practice I: Overview I-40
1

Retrieving Data Using the SQL SELECT Statement
Objectives 1-2
Lesson Agenda 1-3
Capabilities of SQL SELECT Statements 1-4
Basic SELECT Statement 1-5
Selecting All Columns 1-6
Selecting Specific Columns 1-7
Writing SQL Statements 1-8
Column Heading Defaults 1-9
Lesson Agenda 1-10
Arithmetic Expressions 1-11
Using Arithmetic Operators 1-12
Operator Precedence 1-13
Defining a Null Value 1-14
Null Values in Arithmetic Expressions 1-15
Lesson Agenda 1-16
Defining a Column Alias 1-17
Using Column Aliases 1-18
Lesson Agenda 1-19
Concatenation Operator 1-20
Literal Character Strings 1-21
Using Literal Character Strings 1-22
Alternative Quote (q) Operator 1-23
Duplicate Rows 1-24
Lesson Agenda 1-25
Displaying the Table Structure 1-26
Using the DESCRIBE Command 1-27
Quiz 1-28
Summary 1-29
Practice 1: Overview 1-30

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Restricting and Sorting Data
Objectives 2-2
Lesson Agenda 2-3
Limiting Rows Using a Selection 2-4
Limiting the Rows That Are Selected 2-5
Using the WHERE Clause 2-6

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Character Strings and Dates 2-7
Comparison Operators 2-8
Using Comparison Operators 2-9
Range Conditions Using the BETWEEN Operator 2-10
Membership Condition Using the IN Operator 2-11
Pattern Matching Using the LIKE Operator 2-12
Combining Wildcard Characters 2-13
Using the NULL Conditions 2-14
Defining Conditions Using the Logical Operators 2-15
Using the AND Operator 2-16
Using the OR Operator 2-17
Using the NOT Operator 2-18
Lesson Agenda 2-19
Rules of Precedence 2-20
Lesson Agenda 2-22
Using the ORDER BY Clause 2-23
Sorting 2-24
Lesson Agenda 2-26
Substitution Variables 2-27
Using the Single-Ampersand Substitution Variable 2-29
Character and Date Values with Substitution Variables 2-31
Specifying Column Names, Expressions, and Text 2-32
Using the Double-Ampersand Substitution Variable 2-33
Lesson Agenda 2-34
Using the DEFINE Command 2-35

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Using the VERIFY Command 2-36
Quiz 2-37
Summary 2-38
3

Using Single-Row Functions to Customize Output
Objectives 3-2
Lesson Agenda 3-3
SQL Functions 3-4
Two Types of SQL Functions 3-5
Single-Row Functions 3-6
Lesson Agenda 3-8
Character Functions 3-9
Case-Conversion Functions 3-11
Using Case-Conversion Functions 3-12

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Character-Manipulation Functions 3-13
Using the Character-Manipulation Functions 3-14
Lesson Agenda 3-15
Number Functions 3-16
Using the ROUND Function 3-17
Using the TRUNC Function 3-18
Using the MOD Function 3-19
Lesson Agenda 3-20
Working with Dates 3-21
RR Date Format 3-22
Using the SYSDATE Function 3-24
Arithmetic with Dates 3-25
Using Arithmetic Operators with Dates 3-26
Lesson Agenda 3-27
Date-Manipulation Functions 3-28
Using Date Functions 3-29
Using ROUND and TRUNC Functions with Dates 3-30
Quiz 3-31
Summary 3-32
4

Using Conversion Functions and Conditional Expressions
Objectives 4-2
Lesson Agenda 4-3
Conversion Functions 4-4
Implicit Data Type Conversion 4-5
Explicit Data Type Conversion 4-7
Lesson Agenda 4-10
Using the TO_CHAR Function with Dates 4-11
Elements of the Date Format Model 4-12
Using the TO_CHAR Function with Dates 4-16

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Using the TO_CHAR Function with Numbers 4-17

Using the TO_NUMBER and TO_DATE Functions 4-20

Using the TO_CHAR and TO_DATE Function with RR Date Format 4-22
Lesson Agenda 4-23
Nesting Functions 4-24
Lesson Agenda 4-26
General Functions 4-27
NVL Function 4-28

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Using the NVL Function 4-29

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Using the NVL2 Function 4-30
Using the NULLIF Function 4-31
Using the COALESCE Function 4-32
Lesson Agenda 4-35
Conditional Expressions 4-36
CASE Expression 4-37
Using the CASE Expression 4-38
DECODE Function 4-39
Using the DECODE Function 4-40
Quiz 4-42
Summary 4-43
5

Reporting Aggregated Data Using the Group Functions
Objectives 5-2
Lesson Agenda 5-3
What Are Group Functions? 5-4
Types of Group Functions 5-5
Group Functions: Syntax 5-6
Using the AVG and SUM Functions 5-7

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Using the MIN and MAX Functions 5-8
Using the COUNT Function 5-9
Using the DISTINCT Keyword 5-10
Group Functions and Null Values 5-11
Lesson Agenda 5-12
Creating Groups of Data 5-13
Creating Groups of Data: GROUP BY Clause Syntax 5-14

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Using the GROUP BY Clause 5-15
Grouping by More than One Column 5-17
Using the GROUP BY Clause on Multiple Columns 5-18
Illegal Queries Using Group Functions 5-19
Restricting Group Results 5-21
Restricting Group Results with the HAVING Clause 5-22
Using the HAVING Clause 5-23
Lesson Agenda 5-25
Nesting Group Functions 5-26
Quiz 5-27
Summary 5-28

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Displaying Data from Multiple Tables
Objectives 6-2
Lesson Agenda 6-3
Obtaining Data from Multiple Tables 6-4
Types of Joins 6-5
Joining Tables Using SQL:1999 Syntax 6-6
Qualifying Ambiguous Column Names 6-7
Lesson Agenda 6-8
Creating Natural Joins 6-9
Retrieving Records with Natural Joins 6-10
Creating Joins with the USING Clause 6-11
Joining Column Names 6-12
Retrieving Records with the USING Clause 6-13
Using Table Aliases with the USING Clause 6-14
Creating Joins with the ON Clause 6-15
Retrieving Records with the ON Clause 6-16
Creating Three-Way Joins with the ON Clause 6-17
Applying Additional Conditions to a Join 6-18
Lesson Agenda 6-19
Joining a Table to Itself 6-20
Self-Joins Using the ON Clause 6-21
Lesson Agenda 6-22
Nonequijoins 6-23
Retrieving Records with Nonequijoins 6-24
Lesson Agenda 6-25
Returning Records with No Direct Match Using OUTER Joins 6-26

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INNER Versus OUTER Joins 6-27
LEFT OUTER JOIN 6-28

RIGHT OUTER JOIN 6-29

FULL OUTER JOIN 6-30
Lesson Agenda 6-31
Cartesian Products 6-32
Generating a Cartesian Product 6-33
Creating Cross Joins 6-34
Quiz 6-35
Summary 6-36

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7

Using Subqueries to Solve Queries
Objectives 7-2
Lesson Agenda 7-3
Using a Subquery to Solve a Problem 7-4
Subquery Syntax 7-5
Using a Subquery 7-6
Guidelines for Using Subqueries 7-7
Types of Subqueries 7-8
Lesson Agenda 7-9
Single-Row Subqueries 7-10
Executing Single-Row Subqueries 7-11
Using Group Functions in a Subquery 7-12
The HAVING Clause with Subqueries 7-13
What Is Wrong with This Statement? 7-14
No Rows Returned by the Inner Query 7-15
Lesson Agenda 7-16
Multiple-Row Subqueries 7-17
Using the ANY Operator in Multiple-Row Subqueries 7-18
Using the ALL Operator in Multiple-Row Subqueries 7-19
Lesson Agenda 7-20
Null Values in a Subquery 7-21
Quiz 7-23
Summary 7-24

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Using the Set Operators
Objectives 8-2
Lesson Agenda 8-3
Set Operators 8-4
Set Operator Guidelines 8-5
The Oracle Server and Set Operators 8-6
Lesson Agenda 8-7
Tables Used in This Lesson 8-8
Lesson Agenda 8-12
UNION Operator 8-13
Using the UNION Operator 8-14

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UNION ALL Operator 8-16

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Using the UNION ALL Operator 8-17
Lesson Agenda 8-18
INTERSECT Operator 8-19

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Using the INTERSECT Operator 8-20
Lesson Agenda 8-21
MINUS Operator 8-22
Using the MINUS Operator 8-23
Lesson Agenda 8-24
Matching the SELECT Statements 8-25
Matching the SELECT Statement: Example 8-26
Lesson Agenda 8-27
Using the ORDER BY Clause in Set Operations 8-28
Quiz 8-29
Summary 8-30
9

Manipulating Data
Objectives 9-2
Lesson Agenda 9-3
Data Manipulation Language 9-4
Adding a New Row to a Table 9-5
INSERT Statement Syntax 9-6
Inserting New Rows 9-7
Inserting Rows with Null Values 9-8
Inserting Special Values 9-9
Inserting Specific Date and Time Values 9-10
Creating a Script 9-11
Copying Rows from Another Table 9-12
Lesson Agenda 9-13
Changing Data in a Table 9-14
UPDATE Statement Syntax 9-15
Updating Rows in a Table 9-16
Updating Two Columns with a Subquery 9-17
Updating Rows Based on Another Table 9-18
Lesson Agenda 9-19
Removing a Row from a Table 9-20
DELETE Statement 9-21
Deleting Rows from a Table 9-22
Deleting Rows Based on Another Table 9-23
TRUNCATE Statement 9-24
Lesson Agenda 9-25
Database Transactions 9-26
Database Transactions: Start and End 9-27

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Advantages of COMMIT and ROLLBACK Statements 9-28
Explicit Transaction Control Statements 9-29
Rolling Back Changes to a Marker 9-30
Implicit Transaction Processing 9-31
State of the Data Before COMMIT or ROLLBACK 9-33
State of the Data After COMMIT 9-34
Committing Data 9-35
State of the Data After ROLLBACK 9-36
State of the Data After ROLLBACK: Example 9-37
Statement-Level Rollback 9-38
Lesson Agenda 9-39
Read Consistency 9-40
Implementing Read Consistency 9-41
Lesson Agenda 9-42
FOR UPDATE Clause in a SELECT Statement 9-43
FOR UPDATE Clause: Examples 9-44
Quiz 9-46
Summary 9-47
10 Using DDL Statements to Create and Manage Tables
Objectives 10-2
Lesson Agenda 10-3
Database Objects 10-4
Naming Rules 10-5
Lesson Agenda 10-6
CREATE TABLE Statement 10-7
Referencing Another User’s Tables 10-8
DEFAULT Option 10-9
Creating Tables 10-10
Lesson Agenda 10-11
Data Types 10-12
Datetime Data Types 10-14
Lesson Agenda 10-15
Including Constraints 10-16
Constraint Guidelines 10-17
Defining Constraints 10-18
NOT NULL Constraint 10-20

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UNIQUE Constraint 10-21
PRIMARY KEY Constraint 10-23

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FOREIGN KEY Constraint 10-24
FOREIGN KEY Constraint: Keywords 10-26
CHECK Constraint 10-27
CREATE TABLE: Example 10-28
Violating Constraints 10-29
Lesson Agenda 10-31
Creating a Table Using a Subquery 10-32
Lesson Agenda 10-34
ALTER TABLE Statement 10-35
Read-Only Tables 10-36
Lesson Agenda 10-37
Dropping a Table 10-38
Quiz 10-39
Summary 10-40
11 Creating Other Schema Objects
Objectives 11-2
Lesson Agenda 11-3
Database Objects 11-4
What Is a View? 11-5
Advantages of Views 11-6
Simple Views and Complex Views 11-7
Creating a View 11-8
Retrieving Data from a View 11-11
Modifying a View 11-12
Creating a Complex View 11-13
Rules for Performing DML Operations on a View 11-14
Using the WITH CHECK OPTION Clause 11-17
Denying DML Operations 11-18
Removing a View 11-20
Practice 11: Overview of Part 1 11-21
Lesson Agenda 11-22
Sequences 11-23
CREATE SEQUENCE Statement: Syntax 11-25
Creating a Sequence 11-26
NEXTVAL and CURRVAL Pseudocolumns 11-27
Using a Sequence 11-29
Caching Sequence Values 11-30
Modifying a Sequence 11-31

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Guidelines for Modifying a Sequence 11-32
Lesson Agenda 11-33
Indexes 11-34
How Are Indexes Created? 11-36
Creating an Index 11-37
Index Creation Guidelines 11-38
Removing an Index 11-39
Lesson Agenda 11-40
Synonyms 11-41
Creating a Synonym for an Object 11-42
Creating and Removing Synonyms 11-43
Quiz 11-44
Summary 11-45
Practice 11: Overview of Part 2 11-46
Appendix A: Practice Solutions
Appendix B: Table Descriptions
Appendix C: Oracle Join Syntax
Objectives C-2
Obtaining Data from Multiple Tables C-3
Cartesian Products C-4
Generating a Cartesian Product C-5
Types of Oracle-Proprietary Joins C-6
Joining Tables Using Oracle Syntax C-7
Qualifying Ambiguous Column Names C-8
Equijoins C-9
Retrieving Records with Equijoins C-10
Retrieving Records with Equijoins: Example C-11
Additional Search Conditions Using the AND Operator C-12
Joining More than Two Tables C-13
Nonequijoins C-14
Retrieving Records with Nonequijoins C-15
Returning Records with No Direct Match with Outer Joins C-16
Outer Joins: Syntax C-17
Using Outer Joins C-18
Outer Join: Another Example C-19
Joining a Table to Itself C-20
Self-Join: Example C-21

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Summary C-22
Practice C: Overview C-23
Appendix D: Using SQL*Plus
Objectives D-2
SQL and SQL*Plus Interaction D-3
SQL Statements Versus SQL*Plus Commands D-4
Overview of SQL*Plus D-5
Logging In to SQL*Plus D-6
Displaying Table Structure D-8
SQL*Plus Editing Commands D-10
Using LIST, n, and APPEND D-12
Using the CHANGE Command D-13
SQL*Plus File Commands D-14
Using the SAVE, START, and EDIT Commands D-15
SERVEROUTPUT Command D-17
Using the SQL*Plus SPOOL Command D-18
Using the AUTOTRACE Command D-19
Summary D-20
Appendix E: Using SQL Developer
Objectives E-2
What Is Oracle SQL Developer? E-3
Specifications of SQL Developer E-4
Installing SQL Developer E-5
SQL Developer 1.2 Interface E-6
Creating a Database Connection E-7
Browsing Database Objects E-10
Creating a Schema Object E-11
Creating a New Table: Example E-12
Using the SQL Worksheet E-13
Executing SQL Statements E-16
Saving SQL Scripts E-17
Executing Saved Script Files: Method 1 E-18
Executing Saved Script Files: Method 2 E-19
Executing SQL Statements E-20
Formatting the SQL Code E-21
Using Snippets E-22
Using Snippets: Example E-23
Using SQL*Plus E-24

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Debugging Procedures and Functions E-25
Database Reporting E-26
Creating a User-Defined Report E-27
Search Engines and External Tools E-28
Setting Preferences E-29
Specifications of SQL Developer 1.5.3 E-30
Installing SQL Developer 1.5.3 E-31
SQL Developer 1.5.3 Interface E-32
Summary E-34
Index
Additional Practices
Additional Practices: Solutions

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Manipulating Data

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Objectives
After completing this lesson, you should be able to do the
following:
• Describe each data manipulation language (DML)
statement
• Insert rows into a table
• Update rows in a table
• Delete rows from a table
• Control transactions

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Objective
In this lesson, you learn how to use the data manipulation language (DML) statements to insert rows
into a table, update existing rows in a table, and delete existing rows from a table. You also learn
how to control transactions with the COMMIT, SAVEPOINT, and ROLLBACK statements.

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Oracle Database 11g: SQL Fundamentals I 9 - 2

Lesson Agenda
•

Adding new rows in a table
– INSERT statement

•

Changing data in a table
– UPDATE statement

•

Removing rows from a table:
– DELETE statement
– TRUNCATE statement

•

Database transactions control using COMMIT, ROLLBACK,
and SAVEPOINT

•
•

Read consistency
FOR UPDATE clause in a SELECT statement


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Data Manipulation Language
•

A DML statement is executed when you:
– Add new rows to a table
– Modify existing rows in a table
– Remove existing rows from a table

•

A transaction consists of a collection of DML statements
that form a logical unit of work.

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Data Manipulation Language
Data manipulation language (DML) is a core part of SQL. When you want to add, update, or delete
data in the database, you execute a DML statement. A collection of DML statements that form a
logical unit of work is called a transaction.

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Consider a banking database. When a bank customer transfers money from a savings account to a
checking account, the transaction might consist of three separate operations: decreasing the savings
account, increasing the checking account, and recording the transaction in the transaction journal.
The Oracle server must guarantee that all the three SQL statements are performed to maintain the
accounts in proper balance. When something prevents one of the statements in the transaction from
executing, the other statements of the transaction must be undone.
Note
• Most of the DML statements in this lesson assume that no constraints on the table are violated.
Constraints are discussed later in this course.
• In SQL Developer, click the Run Script icon or press [F5] to run the DML statements. The
feedback messages will be shown on the Script Output tabbed page.

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Adding a New Row to a Table
New
row

DEPARTMENTS

Insert new row
into the
DEPARTMENTS table.

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Adding a New Row to a Table
The graphic in the slide illustrates the addition of a new department to the DEPARTMENTS table.

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INSERT Statement Syntax
•

Add new rows to a table by using the INSERT statement:
INSERT INTO
VALUES

•

table [(column [, column...])]
(value [, value...]);

With this syntax, only one row is inserted at a time.

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INSERT Statement Syntax
You can add new rows to a table by issuing the INSERT statement.

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In the syntax:
table
is the name of the table
column
is the name of the column in the table to populate
value
is the corresponding value for the column
Note: This statement with the VALUES clause adds only one row at a time to a table.

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Inserting New Rows
•
•
•

Insert a new row containing values for each column.
List values in the default order of the columns in the table.
Optionally, list the columns in the INSERT clause.
INSERT INTO departments(department_id,
department_name, manager_id, location_id)
VALUES (70, 'Public Relations', 100, 1700);

•

Enclose character and date values within single quotation
marks.

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Inserting New Rows
Because you can insert a new row that contains values for each column, the column list is not
required in the INSERT clause. However, if you do not use the column list, the values must be listed
according to the default order of the columns in the table, and a value must be provided for each
column.

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DESCRIBE departments

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For clarity, use the column list in the INSERT clause.
Enclose character and date values within single quotation marks; however, it is not recommended
that you enclose numeric values within single quotation marks.

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Inserting Rows with Null Values
•

Implicit method: Omit the column from the
column list.
INSERT INTO
VALUES

•

departments (department_id,
department_name)
(30, 'Purchasing');

Explicit method: Specify the NULL keyword in the VALUES
clause.
INSERT INTO
VALUES

departments
(100, 'Finance', NULL, NULL);

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Inserting Rows with Null Values

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Method

Description

Implicit
Explicit

Omit the column from the column list.
Specify the NULL keyword in the VALUES list;
specify the empty string ('') in the VALUES list for character strings
and dates.

Be sure that you can use null values in the targeted column by verifying the Null status with the
DESCRIBE command.
The Oracle server automatically enforces all data types, data ranges, and data integrity constraints.
Any column that is not listed explicitly obtains a null value in the new row.
Common errors that can occur during user input are checked in the following order:
• Mandatory value missing for a NOT NULL column
• Duplicate value violating any unique or primary key constraint
• Any value violating a CHECK constraint
• Referential integrity maintained for foreign key constraint
• Data type mismatches or values too wide to fit in column
Note: Use of the column list is recommended as it makes the INSERT statement more readable and
reliable, or less prone to mistakes.

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Inserting Special Values
The SYSDATE function records the current date and time.
INSERT INTO employees (employee_id,
first_name, last_name,
email, phone_number,
hire_date, job_id, salary,
commission_pct, manager_id,
department_id)
VALUES
(113,
'Louis', 'Popp',
'LPOPP', '515.124.4567',
SYSDATE, 'AC_ACCOUNT', 6900,
NULL, 205, 110);

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Inserting Special Values
You can use functions to enter special values in your table.
The slide example records information for employee Popp in the EMPLOYEES table. It supplies the
current date and time in the HIRE_DATE column. It uses the SYSDATE function that returns the
current date and time of the database server. You may also use the CURRENT_DATE function to get
the current date in the session time zone. You can also use the USER function when inserting rows in
a table. The USER function records the current username.
Confirming Additions to the Table

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SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id, hire_date, commission_pct
FROM
employees
WHERE employee_id = 113;

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Inserting Specific Date and Time Values
•

Add a new employee.
INSERT INTO employees
VALUES
(114,
'Den', 'Raphealy',
'DRAPHEAL', '515.127.4561',
TO_DATE('FEB 3, 1999', 'MON DD, YYYY'),
'SA_REP', 11000, 0.2, 100, 60);

•

Verify your addition.

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Inserting Specific Date and Time Values
The DD-MON-RR format is generally used to insert a date value. With the RR format, the system
provides the correct century automatically.
You may also supply the date value in the DD-MON-YYYY format. This is recommended because it
clearly specifies the century and does not depend on the internal RR format logic of specifying the
correct century.
If a date must be entered in a format other than the default format (for example, with another century
or a specific time), you must use the TO_DATE function.
The example in the slide records information for employee Raphealy in the EMPLOYEES table. It
sets the HIRE_DATE column to be February 3, 1999.

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Creating a Script
•

Use & substitution in a SQL statement to prompt for
values.
& is a placeholder for the variable value.

•

INSERT INTO departments
(department_id, department_name, location_id)
VALUES

(&department_id, '&department_name',&location);

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Creating a Script
You can save commands with substitution variables to a file and execute the commands in the file.
The example in the slide records information for a department in the DEPARTMENTS table.
Run the script file and you are prompted for input for each of the ampersand (&) substitution
variables. After entering a value for the substitution variable, click the OK button. The values that
you input are then substituted into the statement. This enables you to run the same script file over and
over, but supply a different set of values each time you run it.

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Copying Rows
from Another Table
•

Write your INSERT statement with a subquery:
INSERT INTO sales_reps(id, name, salary, commission_pct)
SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary, commission_pct
FROM
employees
WHERE job_id LIKE '%REP%';

•
•
•

Do not use the VALUES clause.
Match the number of columns in the INSERT clause to
those in the subquery.
Inserts all the rows returned by the subquery in the table,
sales_reps.

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Copying Rows from Another Table
You can use the INSERT statement to add rows to a table where the values are derived from existing
tables. In the slide example, for the INSERT INTO statement to work, you must have already created
the sales_reps table using the CREATE TABLE statement. CREATE TABLE is discussed in the
next lesson titled “Using DDL Statements to Create and Manage Tables.”
In place of the VALUES clause, you use a subquery.
Syntax

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INSERT INTO table [ column (, column) ] subquery;

In the syntax:
table
column
subquery
is the subquery that returns rows to the table
The number of columns and their data types in the column list of the INSERT clause must match the
number of values and their data types in the subquery. Zero or more rows are added depending on the
number of rows returned by the subquery. To create a copy of the rows of a table, use SELECT * in
the subquery:

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INSERT INTO copy_emp
SELECT *
FROM
employees;

Lesson Agenda
•


•


•


•

and SAVEPOINT

•
•

Read consistency


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Changing Data in a Table
EMPLOYEES

Update rows in the EMPLOYEES table:

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Changing Data in a Table
The slide illustrates changing the department number for employees in department 60 to
department 80.

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UPDATE Statement Syntax
•

Modify existing values in a table with the UPDATE
statement:
UPDATE
SET
[WHERE

•

table
column = value [, column = value, ...]
condition];

Update more than one row at a time (if required).

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UPDATE Statement Syntax
You can modify the existing values in a table by using the UPDATE statement.
In the syntax:
table
column
value
condition

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is the corresponding value or subquery for the column
identifies the rows to be updated and is composed of column names,
expressions, constants, subqueries, and comparison operators
Confirm the update operation by querying the table to display the updated rows.
For more information, see the section on “UPDATE” in the Oracle Database SQL Language
Reference 11g, Release 1 (11.1).
Note: In general, use the primary key column in the WHERE clause to identify a single row for
update. Using other columns can unexpectedly cause several rows to be updated. For example,
identifying a single row in the EMPLOYEES table by name is dangerous, because more than one
employee may have the same name.

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Updating Rows in a Table
•

Values for a specific row or rows are modified if you
specify the WHERE clause:
UPDATE employees
SET
department_id = 50

•

Values for all the rows in the table are modified if you omit
the WHERE clause:
UPDATE
SET

•

copy_emp
department_id = 110;

Specify SET column_name= NULL to update a column
value to NULL.

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Updating Rows in a Table
The UPDATE statement modifies the values of a specific row or rows if the WHERE clause is
specified. The example in the slide shows the transfer of employee 113 (Popp) to department 50.
If you omit the WHERE clause, values for all the rows in the table are modified. Examine the updated
rows in the COPY_EMP table.

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SELECT last_name, department_id
FROM
copy_emp;

…

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For example, an employee who was a SA_REP has now changed his job to an IT_PROG. Therefore,
his JOB_ID needs to be updated and the commission field needs to be set to NULL.

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UPDATE employees
SET job_id = ‘IT_PROG’, commission_pct = NULL

Note: The COPY_EMP table has the same data as the EMPLOYEES table.

Updating Two Columns with a Subquery
Update employee 113’s job and salary to match those of
employee 205.
UPDATE
SET

employees
job_id = (SELECT job_id
FROM
employees
WHERE
employee_id = 205),
salary = (SELECT salary
FROM
employees
WHERE
employee_id = 205)
employee_id
= 113;

WHERE

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Updating Two Columns with a Subquery
You can update multiple columns in the SET clause of an UPDATE statement by writing multiple
subqueries. The syntax is as follows:

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UPDATE table
SET
column

=

(SELECT column
FROM table
WHERE condition)

[ ,
column

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[WHERE

=

condition ]

(SELECT column
FROM table
WHERE condition)]
;

The example in the slide can also be written as follows:

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UPDATE employees
SET (job_id, salary) = (SELECT job_id, salary
FROM
employees
WHERE
employee_id = 205)
WHERE
employee_id
= 113;


Updating Rows Based
on Another Table
Use the subqueries in the UPDATE statements to update row
values in a table based on values from another table:
UPDATE
SET

copy_emp
department_id

=

WHERE

job_id

=

(SELECT department_id
FROM employees
WHERE employee_id = 100)
(SELECT job_id
FROM employees
WHERE employee_id = 200);

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Updating Rows Based on Another Table
You can use the subqueries in the UPDATE statements to update values in a table. The example in the
slide updates the COPY_EMP table based on the values from the EMPLOYEES table. It changes the
department number of all employees with employee 200’s job ID to employee 100’s current
department number.

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Lesson Agenda
•


•


•


•

and SAVEPOINT

•
•

Read consistency


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Removing a Row from a Table
DEPARTMENTS

Delete a row from the DEPARTMENTS table:

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Removing a Row from a Table
The Contracting department has been removed from the DEPARTMENTS table (assuming no
constraints on the DEPARTMENTS table are violated), as shown by the graphic in the slide.

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DELETE Statement
You can remove existing rows from a table by using the
DELETE statement:
DELETE [FROM]
[WHERE

table
condition];

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DELETE Statement Syntax
You can remove existing rows from a table by using the DELETE statement.
In the syntax:
table
condition

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identifies the rows to be deleted, and is composed of column names,
expressions, constants, subqueries, and comparison operators
Note: If no rows are deleted, the message “0 rows deleted” is returned (in the Script Output tab in
SQL Developer)
For more information, see the section on “DELETE” in Oracle Database SQL Language Reference
11g, Release 1 (11.1).

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Deleting Rows from a Table
•

Specific rows are deleted if you specify the WHERE clause:
DELETE FROM departments
WHERE department_name = ‘Finance';

•

All rows in the table are deleted if you omit the WHERE
clause:
DELETE FROM

copy_emp;

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Deleting Rows from a Table
You can delete specific rows by specifying the WHERE clause in the DELETE statement. The first
example in the slide deletes the Accounting department from the DEPARTMENTS table. You can
confirm the delete operation by displaying the deleted rows using the SELECT statement.
SELECT
FROM
WHERE

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*
departments
department_name = ‘Finance';

However, if you omit the WHERE clause, all rows in the table are deleted. The second example in the
slide deletes all rows from the COPY_EMP table, because no WHERE clause was specified.
Example:
Remove rows identified in the WHERE clause.

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DELETE FROM

employees WHERE employee_id = 114;

DELETE FROM

departments WHERE department_id IN (30, 40);


Deleting Rows Based
on Another Table
Use the subqueries in the DELETE statements to remove rows
from a table based on values from another table:
DELETE FROM employees
WHERE department_id =
(SELECT department_id
FROM
departments
WHERE department_name
LIKE '%Public%');

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Deleting Rows Based on Another Table
You can use the subqueries to delete rows from a table based on values from another table. The
example in the slide deletes all the employees in a department, where the department name contains
the string Public.
The subquery searches the DEPARTMENTS table to find the department number based on the
department name containing the string Public. The subquery then feeds the department number to
the main query, which deletes rows of data from the EMPLOYEES table based on this department
number.

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TRUNCATE Statement
•

Removes all rows from a table, leaving the table empty
and the table structure intact
Is a data definition language (DDL) statement rather than a
DML statement; cannot easily be undone
Syntax:

•
•

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

•

Example:
TRUNCATE TABLE copy_emp;

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TRUNCATE Statement
A more efficient method of emptying a table is by using the TRUNCATE statement.
You can use the TRUNCATE statement to quickly remove all rows from a table or cluster. Removing
rows with the TRUNCATE statement is faster than removing them with the DELETE statement for the
following reasons:
• The TRUNCATE statement is a data definition language (DDL) statement and generates no
rollback information. Rollback information is covered later in this lesson.
• Truncating a table does not fire the delete triggers of the table.

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If the table is the parent of a referential integrity constraint, you cannot truncate the table. You need
to disable the constraint before issuing the TRUNCATE statement. Disabling constraints is covered in
a subsequent lesson.

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Lesson Agenda
•


•


•


•

and SAVEPOINT

•
•

Read consistency


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Database Transactions
A database transaction consists of one of the following:
• DML statements that constitute one consistent change to
the data
• One DDL statement
• One data control language (DCL) statement

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Database Transactions
The Oracle server ensures data consistency based on transactions. Transactions give you more
flexibility and control when changing data, and they ensure data consistency in the event of user
process failure or system failure.

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Transactions consist of DML statements that constitute one consistent change to the data. For
example, a transfer of funds between two accounts should include the debit in one account and the
credit to another account of the same amount. Both actions should either fail or succeed together; the
credit should not be committed without the debit.
Transaction Types

Type

Description

Data manipulation
language (DML)
Data definition
language (DDL)
Data control language
(DCL)

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Consists of any number of DML statements that the Oracle
server treats as a single entity or a logical unit of work
Consists of only one DDL statement
Consists of only one DCL statement


Database Transactions: Start and End
•
•

Begin when the first DML SQL statement is executed.
End with one of the following events:
– A COMMIT or ROLLBACK statement is issued.
– A DDL or DCL statement executes (automatic commit).
– The user exits SQL Developer or SQL*Plus.
– The system crashes.

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Database Transaction: Start and End
When does a database transaction start and end?
A transaction begins when the first DML statement is encountered and ends when one of the
following occurs:
• A COMMIT or ROLLBACK statement is issued.
• A DDL statement, such as CREATE, is issued.
• A DCL statement is issued.
• The user exits SQL Developer or SQL*Plus.
• A machine fails or the system crashes.
After one transaction ends, the next executable SQL statement automatically starts the next
transaction.
A DDL statement or a DCL statement is automatically committed and therefore implicitly ends a
transaction.

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Advantages of COMMIT
and ROLLBACK Statements
With COMMIT and ROLLBACK statements, you can:
•
•
•

Ensure data consistency
Preview data changes before making changes permanent
Group logically-related operations

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Advantages of COMMIT and ROLLBACK Statements
With the COMMIT and ROLLBACK statements, you have control over making changes to the data
permanent.

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Explicit Transaction Control Statements
Time

COMMIT
Transaction
DELETE
SAVEPOINT A
INSERT

UPDATE
SAVEPOINT B
INSERT

ROLLBACK
to SAVEPOINT B

ROLLBACK
to SAVEPOINT A


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ROLLBACK

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Explicit Transaction Control Statements
You can control the logic of transactions by using the COMMIT, SAVEPOINT, and ROLLBACK
statements.

Statement
COMMIT

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Description

Ends the current transaction by making all pending data
changes permanent

SAVEPOINT name

Marks a savepoint within the current transaction

ROLLBACK

ROLLBACK ends the current transaction by discarding all
pending data changes.
ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT rolls back the current
transaction to the specified savepoint, thereby discarding any
changes and/or savepoints that were created after the
savepoint to which you are rolling back. If you omit the TO
SAVEPOINT clause, the ROLLBACK statement rolls back the
entire transaction. Because savepoints are logical, there is no
way to list the savepoints that you have created.

ROLLBACK TO
SAVEPOINT name

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Note: You cannot COMMIT to a SAVEPOINT. SAVEPOINT is not ANSI-standard SQL.

Rolling Back Changes to a Marker
•

Create a marker in the current transaction by using the
SAVEPOINT statement.
Roll back to that marker by using the ROLLBACK TO
SAVEPOINT statement.

•

UPDATE...
SAVEPOINT update_done;
INSERT...
ROLLBACK TO update_done;

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Rolling Back Changes to a Marker
You can create a marker in the current transaction by using the SAVEPOINT statement, which
divides the transaction into smaller sections. You can then discard pending changes up to that marker
by using the ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT statement.

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Note, if you create a second savepoint with the same name as an earlier savepoint, the earlier
savepoint is deleted.

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Implicit Transaction Processing
•

An automatic commit occurs in the following
circumstances:
– A DDL statement is issued
– A DCL statement is issued
– Normal exit from SQL Developer or SQL*Plus, without
explicitly issuing COMMIT or ROLLBACK statements

•

An automatic rollback occurs when there is an abnormal
termination of SQL Developer or SQL*Plus or a system
failure.

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Implicit Transaction Processing
Status
Automatic commit

Automatic rollback

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Circumstances
DDL statement or DCL statement issued
SQL Developer or SQL*Plus exited normally, without
explicitly issuing COMMIT or ROLLBACK commands
Abnormal termination of SQL Developer or SQL*Plus or
system failure

Note: In SQL*Plus, the AUTOCOMMIT command can be toggled ON or OFF. If set to ON, each
individual DML statement is committed as soon as it is executed. You cannot roll back the changes.
If set to OFF, the COMMIT statement can still be issued explicitly. Also, the COMMIT statement is
issued when a DDL statement is issued or when you exit SQL*Plus. The SET AUTOCOMMIT
ON/OFF command is skipped in SQL Developer. DML is committed on a normal exit from SQL
Developer only if you have the Autocommit preference enabled. To enable Autocommit, perform the
following:
• In the Tools menu, select Preferences. In the Preferences dialog box, expand Database and select
Worksheet Parameters.
• On the right pane, check the Autocommit in SQL Worksheet option. Click OK.

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Implicit Transaction Processing (continued)
System Failures
When a transaction is interrupted by a system failure, the entire transaction is automatically rolled
back. This prevents the error from causing unwanted changes to the data and returns the tables to the
state at the time of the last commit. In this way, the Oracle server protects the integrity of the tables.
In SQL Developer, a normal exit from the session is accomplished by selecting Exit from the File
menu. In SQL*Plus, a normal exit is accomplished by entering the EXIT command at the prompt.
Closing the window is interpreted as an abnormal exit.

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State of the Data
Before COMMIT or ROLLBACK
•
•

The previous state of the data can be recovered.
The current user can review the results of the DML
operations by using the SELECT statement.

•

Other users cannot view the results of the DML statements
issued by the current user.
The affected rows are locked; other users cannot change
the data in the affected rows.

•

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State of the Data Before COMMIT or ROLLBACK

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Every data change made during the transaction is temporary until the transaction is committed.
The state of the data before COMMIT or ROLLBACK statements are issued can be described as
follows:
• Data manipulation operations primarily affect the database buffer; therefore, the previous state
of the data can be recovered.
• The current user can review the results of the data manipulation operations by querying the
tables.
• Other users cannot view the results of the data manipulation operations made by the current user.
The Oracle server institutes read consistency to ensure that each user sees data as it existed at the
last commit.
• The affected rows are locked; other users cannot change the data in the affected rows.

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State of the Data After COMMIT
•
•
•
•
•

Data changes are saved in the database.
The previous state of the data is overwritten.
All users can view the results.
Locks on the affected rows are released; those rows are
available for other users to manipulate.
All savepoints are erased.

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State of the Data After COMMIT
Make all pending changes permanent by using the COMMIT statement. Here is what happens after a
COMMIT statement:
• Data changes are written to the database.
• The previous state of the data is no longer available with normal SQL queries.
• All users can view the results of the transaction.
• The locks on the affected rows are released; the rows are now available for other users to
perform new data changes.
• All savepoints are erased.

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Committing Data
•

Make the changes:
DELETE FROM employees

INSERT INTO departments
VALUES (290, 'Corporate Tax', NULL, 1700);

•

Commit the changes:
COMMIT;

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Committing Data
In the example in the slide, a row is deleted from the EMPLOYEES table and a new row is inserted
into the DEPARTMENTS table. The changes are saved by issuing the COMMIT statement.

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Example:
Remove departments 290 and 300 in the DEPARTMENTS table and update a row in the EMPLOYEES
table. Save the data change.
WHERE department_id IN (290, 300);
UPDATE employees
SET
department_id = 80

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COMMIT;

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State of the Data After ROLLBACK
Discard all pending changes by using the ROLLBACK
statement:
• Data changes are undone.
• Previous state of the data is restored.
• Locks on the affected rows are released.
DELETE FROM copy_emp;
ROLLBACK ;

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State of the Data After ROLLBACK
Discard all pending changes by using the ROLLBACK statement, which results in the following:
• Data changes are undone.
• The previous state of the data is restored.
• Locks on the affected rows are released.

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State of the Data After ROLLBACK: Example

DELETE FROM test;
25,000 rows deleted.
ROLLBACK;
Rollback complete.
DELETE FROM test WHERE
1 row deleted.

id = 100;

SELECT * FROM
test WHERE
No rows selected.

id = 100;

COMMIT;
Commit complete.


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State of the Data After ROLLBACK: Example
While attempting to remove a record from the TEST table, you may accidentally empty the table.
However, you can correct the mistake, reissue a proper statement, and make the data change
permanent.

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Statement-Level Rollback
•
•
•
•

If a single DML statement fails during execution, only that
statement is rolled back.
The Oracle server implements an implicit savepoint.
All other changes are retained.
The user should terminate transactions explicitly by
executing a COMMIT or ROLLBACK statement.

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Statement-Level Rollback
A part of a transaction can be discarded through an implicit rollback if a statement execution error is
detected. If a single DML statement fails during execution of a transaction, its effect is undone by a
statement-level rollback, but the changes made by the previous DML statements in the transaction
are not discarded. They can be committed or rolled back explicitly by the user.

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The Oracle server issues an implicit commit before and after any DDL statement. So, even if your
DDL statement does not execute successfully, you cannot roll back the previous statement because
the server issued a commit.
Terminate your transactions explicitly by executing a COMMIT or ROLLBACK statement.

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Lesson Agenda
•


•


•


•

and SAVEPOINT

•
•

Read consistency


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Read Consistency
•
•

Read consistency guarantees a consistent view of the data
at all times.
Changes made by one user do not conflict with the
changes made by another user.
Read consistency ensures that, on the same data:

•

– Readers do not wait for writers
– Writers do not wait for readers
– Writers wait for writers

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Read Consistency
Database users access the database in two ways:
• Read operations (SELECT statement)
• Write operations (INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE statements)

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You need read consistency so that the following occur:
• The database reader and writer are ensured a consistent view of the data.
• Readers do not view data that is in the process of being changed.
• Writers are ensured that the changes to the database are done in a consistent manner.
• Changes made by one writer do not disrupt or conflict with the changes being made by another
writer.
The purpose of read consistency is to ensure that each user sees data as it existed at the last commit,
before a DML operation started.
Note: The same user can login as different sessions. Each session maintains read consistency in the
manner described above, even if they are the same users.

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Implementing Read Consistency

User A
Data
blocks

UPDATE employees
SET
salary = 7000
WHERE last_name = 'Grant';

Undo
segments

SELECT *
FROM userA.employees;

Changed
and
unchanged
data
Before
change
(“old” data)

Readconsistent
image

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User B


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Implementing Read Consistency
Read consistency is an automatic implementation. It keeps a partial copy of the database in the undo
segments. The read-consistent image is constructed from the committed data in the table and the old
data that is being changed and is not yet committed from the undo segment.

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When an insert, update, or delete operation is made on the database, the Oracle server takes a copy of
the data before it is changed and writes it to an undo segment.
All readers, except the one who issued the change, see the database as it existed before the changes
started; they view the undo segment’s “snapshot” of the data.
Before the changes are committed to the database, only the user who is modifying the data sees the
database with the alterations. Everyone else sees the snapshot in the undo segment. This guarantees
that readers of the data read consistent data that is not currently undergoing change.
When a DML statement is committed, the change made to the database becomes visible to anyone
issuing a SELECT statement after the commit is done. The space occupied by the old data in the
undo segment file is freed for reuse.
If the transaction is rolled back, the changes are undone:
• The original, older version of the data in the undo segment is written back to the table.
• All users see the database as it existed before the transaction began.

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Lesson Agenda
•


•


•


•

and SAVEPOINT

•
•

Read consistency


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FOR UPDATE Clause in a SELECT Statement
•

Locks the rows in the EMPLOYEES table where job_id is
SA_REP.
SELECT employee_id, salary, commission_pct, job_id
FROM employees
WHERE job_id = 'SA_REP'
FOR UPDATE
ORDER BY employee_id;

•
•

Lock is released only when you issue a ROLLBACK or a
COMMIT.
If the SELECT statement attempts to lock a row that is
locked by another user, then the database waits until the
row is available, and then returns the results of the
SELECT statement.

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FOR UPDATE Clause in a SELECT Statement
When you issue a SELECT statement against the database to query some records, no locks are placed
on the selected rows. In general, this is required because the number of records locked at any given
time is (by default) kept to the absolute minimum: only those records that have been changed but not
yet committed are locked. Even then, others will be able to read those records as they appeared
before the change (the “before image” of the data). There are times, however, when you may want to
lock a set of records even before you change them in your program. Oracle offers the FOR UPDATE
clause of the SELECT statement to perform this locking.
When you issue a SELECT...FOR UPDATE statement, the relational database management system
(RDBMS) automatically obtains exclusive row-level locks on all the rows identified by the SELECT
statement, thereby holding the records “for your changes only.” No one else will be able to change
any of these records until you perform a ROLLBACK or a COMMIT.
You can append the optional keyword NOWAIT to the FOR UPDATE clause to tell the Oracle server
not to wait if the table has been locked by another user. In this case, control will be returned
immediately to your program or to your SQL Developer environment so that you can perform other
work, or simply wait for a period of time before trying again. Without the NOWAIT clause, your
process will block until the table is available, when the locks are released by the other user through
the issue of a COMMIT or a ROLLBACK command.

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FOR UPDATE Clause: Examples
•

You can use the FOR UPDATE clause in a SELECT
statement against multiple tables.
SELECT e.employee_id, e.salary, e.commission_pct
FROM employees e JOIN departments d
USING (department_id)
WHERE job_id = 'ST_CLERK‘
AND location_id = 1500
FOR UPDATE
ORDER BY e.employee_id;

•
•

Rows from both the EMPLOYEES and DEPARTMENTS tables
are locked.
Use FOR UPDATE OF column_name to qualify the column
you intend to change, then only the rows from that specific
table are locked.

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FOR UPDATE Clause: Examples
In the example in the slide, the statement locks rows in the EMPLOYEES table with JOB_ID set to
ST_CLERK and LOCATION_ID set to 1500, and locks rows in the DEPARTMENTS table with
departments in LOCATION_ID set as 1500.

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You can use the FOR UPDATE OF column_name to qualify the column that you intend to change.
The OF list of the FOR UPDATE clause does not restrict you to changing only those columns of the
selected rows. Locks are still placed on all rows; if you simply state FOR UPDATE in the query and
do not include one or more columns after the OF keyword, the database will lock all identified rows
across all the tables listed in the FROM clause.
The following statement locks only those rows in the EMPLOYEES table with ST_CLERK located in
LOCATION_ID 1500. No rows are locked in the DEPARTMENTS table:
SELECT e.employee_id, e.salary, e.commission_pct
FROM employees e JOIN departments d
USING (department_id)
WHERE job_id = 'ST_CLERK' AND location_id = 1500
FOR UPDATE OF e.salary
ORDER BY e.employee_id;

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FOR UPDATE Clause: Examples (continued)
In the following example, the database is instructed to wait for five seconds for the row to become
available, and then return control to you.
SELECT employee_id, salary, commission_pct, job_id
FROM employees
WHERE job_id = 'SA_REP'
FOR UPDATE WAIT 5
ORDER BY employee_id;

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Quiz
The following statements produce the same results:
DELETE FROM copy_emp;
TRUNCATE TABLE copy_emp;

1. True
2. False

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Answer: 2

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Summary
In this lesson, you should have learned how to use the
following statements:
Function

Description

INSERT

Adds a new row to the table

UPDATE

Modifies existing rows in the table

DELETE

Removes existing rows from the table

TRUNCATE

Removes all rows from a table

COMMIT

Makes all pending changes permanent

SAVEPOINT

Is used to roll back to the savepoint marker

ROLLBACK

Discards all pending data changes

FOR UPDATE clause
in SELECT

Locks rows identified by the SELECT query


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Summary
In this lesson, you should have learned how to manipulate data in the Oracle database by using the
INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, and TRUNCATE statements, as well as how to control data changes by
using the COMMIT, SAVEPOINT, and ROLLBACK statements. You also learned how to use the FOR
UPDATE clause of the SELECT statement to lock rows for your changes only.

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Remember that the Oracle server guarantees a consistent view of data at all times.

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Practice 9: Overview
This practice covers the following topics:
• Inserting rows into the tables
• Updating and deleting rows in the table
• Controlling transactions

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In this practice, you add rows to the MY_EMPLOYEE table, update and delete data from the table, and
control your transactions. You run a script to create the MY_EMPLOYEE table.

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Practice 9
The HR department wants you to create SQL statements to insert, update, and delete employee data.
As a prototype, you use the MY_EMPLOYEE table before giving the statements to the HR department.
Note: For all the DML statements, use the Run Script icon (or press [F5]) to execute the query. This
way you get to see the feedback messages on the Script Output tab page. For SELECT queries,
continue to use the Execute Statement icon or press [F9] to get the formatted output on the Results
tab page.
Insert data into the MY_EMPLOYEE table.
1. Run the statement in the lab_09_01.sql script to build the MY_EMPLOYEE table used in
this practice.
2. Describe the structure of the MY_EMPLOYEE table to identify the column names.

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3. Create an INSERT statement to add the first row of data to the MY_EMPLOYEE table from the
following sample data. Do not list the columns in the INSERT clause. Do not enter all rows yet.

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ID

LAST_NAME

FIRST_NAME

USERID

1

Patel

Ralph

rpatel

895

2

Dancs

Betty

bdancs

860

3

Biri

Ben

bbiri

1100

4

Newman

Chad

cnewman

750

Audrey

aropebur

1550

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Ropeburn

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SALARY

4. Populate the MY_EMPLOYEE table with the second row of the sample data from the preceding
list. This time, list the columns explicitly in the INSERT clause.


Practice 9 (continued)
5. Confirm your addition to the table.

6. Write an INSERT statement in a dynamic reusable script file to load the remaining rows into the
MY_EMPLOYEE table. The script should prompt for all the columns (ID, LAST_NAME,
FIRST_NAME, USERID, and SALARY). Save this script to a lab_09_06.sql file.
7. Populate the table with the next two rows of the sample data listed in step 3 by running the
INSERT statement in the script that you created.
8. Confirm your additions to the table.

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9. Make the data additions permanent.

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Update and delete data in the MY_EMPLOYEE table.

10. Change the last name of employee 3 to Drexler.
11. Change the salary to $1,000 for all employees who have a salary less than $900.
12. Verify your changes to the table.

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13. Delete Betty Dancs from the MY_EMPLOYEE table.
14. Confirm your changes to the table.

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15. Commit all pending changes.
Control data transaction to the MY_EMPLOYEE table.
16. Populate the table with the last row of the sample data listed in step 3 by using the statements
in the script that you created in step 6. Run the statements in the script.

18.
19.
20.
21.
22.

Mark an intermediate point in the processing of the transaction.
Delete all the rows from the MY_EMPLOYEE table.
Confirm that the table is empty.
Discard the most recent DELETE operation without discarding the earlier INSERT operation.
Confirm that the new row is still intact.

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23. Make the data addition permanent.
If you have the time, complete the following exercise:

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24. Modify the lab_09_06.sql script such that the USERID is generated automatically by
concatenating the first letter of the first name and the first seven characters of the last name.
The generated USERID must be in lowercase. Hence, the script should not prompt for the
USERID. Save this script to a file named lab_09_24.sql.
25. Run the script, lab_09_24.sql to insert the following record:
ID

LAST_NAME

FIRST_NAME

USERID

SALARY

6

Anthony

Mark

manthony

1230

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26. Confirm that the new row was added with correct USERID.

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Using DDL Statements
to Create and Manage Tables

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Objectives
following:
• Categorize the main database objects
• Review the table structure
• List the data types that are available for columns
• Create a simple table
• Explain how constraints are created at the time of table
creation
• Describe how schema objects work

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Objectives
In this lesson, you are introduced to the data definition language (DDL) statements. You are taught
the basics of how to create simple tables, alter them, and remove them. The data types available in
DDL are shown and schema concepts are introduced. Constraints are discussed in this lesson.
Exception messages that are generated from violating constraints during DML operations are shown
and explained.

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Lesson Agenda
•

Database objects
– Naming rules

•

CREATE TABLE statement:
– Access another user’s tables
– DEFAULT option

•
•

Data types
Overview of constraints: NOT NULL, UNIQUE, PRIMARY
KEY, FOREIGN KEY, CHECK constraints

•
•

Creating a table using a subquery
ALTER TABLE
– Read-only tables

•

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DROP TABLE statement

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Database Objects

Object

Description

Table

Basic unit of storage; composed of rows

View

Logically represents subsets of data from one or
more tables

Sequence

Generates numeric values

Index

Improves the performance of some queries

Synonym

Gives alternative name to an object

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Database Objects
The Oracle database can contain multiple data structures. Each structure should be outlined in the
database design so that it can be created during the build stage of database development.
• Table: Stores data
• View: Subset of data from one or more tables
• Sequence: Generates numeric values
• Index: Improves the performance of some queries
• Synonym: Gives alternative name to an object
Oracle Table Structures
• Tables can be created at any time, even when users are using the database.
• You do not need to specify the size of a table. The size is ultimately defined by the amount of
space allocated to the database as a whole. It is important, however, to estimate how much space
a table will use over time.
• Table structure can be modified online.
Note: More database objects are available, but are not covered in this course.

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Naming Rules
Table names and column names:
• Must begin with a letter
• Must be 1–30 characters long
• Must contain only A–Z, a–z, 0–9, _, $, and #
• Must not duplicate the name of another object owned by
the same user
• Must not be an Oracle server–reserved word

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Naming Rules
You name database tables and columns according to the standard rules for naming any Oracle
database object:
• Table names and column names must begin with a letter and be 1–30 characters long.
• Names must contain only the characters A–Z, a–z, 0–9, _ (underscore), $, and # (legal
characters, but their use is discouraged).
• Names must not duplicate the name of another object owned by the same Oracle server user.
• Names must not be an Oracle server–reserved word.
- You may also use quoted identifiers to represent the name of an object. A quoted identifier
begins and ends with double quotation marks (“). If you name a schema object using a
quoted identifier, then you must use the double quotation marks whenever you refer to that
object. Quoted identifiers can be reserved words, although this is not recommended.
Naming Guidelines
Use descriptive names for tables and other database objects.
Note: Names are not case-sensitive. For example, EMPLOYEES is treated to be the same name as
eMPloyees or eMpLOYEES. However, quoted identifiers are case-sensitive.

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For more information, see the section on Schema Object Names and Qualifiers in the Oracle
Database SQL Language Reference 11g, Release 1 (11.1).


Lesson Agenda
•

Database objects
– Naming rules

•

– DEFAULT option

•
•

Data types

•
•

ALTER TABLE

•

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CREATE TABLE Statement
•

You must have:
– CREATE TABLE privilege
– A storage area
CREATE TABLE [schema.]table
(column datatype [DEFAULT expr][, ...]);

•

You specify:
– Table name
– Column name, column data type, and column size

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CREATE TABLE Statement
You create tables to store data by executing the SQL CREATE TABLE statement. This statement is
one of the DDL statements that are a subset of the SQL statements used to create, modify, or remove
Oracle database structures. These statements have an immediate effect on the database and they also
record information in the data dictionary.
To create a table, a user must have the CREATE TABLE privilege and a storage area in which to
create objects. The database administrator (DBA) uses data control language (DCL) statements to
grant privileges to users.
In the syntax:
schema
Is the same as the owner’s name
table
Is the name of the table
DEFAULT expr
Specifies a default value if a value is omitted in the INSERT
statement
column
Is the name of the column
datatype
Is the column’s data type and length

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Referencing Another User’s Tables
•
•

Tables belonging to other users are not in the user’s
schema.
You should use the owner’s name as a prefix to those
tables.

USERA

USERB

SELECT *
FROM userB.employees;

SELECT *
FROM userA.employees;


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Referencing Another User’s Tables
A schema is a collection of logical structures of data or schema objects. A schema is owned by a
database user and has the same name as that user. Each user owns a single schema.
Schema objects can be created and manipulated with SQL and include tables, views, synonyms,
sequences, stored procedures, indexes, clusters, and database links.
If a table does not belong to the user, the owner’s name must be prefixed to the table. For example, if
there are schemas named USERA and USERB, and both have an EMPLOYEES table, then if USERA
wants to access the EMPLOYEES table that belongs to USERB, USERA must prefix the table name
with the schema name:

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SELECT *
FROM
userb.employees;

If USERB wants to access the EMPLOYEES table that is owned by USERA, USERB must prefix the
table name with the schema name:

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SELECT *
FROM
usera.employees;


DEFAULT Option
•

Specify a default value for a column during an insert.
... hire_date DATE DEFAULT SYSDATE, ...

•

Literal values, expressions, or SQL functions are legal
values.
Another column’s name or a pseudocolumn are illegal
values.
The default data type must match the column data type.

•
•

CREATE TABLE hire_dates
(id
NUMBER(8),
hire_date DATE DEFAULT SYSDATE);


DEFAULT Option

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When you define a table, you can specify that a column should be given a default value by using the
DEFAULT option. This option prevents null values from entering the columns when a row is inserted
without a value for the column. The default value can be a literal, an expression, or a SQL function
(such as SYSDATE or USER), but the value cannot be the name of another column or a
pseudocolumn (such as NEXTVAL or CURRVAL). The default expression must match the data type of
the column.
Consider the following examples:
INSERT INTO hire_dates values(45, NULL);
The above statement will insert the null value rather than the default value.
INSERT INTO hire_dates(id) values(35);
The above statement will insert SYSDATE for the HIRE_DATE column.

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Note: In SQL Developer, click the Run Script icon or press [F5] to run the DDL statements. The
feedback messages will be shown on the Script Output tabbed page.

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Creating Tables
•

Create the table:
CREATE TABLE dept
(deptno
dname
loc
create_date

•

NUMBER(2),
VARCHAR2(14),
VARCHAR2(13),
DATE DEFAULT SYSDATE);

Confirm table creation:
DESCRIBE dept

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Creating Tables
The example in the slide creates the DEPT table with four columns: DEPTNO, DNAME, LOC, and
CREATE_DATE. The CREATE_DATE column has a default value. If a value is not provided for an
INSERT statement, the system date is automatically inserted.
To confirm that the table was created, run the DESCRIBE command.

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Because creating a table is a DDL statement, an automatic commit takes place when this statement is
executed.

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Lesson Agenda
•

Database objects
– Naming rules

•

– DEFAULT option

•
•

Data types

•
•

ALTER TABLE

•

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Data Types
Data Type

Description

VARCHAR2(size) Variable-length character data
CHAR(size)

Fixed-length character data

NUMBER(p,s)

Variable-length numeric data

DATE

Date and time values

LONG

Variable-length character data (up to 2 GB)

CLOB

Character data (up to 4 GB)

RAW and LONG
RAW

Raw binary data

BLOB

Binary data (up to 4 GB)

BFILE

Binary data stored in an external file (up to 4 GB)

ROWID

A base-64 number system representing the unique
address of a row in its table


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Data Types
When you identify a column for a table, you need to provide a data type for the column. There are
several data types available:
Data Type

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Description

VARCHAR2(size)
CHAR [(size)]

NUMBER [(p,s)]

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DATE

Variable-length character data (A maximum size must be
specified: minimum size is 1; maximum size is 4,000.)
Fixed-length character data of length size bytes (Default and
minimum size is 1; maximum size is 2,000.)
Number having precision p and scale s (Precision is the total
number of decimal digits and scale is the number of digits to
the right of the decimal point; precision can range from 1 to
38, and scale can range from –84 to 127.)
Date and time values to the nearest second between January 1,
4712 B.C., and December 31, 9999 A.D.

LONG

Variable-length character data (up to 2 GB)

CLOB

Character data (up to 4 GB)


Data Types (continued)
D ata T ype

D escription

RA W( s i z e)

R aw binary data of length size (A m axim um size m ust be specified: m axim um
size is 2,000.)

LO NG RA W

R aw binary data of variable length (up to 2 G B )

BL OB

B inary data (up to 4 G B )

BF ILE

B inary data stored in an external file (up to 4 G B )

RO WID

A base-64 num ber system representing the unique address of a row in its table

Guidelines
• A LONG column is not copied when a table is created using a subquery.
• A LONG column cannot be included in a GROUP BY or an ORDER BY clause.
• Only one LONG column can be used per table.
• No constraints can be defined on a LONG column.
• You might want to use a CLOB column rather than a LONG column.

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Datetime Data Types
You can use several datetime data types:
Data Type

Description

TIMESTAMP

Date with fractional seconds

INTERVAL YEAR TO
MONTH

Stored as an interval of years
and months

INTERVAL DAY TO
SECOND

Stored as an interval of days, hours, minutes,
and seconds

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Datetime Data Types
Data Type
TIMESTAMP

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INTERVAL YEAR TO
MONTH
INTERVAL DAY TO
SECOND

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Description

Enables storage of time as a date with fractional seconds. It stores the
year, month, day, hour, minute, and the second value of the DATE data
type as well as the fractional seconds value
There are several variations of this data type such as WITH
TIMEZONE, WITH LOCALTIMEZONE.
Enables storage of time as an interval of years and months. Used to
represent the difference between two datetime values in which the only
significant portions are the year and month
Enables storage of time as an interval of days, hours, minutes, and
seconds. Used to represent the precise difference between two datetime
values

Note: These datetime data types are available with Oracle9i and later releases. The datetime data
types are discussed in detail in the lesson titled “Managing Data in Different Time Zones” in the
Oracle Database 11g: SQL Fundamentals II course.
Also, for more information about the datetime data types, see the topics TIMESTAMP Datatype,
INTERVAL YEAR TO MONTH Datatype, and INTERVAL DAY TO SECOND Datatype in Oracle

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Lesson Agenda
•

Database objects
– Naming rules

•

– DEFAULT option

•
•

Data types

•
•

ALTER TABLE

•

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Including Constraints
•
•
•

Constraints enforce rules at the table level.
Constraints prevent the deletion of a table if there
are dependencies.
The following constraint types are valid:
–
–
–
–
–

NOT NULL
UNIQUE
PRIMARY KEY
FOREIGN KEY
CHECK

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Constraints
The Oracle server uses constraints to prevent invalid data entry into tables.
You can use constraints to do the following:
• Enforce rules on the data in a table whenever a row is inserted, updated, or deleted from that
table. The constraint must be satisfied for the operation to succeed.
• Prevent the deletion of a table if there are dependencies from other tables.
• Provide rules for Oracle tools, such as Oracle Developer.
Data Integrity Constraints
C onstraint
NOT NULL

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D escription

Specifies that the colum n cannot contain a null value
Specifies a colum n or com bination of colum ns w hose values
m ust be unique for all row s in the table

PRIMARY KEY

U niquely identifies each row of the table

FOREIGN KEY

Establishes and enforces a referential integrity betw een the
colum n and a colum n of the referenced table such that values
in one table m atch values in another table.

CHECK

Specifies a condition that m ust be true


Constraint Guidelines
•

You can name a constraint, or the Oracle server generates
a name by using the SYS_Cn format.

•

Create a constraint at either of the following times:
– At the same time as the creation of the table
– After the creation of the table

•
•

Define a constraint at the column or table level.
View a constraint in the data dictionary.

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Constraint Guidelines
All constraints are stored in the data dictionary. Constraints are easy to reference if you give them a
meaningful name. Constraint names must follow the standard object-naming rules, except that the
name cannot be the same as another object owned by the same user. If you do not name your
constraint, the Oracle server generates a name with the format SYS_Cn, where n is an integer so that
the constraint name is unique.
Constraints can be defined at the time of table creation or after the creation of the table. You can
define a constraint at the column or table level. Functionally, a table-level constraint is the same as a
column-level constraint.
For more information, see the section on “Constraints” in Oracle Database SQL Language Reference
11g, Release 1 (11.1).

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Defining Constraints
•

Syntax:
CREATE TABLE [schema.]table
(column datatype [DEFAULT expr]
[column_constraint],
...
[table_constraint][,...]);

•

Column-level constraint syntax:
column [CONSTRAINT constraint_name] constraint_type,

•

Table-level constraint syntax:
column,...
[CONSTRAINT constraint_name] constraint_type
(column, ...),


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The slide gives the syntax for defining constraints when creating a table. You can create constraints
at either the column level or table level. Constraints defined at the column level are included when
the column is defined. Table-level constraints are defined at the end of the table definition and must
refer to the column or columns on which the constraint pertains in a set of parentheses. It is mainly
the syntax that differentiates the two; otherwise, functionally, a column-level constraint is the same
as a table-level constraint.
NOT NULL constraints must be defined at the column level.

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Constraints that apply to more than one column must be defined at the table level.
In the syntax:
schema
Is the same as the owner’s name
table
DEFAULT expr
Specifies a default value to be used if a value is omitted in the
INSERT statement
column
Is the name of the column
datatype
Is the column’s data type and length
column_constraint
Is an integrity constraint as part of the column definition
table_constraint
Is an integrity constraint as part of the table definition

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•

Example of a column-level constraint:
CREATE TABLE employees(
employee_id NUMBER(6)
CONSTRAINT emp_emp_id_pk PRIMARY KEY,
first_name
VARCHAR2(20),
...);

•

1

Example of a table-level constraint:
employee_id NUMBER(6),
first_name
VARCHAR2(20),
...
job_id
VARCHAR2(10) NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT emp_emp_id_pk
PRIMARY KEY (EMPLOYEE_ID));


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Defining Constraints (continued)
Constraints are usually created at the same time as the table. Constraints can be added to a table after
its creation and also be temporarily disabled.
Both examples in the slide create a primary key constraint on the EMPLOYEE_ID column of the
EMPLOYEES table.
1. The first example uses the column-level syntax to define the constraint.
2. The second example uses the table-level syntax to define the constraint.
More details about the primary key constraint are provided later in this lesson.

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NOT NULL Constraint
Ensures that null values are not permitted for the column:

…
NOT NULL constraint
(Primary Key enforces
NOT NULL constraint.)

NOT NULL
constraint

Absence of NOT NULL
constraint (Any row can
contain a null value for
this column.)


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NOT NULL Constraint
The NOT NULL constraint ensures that the column contains no null values. Columns without the NOT
NULL constraint can contain null values by default. NOT NULL constraints must be defined at the
column level. In the EMPLOYEES table, the EMPLOYEE_ID column inherits a NOT NULL constraint
as it is defined as a primary key. Otherwise, the LAST_NAME, EMAIL, HIRE_DATE, and JOB_ID
columns have the NOT NULL constraint enforced on them.

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Note: Primary key constraint is discussed in detail later in this lesson.

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UNIQUE Constraint

EMPLOYEES

UNIQUE constraint

…
INSERT INTO

Allowed
Not allowed:
already exists

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UNIQUE Constraint
A UNIQUE key integrity constraint requires that every value in a column or a set of columns (key) be
unique—that is, no two rows of a table can have duplicate values in a specified column or a set of
columns. The column (or set of columns) included in the definition of the UNIQUE key constraint is
called the unique key. If the UNIQUE constraint comprises more than one column, that group of
columns is called a composite unique key.
UNIQUE constraints enable the input of nulls unless you also define NOT NULL constraints for the
same columns. In fact, any number of rows can include nulls for columns without the NOT NULL
constraints because nulls are not considered equal to anything. A null in a column (or in all columns
of a composite UNIQUE key) always satisfies a UNIQUE constraint.
Note: Because of the search mechanism for the UNIQUE constraints on more than one column, you
cannot have identical values in the non-null columns of a partially null composite UNIQUE key
constraint.

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UNIQUE Constraint
Defined at either the table level or the column level:
employee_id
NUMBER(6),
last_name
email
VARCHAR2(25),
salary
NUMBER(8,2),
commission_pct
NUMBER(2,2),
hire_date
DATE NOT NULL,
...
CONSTRAINT emp_email_uk UNIQUE(email));

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UNIQUE Constraint (continued)
UNIQUE constraints can be defined at the column level or table level. You define the constraint at
the table level when you want to create a composite unique key. A composite key is defined when
there is not a single attribute that can uniquely identify a row. In that case, you can have a unique key
that is composed of two or more columns, the combined value of which is always unique and can
identify rows.
The example in the slide applies the UNIQUE constraint to the EMAIL column of the EMPLOYEES
table. The name of the constraint is EMP_EMAIL_UK.
Note: The Oracle server enforces the UNIQUE constraint by implicitly creating a unique index on the
unique key column or columns.

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PRIMARY KEY Constraint

DEPARTMENTS

PRIMARY KEY

Not allowed
(null value)

INSERT INTO

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Not allowed
(50 already exists)

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PRIMARY KEY Constraint
A PRIMARY KEY constraint creates a primary key for the table. Only one primary key can be created
for each table. The PRIMARY KEY constraint is a column or a set of columns that uniquely identifies
each row in a table. This constraint enforces the uniqueness of the column or column combination
and ensures that no column that is part of the primary key can contain a null value.
Note: Because uniqueness is part of the primary key constraint definition, the Oracle server enforces
the uniqueness by implicitly creating a unique index on the primary key column or columns.

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FOREIGN KEY Constraint
DEPARTMENTS
PRIMARY
KEY

…
EMPLOYEES
FOREIGN
KEY

…
INSERT INTO


Not allowed
(9 does not
exist)
Allowed

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The FOREIGN KEY (or referential integrity) constraint designates a column or a combination of
columns as a foreign key and establishes a relationship with a primary key or a unique key in the
same table or a different table.
In the example in the slide, DEPARTMENT_ID has been defined as the foreign key in the
EMPLOYEES table (dependent or child table); it references the DEPARTMENT_ID column of the
DEPARTMENTS table (the referenced or parent table).

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Guidelines
• A foreign key value must match an existing value in the parent table or be NULL.
• Foreign keys are based on data values and are purely logical, rather than physical, pointers.

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Defined at either the table level or the column level:
employee_id
NUMBER(6),
last_name
email
VARCHAR2(25),
salary
NUMBER(8,2),
commission_pct
NUMBER(2,2),
hire_date
DATE NOT NULL,
...
department_id
NUMBER(4),
CONSTRAINT emp_dept_fk FOREIGN KEY (department_id)
REFERENCES departments(department_id),
CONSTRAINT emp_email_uk UNIQUE(email));

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FOREIGN KEY Constraint (continued)
FOREIGN KEY constraints can be defined at the column or table constraint level. A composite
foreign key must be created by using the table-level definition.
The example in the slide defines a FOREIGN KEY constraint on the DEPARTMENT_ID column of
the EMPLOYEES table, using table-level syntax. The name of the constraint is EMP_DEPT_FK.

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The foreign key can also be defined at the column level, provided that the constraint is based on a
single column. The syntax differs in that the keywords FOREIGN KEY do not appear. For example:
CREATE TABLE employees
(...
department_id NUMBER(4) CONSTRAINT emp_deptid_fk
REFERENCES departments(department_id),
...
)

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FOREIGN KEY Constraint:
Keywords
•
•

FOREIGN KEY: Defines the column in the child table at the
table-constraint level
REFERENCES: Identifies the table and column in the parent
table
ON DELETE CASCADE: Deletes the dependent rows in the
child table when a row in the parent table is deleted
ON DELETE SET NULL: Converts dependent foreign key
values to null

•
•

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FOREIGN KEY Constraint: Keywords

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The foreign key is defined in the child table and the table containing the referenced column is the
parent table. The foreign key is defined using a combination of the following keywords:
• FOREIGN KEY is used to define the column in the child table at the table-constraint level.
• REFERENCES identifies the table and the column in the parent table.
• ON DELETE CASCADE indicates that when a row in the parent table is deleted, the dependent
rows in the child table are also deleted.
• ON DELETE SET NULL indicates that when a row in the parent table is deleted, the foreign key
values are set to null.
The default behavior is called the restrict rule, which disallows the update or deletion of referenced
data.
Without the ON DELETE CASCADE or the ON DELETE SET NULL options, the row in the parent
table cannot be deleted if it is referenced in the child table.

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CHECK Constraint
•
•

Defines a condition that each row must satisfy
The following expressions are not allowed:
– References to CURRVAL, NEXTVAL, LEVEL, and ROWNUM
pseudocolumns
– Calls to SYSDATE, UID, USER, and USERENV functions
– Queries that refer to other values in other rows
..., salary NUMBER(2)
CONSTRAINT emp_salary_min
CHECK (salary > 0),...

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CHECK Constraint
The CHECK constraint defines a condition that each row must satisfy. The condition can use the same
constructs as the query conditions, with the following exceptions:
• References to the CURRVAL, NEXTVAL, LEVEL, and ROWNUM pseudocolumns
• Calls to SYSDATE, UID, USER, and USERENV functions
• Queries that refer to other values in other rows
A single column can have multiple CHECK constraints that refer to the column in its definition. There
is no limit to the number of CHECK constraints that you can define on a column.
CHECK constraints can be defined at the column level or table level.
(...
salary NUMBER(8,2) CONSTRAINT emp_salary_min
CHECK (salary > 0),
...

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CREATE TABLE: Example
( employee_id
NUMBER(6)
CONSTRAINT
emp_employee_id
PRIMARY KEY
, first_name
VARCHAR2(20)
, last_name
VARCHAR2(25)
CONSTRAINT
emp_last_name_nn NOT NULL
, email
VARCHAR2(25)
CONSTRAINT
emp_email_nn
NOT NULL
CONSTRAINT
emp_email_uk
UNIQUE
, phone_number
VARCHAR2(20)
, hire_date
DATE
CONSTRAINT
emp_hire_date_nn NOT NULL
, job_id
VARCHAR2(10)
CONSTRAINT
emp_job_nn
NOT NULL
, salary
NUMBER(8,2)
CONSTRAINT
emp_salary_ck
CHECK (salary>0)
, commission_pct NUMBER(2,2)
, manager_id
NUMBER(6)
CONSTRAINT emp_manager_fk REFERENCES
employees (employee_id)
, department_id NUMBER(4)
CONSTRAINT
emp_dept_fk
REFERENCES
departments (department_id));


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CREATE TABLE: Example
The example in the slide shows the statement that is used to create the EMPLOYEES table in the HR
schema.

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Violating Constraints

UPDATE employees
SET
department_id = 55
WHERE department_id = 110;

Department 55 does not exist.


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When you have constraints in place on columns, an error is returned if you try to violate the
constraint rule. For example, if you try to update a record with a value that is tied to an integrity
constraint, an error is returned.
In the example in the slide, department 55 does not exist in the parent table, DEPARTMENTS, and so
you receive the “parent key not found” violation ORA-02291.

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You cannot delete a row that contains a primary key that is
used as a foreign key in another table.

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Violating Constraints (continued)
If you attempt to delete a record with a value that is tied to an integrity constraint, an error is
returned.
The example in the slide tries to delete department 60 from the DEPARTMENTS table, but it results
in an error because that department number is used as a foreign key in the EMPLOYEES table. If the
parent record that you attempt to delete has child records, you receive the “child record found”
violation ORA-02292.

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The following statement works because there are no employees in department 70:

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Lesson Agenda
•

Database objects
– Naming rules

•

– DEFAULT option

•
•

Data types

•
•

ALTER TABLE

•

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Creating a Table
Using a Subquery
•

Create a table and insert rows by combining the CREATE
TABLE statement and the AS subquery option.
CREATE TABLE table
[(column, column...)]
AS subquery;

•
•

Match the number of specified columns to the number of
subquery columns.
Define columns with column names and default values.

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Creating a Table Using a Subquery
A second method for creating a table is to apply the AS subquery clause, which both creates the
table and inserts rows returned from the subquery.
In the syntax:
table
column
is the name of the column, default value, and integrity constraint
subquery is the SELECT statement that defines the set of rows to be inserted into
the new table
Guidelines
• The table is created with the specified column names, and the rows retrieved by the SELECT
statement are inserted into the table.
• The column definition can contain only the column name and default value.
• If column specifications are given, the number of columns must equal the number of columns in
the subquery SELECT list.
• If no column specifications are given, the column names of the table are the same as the column
names in the subquery.
• The column data type definitions and the NOT NULL constraint are passed to the new table. Note
that only the explicit NOT NULL constraint will be inherited. The PRIMARY KEY column will
not pass the NOT NULL feature to the new column. Any other constraint rules are not passed to
the new table. However, you can add constraints in the column definition.

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Creating a Table
Using a Subquery
CREATE TABLE dept80
AS
SELECT employee_id, last_name,
salary*12 ANNSAL,
hire_date
FROM
employees
WHERE
department_id = 80;

DESCRIBE dept80

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Creating a Table Using a Subquery (continued)
The example in the slide creates a table named DEPT80, which contains details of all the employees
working in department 80. Notice that the data for the DEPT80 table comes from the EMPLOYEES
table.

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You can verify the existence of a database table and check the column definitions by using the
DESCRIBE command.
However, be sure to provide a column alias when selecting an expression. The expression
SALARY*12 is given the alias ANNSAL. Without the alias, the following error is generated:

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Lesson Agenda
•

Database objects
– Naming rules

•

– DEFAULT option

•
•

Data types

•
•

ALTER TABLE

•

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ALTER TABLE Statement
Use the ALTER TABLE statement to:
•
•
•
•
•
•

Add a new column
Modify an existing column definition
Define a default value for the new column
Drop a column
Rename a column
Change table to read-only status

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ALTER TABLE Statement

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After you create a table, you may need to change the table structure for any of the following reasons:
• You omitted a column.
• Your column definition or its name needs to be changed.
• You need to remove columns.
• You want to put the table into the read-only mode
You can do this by using the ALTER TABLE statement.

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Read-Only Tables
You can use the ALTER TABLE syntax to:
•
•

Put a table into read-only mode, which prevents DDL or
DML changes during table maintenance
Put the table back into read/write mode

ALTER TABLE employees READ ONLY;
-- perform table maintenance and then
-- return table back to read/write mode
ALTER TABLE employees READ WRITE;

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Read-Only Tables
With Oracle Database 11g, you can specify READ ONLY to place a table in the read-only mode.
When the table is in the READ-ONLY mode, you cannot issue any DML statements that affect the
table or any SELECT ... FOR UPDATE statements. You can issue DDL statements as long as
they do not modify any data in the table. Operations on indexes associated with the table are allowed
when the table is in the READ ONLY mode.
Specify READ/WRITE to return a read-only table to the read/write mode.
Note: You can drop a table that is in the READ ONLY mode. The DROP command is executed only in
the data dictionary, so access to the table contents is not required. The space used by the table will
not be reclaimed until the tablespace is made read/write again, and then the required changes can be
made to the block segment headers, and so on.
For information about the ALTER TABLE statement, see the course titled Oracle Database 10g SQL
Fundamentals II.

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Lesson Agenda
•

Database objects
– Naming rules

•

– DEFAULT option

•
•

Data types

•
•

ALTER TABLE

•

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Dropping a Table
•
•

Moves a table to the recycle bin
Removes the table and all its data entirely if the PURGE
clause is specified
Invalidates dependent objects and removes object
privileges on the table

•

DROP TABLE dept80;

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Dropping a Table
The DROP TABLE statement moves a table to the recycle bin or removes the table and all its data
from the database entirely. Unless you specify the PURGE clause, the DROP TABLE statement does
not result in space being released back to the tablespace for use by other objects, and the space
continues to count towards the user’s space quota. Dropping a table invalidates the dependent objects
and removes object privileges on the table.
When you drop a table, the database loses all the data in the table and all the indexes associated
with it.
Syntax
DROP TABLE table [PURGE]
In the syntax, table is the name of the table.

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Guidelines
• All the data is deleted from the table.
• Any views and synonyms remain, but are invalid.
• Any pending transactions are committed.
• Only the creator of the table or a user with the DROP ANY TABLE privilege can remove a table.
Note: Use the FLASHBACK TABLE statement to restore a dropped table from the recycle bin. This is
discussed in detail in the course titled Oracle Database 11g: SQL Fundamentals II.

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Quiz
You can use constraints to do the following:
1. Enforce rules on the data in a table whenever a row is
inserted, updated, or deleted.
2. Prevent the deletion of a table.
3. Prevent the creation of a table.
4. Prevent the creation of data in a table.

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Answer: 1, 2, 4

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Summary
In this lesson, you should have learned how to use the CREATE
TABLE statement to create a table and include constraints:
•
•
•
•
•
•

Categorize the main database objects
Review the table structure
List the data types that are available for columns
Create a simple table
Explain how constraints are created at the time of table
creation
Describe how schema objects work

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Summary
In this lesson, you should have learned how to do the following:
CREATE TABLE
• Use the CREATE TABLE statement to create a table and include constraints.
• Create a table based on another table by using a subquery.
DROP TABLE
• Remove rows and a table structure.
• When executed, this statement cannot be rolled back.

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• Creating new tables
• Creating a new table by using the CREATE TABLE AS
syntax
• Verifying that tables exist
• Setting a table to read-only status
• Dropping tables

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Create new tables by using the CREATE TABLE statement. Confirm that the new table was added to
the database. You also learn to set the status of a table as READ ONLY and then revert to
READ/WRITE.

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Note: For all the DDL and DML statements, click the Run Script icon (or press [F5]) to execute the
query in SQL Developer. This way you get to see the feedback messages on the Script Output tab
page. For SELECT queries, continue to click the Execute Statement icon or press [F9] to get the
formatted output on the Results tab page.

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Practice 10
1. Create the DEPT table based on the following table instance chart. Save the statement in a
script called lab_10_01.sql, and then execute the statement in the script to create the table.
Confirm that the table is created.
Column Name

ID

Key Type

Primary key

NAME

Nulls/Unique
FK Table
FK Column
Data type

NUMBER

VARCHAR2

Length

7

25

2. Populate the DEPT table with data from the DEPARTMENTS table. Include only columns that
you need.
3. Create the EMP table based on the following table instance chart. Save the statement in
a script called lab_10_03.sql, and then execute the statement in the script to create the
table. Confirm that the table is created.

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Column Name
Key Type
Nulls/Unique
FK Table
FK Column
Data type
Length

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ID

LAST_NAME

FIRST_NAME

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DEPT_ID

DEPT
ID

NUMBER

VARCHAR2

VARCHAR2

NUMBER

7

25

25

7

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4. Create the EMPLOYEES2 table based on the structure of the EMPLOYEES table. Include only
the EMPLOYEE_ID, FIRST_NAME, LAST_NAME, SALARY, and DEPARTMENT_ID
columns. Name the columns in your new table ID, FIRST_NAME, LAST_NAME, SALARY,
and DEPT_ID, respectively.
5. Alter the EMPLOYEES2 table status to read-only.
6. Try to insert the following row in the EMPLOYEES2 table:
ID

FIRST_NAME

LAST_NAME

SALARY

DEPT_ID

34

Grant

Marcie

5678

10

You get the following error message:

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7. Revert the EMPLOYEES2 table to the read/write status. Now, try to insert the same row again.
You should get the following messages:

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8. Drop the EMPLOYEES2 table.

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Creating Other Schema Objects

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Objectives
following:
• Create simple and complex views
• Retrieve data from views
• Create, maintain, and use sequences
• Create and maintain indexes
• Create private and public synonyms

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Objectives
In this lesson, you are introduced to the view, sequence, synonym, and index objects. You are taught
the basics of creating and using views, sequences, and indexes.

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Lesson Agenda
•

Overview of views:
– Creating, modifying, and retrieving data from a view
– Data manipulation language (DML) operations on a view
– Dropping a view

•

Overview of sequences:
– Creating, using, and modifying a sequence
– Cache sequence values
– NEXTVAL and CURRVAL pseudocolumns

•

Overview of indexes
– Creating, dropping indexes

•

Overview of synonyms

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– Creating, dropping synonyms


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Database Objects

Object

Description

Table


View

more tables

Sequence


Index

Improves the performance of data retrieval
queries

Synonym

Gives alternative names to objects

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Database Objects
There are several other objects in a database in addition to tables. In this lesson, you learn about the
views, sequences, indexes, and synonyms.
With views, you can present and hide data from the tables.
Many applications require the use of unique numbers as primary key values. You can either build
code into the application to handle this requirement or use a sequence to generate unique numbers.
If you want to improve the performance of data retrieval queries, you should consider creating an
index. You can also use indexes to enforce uniqueness on a column or a collection of columns.
You can provide alternative names for objects by using synonyms.

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What Is a View?
EMPLOYEES table

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What Is a View?
You can present logical subsets or combinations of data by creating views of tables. A view is a
logical table based on a table or another view. A view contains no data of its own, but is like a
window through which data from tables can be viewed or changed. The tables on which a view is
based are called base tables. The view is stored as a SELECT statement in the data dictionary.

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Advantages of Views

To restrict
data access

To provide
data
independence

To make complex
queries easy

To present
different views of
the same data

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Advantages of Views
• Views restrict access to the data because it displays selected columns from the table.
• Views can be used to make simple queries to retrieve the results of complicated queries. For
example, views can be used to query information from multiple tables without the user knowing
how to write a join statement.
• Views provide data independence for ad hoc users and application programs. One view can be
used to retrieve data from several tables.
• Views provide groups of users access to data according to their particular criteria.
For more information, see the section on “CREATE VIEW” in the Oracle Database SQL Language

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Simple Views and Complex Views

Feature

Simple Views

Complex Views

Number of tables

One

One or more

Contain functions

No

Yes

Contain groups of data

No

Yes

DML operations through a
view

Yes

Not always

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Simple Views and Complex Views
There are two classifications for views: simple and complex. The basic difference is related to the
DML (INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE) operations.
• A simple view is one that:
- Derives data from only one table
- Contains no functions or groups of data
- Can perform DML operations through the view
• A complex view is one that:
- Derives data from many tables
- Contains functions or groups of data
- Does not always allow DML operations through the view

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Creating a View
•

You embed a subquery in the CREATE VIEW statement:
CREATE [OR REPLACE] [FORCE|NOFORCE] VIEW view
[(alias[, alias]...)]
AS subquery
[WITH CHECK OPTION [CONSTRAINT constraint]]
[WITH READ ONLY [CONSTRAINT constraint]];

•

The subquery can contain complex SELECT syntax.

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Creating a View
You can create a view by embedding a subquery in the CREATE VIEW statement.
In the syntax:
OR REPLACE
FORCE
NOFORCE
view
alias

subquery

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WITH CHECK OPTION

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constraint
WITH READ ONLY

Re-creates the view if it already exists
Creates the view regardless of whether or not the base tables exist
Creates the view only if the base tables exist (This is the default.)
Is the name of the view
Specifies names for the expressions selected by the view’s query
(The number of aliases must match the number of expressions
selected by the view.)
Is a complete SELECT statement (You can use aliases for the
columns in the SELECT list.)
Specifies that only those rows that are accessible to the view can
be inserted or updated
Is the name assigned to the CHECK OPTION constraint
ensures that no DML operations can be performed on this view

Note: In SQL Developer, click the Run Script icon or press [F5] to run the data definition language
(DDL) statements. The feedback messages will be shown on the Script Output tabbed page.

Creating a View
•

Create the EMPVU80 view, which contains details of the
employees in department 80:
CREATE VIEW empvu80
AS SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary
FROM
employees
WHERE
department_id = 80;

•

Describe the structure of the view by using the iSQL*Plus
DESCRIBE command:
DESCRIBE empvu80

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Creating a View (continued)
The example in the slide creates a view that contains the employee number, last name, and salary for
each employee in department 80.
You can display the structure of the view by using the DESCRIBE command.

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Guidelines
• The subquery that defines a view can contain complex SELECT syntax, including joins, groups,
and subqueries.
• If you do not specify a constraint name for the view created with the WITH CHECK OPTION,
the system assigns a default name in the SYS_Cn format.
• You can use the OR REPLACE option to change the definition of the view without dropping and
re-creating it, or regranting the object privileges previously granted on it.

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Creating a View
•

Create a view by using column aliases in the subquery:
CREATE VIEW salvu50
AS SELECT employee_id ID_NUMBER, last_name NAME,
salary*12 ANN_SALARY
FROM
employees
WHERE
department_id = 50;

•

Select the columns from this view by the given alias
names.

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Creating a View (continued)
You can control the column names by including column aliases in the subquery.
The example in the slide creates a view containing the employee number (EMPLOYEE_ID) with the
alias ID_NUMBER, name (LAST_NAME) with the alias NAME, and annual salary (SALARY) with the
alias ANN_SALARY for every employee in department 50.
Alternatively, you can use an alias after the CREATE statement and before the SELECT subquery.
The number of aliases listed must match the number of expressions selected in the subquery.

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CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW salvu50 (ID_NUMBER, NAME, ANN_SALARY)
AS SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary*12
FROM
employees
WHERE
department_id = 50;

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Retrieving Data from a View

SELECT *
FROM
salvu50;

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Retrieving Data from a View
You can retrieve data from a view as you would from any table. You can display either the contents
of the entire view or just specific rows and columns.

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Modifying a View
•

Modify the EMPVU80 view by using a CREATE OR REPLACE
VIEW clause. Add an alias for each column name:
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW empvu80
(id_number, name, sal, department_id)
AS SELECT employee_id, first_name || ' '
|| last_name, salary, department_id
FROM
employees
WHERE
department_id = 80;

•

Column aliases in the CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW clause
are listed in the same order as the columns in the
subquery.

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Modifying a View
With the OR REPLACE option, a view can be created even if one exists with this name already, thus
replacing the old version of the view for its owner. This means that the view can be altered without
dropping, re-creating, and regranting object privileges.
Note: When assigning column aliases in the CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW clause, remember that the
aliases are listed in the same order as the columns in the subquery.

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Creating a Complex View
Create a complex view that contains group functions to display
values from two tables:
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW dept_sum_vu
(name, minsal, maxsal, avgsal)
AS SELECT
d.department_name, MIN(e.salary),
MAX(e.salary),AVG(e.salary)
FROM
employees e JOIN departments d
ON
(e.department_id = d.department_id)
GROUP BY d.department_name;

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Creating a Complex View
The example in the slide creates a complex view of department names, minimum salaries, maximum
salaries, and the average salaries by department. Note that alternative names have been specified for
the view. This is a requirement if any column of the view is derived from a function or an expression.
You can view the structure of the view by using the DESCRIBE command. Display the contents of
the view by issuing a SELECT statement.
SELECT
FROM

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*
dept_sum_vu;

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Rules for Performing
DML Operations on a View
•
•

You can usually perform DML operations on
simple views.
You cannot remove a row if the view contains the
following:
–
–
–
–

Group functions
A GROUP BY clause
The DISTINCT keyword
The pseudocolumn ROWNUM keyword

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Rules for Performing DML Operations on a View
• You can perform DML operations on data through a view if those operations follow certain
rules.
• You can remove a row from a view unless it contains any of the following:
- Group functions
- A GROUP BY clause
- The DISTINCT keyword
- The pseudocolumn ROWNUM keyword

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You cannot modify data in a view if it contains:
• Group functions
• A GROUP BY clause
• The DISTINCT keyword
• The pseudocolumn ROWNUM keyword
•

Columns defined by expressions

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Rules for Performing DML Operations on a View (continued)
You can modify data through a view unless it contains any of the conditions mentioned in the
previous slide or columns defined by expressions (for example, SALARY * 12).

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You cannot add data through a view if the view includes:
• Group functions
• A GROUP BY clause
• The DISTINCT keyword
• The pseudocolumn ROWNUM keyword
•
•

Columns defined by expressions
NOT NULL columns in the base tables that are not selected
by the view

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Rules for Performing DML Operations on a View (continued)
You can add data through a view unless it contains any of the items listed in the slide. You cannot
add data to a view if the view contains NOT NULL columns without default values in the base table.
All the required values must be present in the view. Remember that you are adding values directly to
the underlying table through the view.
For more information, see the section on “CREATE VIEW” in Oracle Database SQL Language

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Using the WITH CHECK OPTION Clause
•

You can ensure that DML operations performed on the
view stay in the domain of the view by using the WITH
CHECK OPTION clause:
AS SELECT
*
FROM
employees
WHERE
department_id = 20
WITH CHECK OPTION CONSTRAINT empvu20_ck ;

•

Any attempt to INSERT a row with a department_id
other than 20, or to UPDATE the department number for
any row in the view fails because it violates the WITH
CHECK OPTION constraint.


Using the WITH CHECK OPTION Clause

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It is possible to perform referential integrity checks through views. You can also enforce constraints
at the database level. The view can be used to protect data integrity, but the use is very limited.
The WITH CHECK OPTION clause specifies that INSERTs and UPDATEs performed through the
view cannot create rows that the view cannot select. Therefore it enables integrity constraints and
data validation checks to be enforced on data being inserted or updated. If there is an attempt to
perform DML operations on rows that the view has not selected, an error is displayed, along with the
constraint name if that has been specified.
UPDATE empvu20
SET
department_id = 10

causes:

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Note: No rows are updated because, if the department number were to change to 10, the view would
no longer be able to see that employee. With the WITH CHECK OPTION clause, therefore, the view
can see only the employees in department 20 and does not allow the department number for those
employees to be changed through the view.

Denying DML Operations
•

You can ensure that no DML operations occur by adding
the WITH READ ONLY option to your view definition.

•

Any attempt to perform a DML operation on any row in the
view results in an Oracle server error.

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You can ensure that no DML operations occur on your view by creating it with the WITH READ
ONLY option. The example in the next slide modifies the EMPVU10 view to prevent any DML
operations on the view.

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(employee_number, employee_name, job_title)
AS SELECT
employee_id, last_name, job_id
FROM
employees
WHERE
department_id = 10
WITH READ ONLY ;

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Denying DML Operations (continued)
Any attempt to remove a row from a view with a read-only constraint results in an error:

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DELETE FROM empvu10
WHERE employee_number = 200;

Similarly, any attempt to insert a row or modify a row using the view with a read-only constraint
results in the same error.

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Removing a View
You can remove a view without losing data because a view is
based on underlying tables in the database.
DROP VIEW view;
DROP VIEW empvu80;

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Removing a View
You use the DROP VIEW statement to remove a view. The statement removes the view definition
from the database. However, dropping views has no effect on the tables on which the view was
based. On the other hand, views or other applications based on the deleted views become invalid.
Only the creator or a user with the DROP ANY VIEW privilege can remove a view.

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In the syntax:
view
is the name of the view

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Practice 11: Overview of Part 1
• Creating a simple view
• Creating a complex view
• Creating a view with a check constraint
• Attempting to modify data in the view
• Removing views

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Part 1 of this lesson’s practice provides you with a variety of exercises in creating, using, and
removing views. Complete questions 1–6 at the end of this lesson.

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Lesson Agenda
•

Overview of views:
– DML operations on a view
– Dropping a view

•


•

Overview of indexes

•


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Sequences

Object

Description

Table


View

more tables

Sequence


Index


Synonym


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Sequences
A sequence is a database object that creates integer values. You can create sequences and then use
them to generate numbers.

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Sequences
A sequence:
• Can automatically generate unique numbers
• Is a shareable object
• Can be used to create a primary key value
• Replaces application code
• Speeds up the efficiency of accessing sequence values
when cached in memory

2
1

4
3

6
5

8
7


10
9

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Sequences (continued)
A sequence is a user-created database object that can be shared by multiple users to generate
integers.
You can define a sequence to generate unique values or to recycle and use the same numbers again.
A typical usage for sequences is to create a primary key value, which must be unique for each row. A
sequence is generated and incremented (or decremented) by an internal Oracle routine. This can be a
time-saving object because it can reduce the amount of application code needed to write a sequencegenerating routine.
Sequence numbers are stored and generated independent of tables. Therefore, the same sequence can
be used for multiple tables.

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CREATE SEQUENCE Statement:
Syntax
Define a sequence to generate sequential numbers
automatically:
CREATE SEQUENCE sequence
[INCREMENT BY n]
[START WITH n]
[{MAXVALUE n | NOMAXVALUE}]
[{MINVALUE n | NOMINVALUE}]
[{CYCLE | NOCYCLE}]
[{CACHE n | NOCACHE}];

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CREATE SEQUENCE Statement: Syntax
Automatically generate sequential numbers by using the CREATE SEQUENCE statement.
In the syntax:
sequence
INCREMENT BY n

START WITH n
MAXVALUE n
NOMAXVALUE

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MINVALUE n
NOMINVALUE

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Is the name of the sequence generator
Specifies the interval between sequence numbers, where
n is an integer (If this clause is omitted, the sequence
increments by 1.)
Specifies the first sequence number to be generated (If this
clause is omitted, the sequence starts with 1.)
Specifies the maximum value the sequence can generate
Specifies a maximum value of 10^27 for an ascending
sequence and –1 for a descending sequence (This is the
default option.)
Specifies the minimum sequence value
Specifies a minimum value of 1 for an ascending sequence
and –(10^26) for a descending sequence (This is the default
option.)


Creating a Sequence
•

Create a sequence named DEPT_DEPTID_SEQ to be used
for the primary key of the DEPARTMENTS table.
Do not use the CYCLE option.

•

CREATE SEQUENCE dept_deptid_seq
INCREMENT BY 10
START WITH 120
MAXVALUE 9999
NOCACHE
NOCYCLE;

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Creating a Sequence (continued)
CYCLE | NOCYCLE
Specifies whether the sequence continues to generate
values after reaching its maximum or minimum value
(NOCYCLE is the default option.)
CACHE n | NOCACHE
Specifies how many values the Oracle server preallocates
and keeps in memory (By default, the Oracle server
caches 20 values.)
The example in the slide creates a sequence named DEPT_DEPTID_SEQ to be used for the
DEPARTMENT_ID column of the DEPARTMENTS table. The sequence starts at 120, does not allow
caching, and does not cycle.
Do not use the CYCLE option if the sequence is used to generate primary key values, unless you have
a reliable mechanism that purges old rows faster than the sequence cycles.
For more information, see the section on “CREATE SEQUENCE” in the Oracle Database SQL
Language Reference 11g, Release 1 (11.1).

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Note: The sequence is not tied to a table. Generally, you should name the sequence after its intended
use. However, the sequence can be used anywhere, regardless of its name.


NEXTVAL and CURRVAL Pseudocolumns
•

•
•

NEXTVAL returns the next available sequence value. It
returns a unique value every time it is referenced, even for
different users.
CURRVAL obtains the current sequence value.
NEXTVAL must be issued for that sequence before
CURRVAL contains a value.

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NEXTVAL and CURRVAL Pseudocolumns

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After you create your sequence, it generates sequential numbers for use in your tables. Reference the
sequence values by using the NEXTVAL and CURRVAL pseudocolumns.
The NEXTVAL pseudocolumn is used to extract successive sequence numbers from a specified
sequence. You must qualify NEXTVAL with the sequence name. When you reference
sequence.NEXTVAL, a new sequence number is generated and the current sequence number is
placed in CURRVAL.
The CURRVAL pseudocolumn is used to refer to a sequence number that the current user has just
generated. However, NEXTVAL must be used to generate a sequence number in the current user’s
session before CURRVAL can be referenced. You must qualify CURRVAL with the sequence name.
When you reference sequence.CURRVAL, the last value returned to that user’s process is
displayed.

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NEXTVAL and CURRVAL Pseudocolumns (continued)
Rules for Using NEXTVAL and CURRVAL
You can use NEXTVAL and CURRVAL in the following contexts:
• The SELECT list of a SELECT statement that is not part of a subquery
• The SELECT list of a subquery in an INSERT statement
• The VALUES clause of an INSERT statement
• The SET clause of an UPDATE statement
You cannot use NEXTVAL and CURRVAL in the following contexts:
• The SELECT list of a view
• A SELECT statement with the DISTINCT keyword
• A SELECT statement with GROUP BY, HAVING, or ORDER BY clauses
• A subquery in a SELECT, DELETE, or UPDATE statement
• The DEFAULT expression in a CREATE TABLE or ALTER TABLE statement
For more information, see the sections on “Pseudocolumns” and “CREATE SEQUENCE” in Oracle

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Using a Sequence
•

Insert a new department named “Support” in location ID
2500:
INSERT INTO departments(department_id,
department_name, location_id)
VALUES
(dept_deptid_seq.NEXTVAL,
'Support', 2500);

•

View the current value for the DEPT_DEPTID_SEQ
sequence:
SELECT
FROM

dept_deptid_seq.CURRVAL
dual;

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Using a Sequence
The example in the slide inserts a new department in the DEPARTMENTS table. It uses the
DEPT_DEPTID_SEQ sequence to generate a new department number as follows.
You can view the current value of the sequence using the sequence_name.CURRVAL, as shown in the
second slide example. The output of the query is shown below:

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Suppose that you now want to hire employees to staff the new department. The INSERT statement to
be executed for all new employees can include the following code:
INSERT INTO employees (employee_id, department_id, ...)
VALUES (employees_seq.NEXTVAL, dept_deptid_seq .CURRVAL, ...);

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Note: The preceding example assumes that a sequence called EMPLOYEE_SEQ has already been
created to generate new employee numbers.

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Caching Sequence Values
•
•

Caching sequence values in memory gives faster access
to those values.
Gaps in sequence values can occur when:
– A rollback occurs
– The system crashes
– A sequence is used in another table

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Caching Sequence Values
You can cache sequences in memory to provide faster access to those sequence values. The cache is
populated the first time you refer to the sequence. Each request for the next sequence value is
retrieved from the cached sequence. After the last sequence value is used, the next request for the
sequence pulls another cache of sequences into memory.

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Gaps in the Sequence
Although sequence generators issue sequential numbers without gaps, this action occurs independent
of a commit or rollback. Therefore, if you roll back a statement containing a sequence, the number is
lost.
Another event that can cause gaps in the sequence is a system crash. If the sequence caches values in
memory, those values are lost if the system crashes.
Because sequences are not tied directly to tables, the same sequence can be used for multiple tables.
However, if you do so, each table can contain gaps in the sequential numbers.

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Modifying a Sequence
Change the increment value, maximum value, minimum value,
cycle option, or cache option:
ALTER SEQUENCE dept_deptid_seq
INCREMENT BY 20
MAXVALUE 999999
NOCACHE
NOCYCLE;

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Modifying a Sequence
If you reach the MAXVALUE limit for your sequence, no additional values from the sequence are
allocated and you will receive an error indicating that the sequence exceeds the MAXVALUE. To
continue to use the sequence, you can modify it by using the ALTER SEQUENCE statement.
Syntax

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ALTER SEQUENCE
sequence
[INCREMENT BY n]
[{MAXVALUE n | NOMAXVALUE}]
[{MINVALUE n | NOMINVALUE}]
[{CYCLE | NOCYCLE}]
[{CACHE n | NOCACHE}];

In the syntax, sequence is the name of the sequence generator.
For more information, see the section on “ALTER SEQUENCE” in Oracle Database SQL Language

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Guidelines for Modifying
a Sequence
•

You must be the owner or have the ALTER privilege for the
sequence.
Only future sequence numbers are affected.
The sequence must be dropped and re-created to restart
the sequence at a different number.
Some validation is performed.
To remove a sequence, use the DROP statement:

•
•
•
•

DROP SEQUENCE dept_deptid_seq;

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Guidelines for Modifying a Sequence
• You must be the owner or have the ALTER privilege for the sequence to modify it. You must be
the owner or have the DROP ANY SEQUENCE privilege to remove it.
• Only future sequence numbers are affected by the ALTER SEQUENCE statement.
• The START WITH option cannot be changed using ALTER SEQUENCE. The sequence must be
dropped and re-created to restart the sequence at a different number.
• Some validation is performed. For example, a new MAXVALUE that is less than the current
sequence number cannot be imposed.

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ALTER SEQUENCE dept_deptid_seq
INCREMENT BY 20
MAXVALUE 90
NOCACHE
NOCYCLE;

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• The error:

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Lesson Agenda
•

Overview of views:
– Dropping a view

•


•

Overview of indexes

•


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Indexes

Object

Description

Table


View

more tables

Sequence


Index


Synonym


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Indexes
Indexes are database objects that you can create to improve the performance of some queries.
Indexes can also be created automatically by the server when you create a primary key or a unique
constraint.

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Indexes
An index:
• Is a schema object
• May be used by the Oracle server to speed up the retrieval
of rows by using a pointer
• Can reduce disk input/output (I/O) by using a rapid path
access method to locate data quickly
• Is independent of the table that it indexes
• Is used and maintained automatically by the Oracle server

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Indexes (continued)
An Oracle server index is a schema object that can speed up the retrieval of rows by using a pointer.
Indexes can be created explicitly or automatically. If you do not have an index on the column, then a
full table scan occurs.

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An index provides direct and fast access to rows in a table. Its purpose is to reduce the disk I/O by
using an indexed path to locate data quickly. An index is used and maintained automatically by the
Oracle server. After an index is created, no direct activity is required by the user.
Indexes are logically and physically independent of the table that they index. This means that they
can be created or dropped at any time, and have no effect on the base tables or other indexes.
Note: When you drop a table, the corresponding indexes are also dropped.
For more information, see the section on “Schema Objects: Indexes” in Oracle Database Concepts
11g, Release 1 (11.1).

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How Are Indexes Created?
•

Automatically: A unique index is created automatically
when you define a PRIMARY KEY or UNIQUE constraint in
a table definition.

•

Manually: Users can create nonunique indexes on
columns to speed up access to the rows.

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How Are Indexes Created?
You can create two types of indexes.
Unique index: The Oracle server automatically creates this index when you define a column in a
table to have a PRIMARY KEY or a UNIQUE constraint. The name of the index is the name that is
given to the constraint.
Nonunique index: This is an index that a user can create. For example, you can create the FOREIGN
KEY column index for a join in a query to improve the speed of retrieval.

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Note: You can manually create a unique index, but it is recommended that you create a unique
constraint, which implicitly creates a unique index.

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Creating an Index
•

Create an index on one or more columns:
CREATE [UNIQUE][BITMAP]INDEX index
ON table (column[, column]...);

•

Improve the speed of query access to the LAST_NAME
column in the EMPLOYEES table:
CREATE INDEX emp_last_name_idx
ON
employees(last_name);

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Creating an Index
Create an index on one or more columns by issuing the CREATE INDEX statement.

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In the syntax:
• index
Is the name of the index
• table
• column
Is the name of the column in the table to be indexed
Specify UNIQUE to indicate that the value of the column (or columns) upon which the index is based
must be unique. Specify BITMAP to indicate that the index is to be created with a bitmap for each
distinct key, rather than indexing each row separately. Bitmap indexes store the rowids associated
with a key value as a bitmap.
For more information, see the section on “CREATE INDEX” in Oracle Database SQL Language

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Index Creation Guidelines
Create an index when:
A column contains a wide range of values
A column contains a large number of null values
One or more columns are frequently used together in a WHERE clause or
a join condition
The table is large and most queries are expected to retrieve less than 2%
to 4% of the rows in the table

Do not create an index when:
The columns are not often used as a condition in the query
The table is small or most queries are expected to retrieve more than 2%
to 4% of the rows in the table
The table is updated frequently

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The indexed columns are referenced as part of an expression


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Index Creation Guidelines
More Is Not Always Better
Having more indexes on a table does not produce faster queries. Each DML operation that is
committed on a table with indexes means that the indexes must be updated. The more indexes that
you have associated with a table, the more effort the Oracle server must make to update all the
indexes after a DML operation.
When to Create an Index
Therefore, you should create indexes only if:
• The column contains a wide range of values
• The column contains a large number of null values
• One or more columns are frequently used together in a WHERE clause or join condition
• The table is large and most queries are expected to retrieve less than 2% to 4% of the rows
Remember that if you want to enforce uniqueness, you should define a unique constraint in the table
definition. A unique index is then created automatically.

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Removing an Index
•

Remove an index from the data dictionary by using the
DROP INDEX command:
DROP INDEX index;

•

Remove the emp_last_name_idx index from the data
dictionary:
DROP INDEX emp_last_name_idx;

•

To drop an index, you must be the owner of the index or
have the DROP ANY INDEX privilege.

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Removing an Index
You cannot modify indexes. To change an index, you must drop it and then re-create it.
Remove an index definition from the data dictionary by issuing the DROP INDEX statement. To drop
an index, you must be the owner of the index or have the DROP ANY INDEX privilege.
In the syntax, index is the name of the index.

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Note: If you drop a table, indexes and constraints are automatically dropped but views and sequences
remain.

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Lesson Agenda
•

Overview of views:
– Dropping a view

•


•

Overview of indexes

•


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Synonyms

Object

Description

Table


View

more tables

Sequence


Index


Synonym


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Synonyms
Synonyms are database objects that enable you to call a table by another name. You can create
synonyms to give an alternative name to a table.

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Creating a Synonym for an Object
Simplify access to objects by creating a synonym (another
name for an object). With synonyms, you can:
• Create an easier reference to a table that is owned by
another user
• Shorten lengthy object names
CREATE [PUBLIC] SYNONYM synonym
FOR
object;

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Creating a Synonym for an Object
To refer to a table that is owned by another user, you need to prefix the table name with the name of
the user who created it, followed by a period. Creating a synonym eliminates the need to qualify the
object name with the schema and provides you with an alternative name for a table, view, sequence,
procedure, or other objects. This method can be especially useful with lengthy object names, such as
views.
In the syntax:
PUBLIC
Creates a synonym that is accessible to all users
synonym
Is the name of the synonym to be created
object
Identifies the object for which the synonym is created

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Guidelines
• The object cannot be contained in a package.
• A private synonym name must be distinct from all other objects that are owned by the same user.
For more information, see the section on “CREATE SYNONYM” in Oracle Database SQL Language

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Creating and Removing Synonyms
•

Create a shortened name for the DEPT_SUM_VU view:
CREATE SYNONYM d_sum
FOR dept_sum_vu;

•

Drop a synonym:
DROP SYNONYM d_sum;

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Creating and Removing Synonyms

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Creating a Synonym
The slide example creates a synonym for the DEPT_SUM_VU view for quicker reference.
The database administrator can create a public synonym that is accessible to all users. The following
example creates a public synonym named DEPT for Alice’s DEPARTMENTS table:
CREATE PUBLIC SYNONYM dept
FOR
alice.departments;

Removing a Synonym
To remove a synonym, use the DROP SYNONYM statement. Only the database administrator can drop
a public synonym.

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DROP PUBLIC SYNONYM

dept;

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For more information, see the section on “DROP SYNONYM” in Oracle Database SQL Language


Quiz
Indexes must be created manually and serve to speed up
access to rows in a table.
1. True
2. False

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Answer: 2
Note: Indexes are designed to speed up query performance. However, not all indexes are created
manually. The Oracle server automatically creates an index when you define a column in a table to
have a PRIMARY KEY or a UNIQUE constraint.

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Summary
In this lesson, you should have learned how to:
• Create, use, and remove views
• Automatically generate sequence numbers by using a
sequence generator
• Create indexes to improve speed of query retrieval
• Use synonyms to provide alternative names for objects

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Summary
In this lesson, you should have learned about database objects such as views, sequences, indexes, and
synonyms.

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• Creating sequences
• Using sequences
• Creating nonunique indexes
• Creating synonyms

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Part 2 of this lesson’s practice provides you with a variety of exercises in creating and using a
sequence, an index, and a synonym.
Complete questions 7–10 at the end of this lesson.

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Practice 11
Part 1
1. The staff in the HR department wants to hide some of the data in the EMPLOYEES table.
They want a view called EMPLOYEES_VU based on the employee numbers, employee
names, and department numbers from the EMPLOYEES table. They want the heading for
the employee name to be EMPLOYEE.
2. Confirm that the view works. Display the contents of the EMPLOYEES_VU view.

…

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3. Using your EMPLOYEES_VU view, write a query for the HR department to display all
employee names and department numbers.

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4. Department 50 needs access to its employee data. Create a view named DEPT50 that contains
the employee numbers, employee last names, and department numbers for all employees in
department 50. You have been asked to label the view columns EMPNO, EMPLOYEE, and
DEPTNO. For security purposes, do not allow an employee to be reassigned to another
department through the view.
5. Display the structure and contents of the DEPT50 view.

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6. Test your view. Attempt to reassign Matos to department 80.

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Part 2
7. You need a sequence that can be used with the PRIMARY KEY column of the DEPT table. The
sequence should start at 200 and have a maximum value of 1,000. Have your sequence
increment by 10. Name the sequence DEPT_ID_SEQ.
8. To test your sequence, write a script to insert two rows in the DEPT table. Name your script
lab_11_08.sql. Be sure to use the sequence that you created for the ID column. Add two
departments: Education and Administration. Confirm your additions. Run the commands in
your script.
9. Create a nonunique index on the NAME column in the DEPT table.
10. Create a synonym for your EMPLOYEES table. Call it EMP.

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________________
A:
Practice Solutions
________________

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Solutions for Practice I: Introduction
The solutions for the “Introduction” lesson practices are discussed below.
Run through the Oracle SQL Developer Demo: Creating a database connection
1. Access the Demo: “Creating a database connection” at:
http://st-curriculum.oracle.com/tutorial/SQLDeveloper/html/module2/mod02_cp_newdbconn.htm

Starting Oracle SQL Developer
2. Start up Oracle SQL Developer using the “sqldeveloper” desktop icon.
1. Double-click the “sqldeveloper” desktop icon.
Note: When you start SQL Developer for the first time, you need to provide the path to the
java.exe file. This is already done for you as a part of the classroom setup. In any case, if
you are prompted, enter the following path:
D:appAdministratorproduct11.1.0client_1jdevstudiojdkbin

Creating a New SQL Developer Database Connection

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3. To create a new database connection, in the Connections Navigator, right-click Connections.
Select New Connection from the menu. The New/Select Database Connection dialog box
appears.
4. Create a database connection using the following information:
a. Connection Name: myconnection

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b. Username: oraxx, where xx is the number of your PC (Ask your instructor to assign
you one ora account out of the ora1- ora20 range of accounts.)
c. Password: oraxx

d. Hostname: Enter the host name of the machine where your database server is running.
e. Port: 1521
f. SID: ORCL

g. Select the Save Password check box.

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Oracle Database 11g: SQL Fundamentals I A - 2

Solutions for Practice I: Introduction (continued)
Testing and Connecting Using the SQL Developer Database Connection
5. Test the new connection.
1. Click the Test button in the New/Select Database Connection window.
6. If the Status is Success, connect to the database using this new connection.
1. If the status is Success, click the Connect button.
Browsing the Tables in the Connections Navigator
7. In the Connections Navigator, view the objects available to you under the Tables node.
Verify that the following tables are present:
COUNTRIES
DEPARTMENTS
EMPLOYEES
JOB_GRADES
JOB_HISTORY
JOBS

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LOCATIONS
REGIONS

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1. Expand the myconnection connection by clicking the plus sign next to it.
2. Expand the Tables icon by clicking the plus sign next to it.

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8. Browse the structure of the EMPLOYEES table.

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1. To display the structure of the EMPLOYEES table, click EMPLOYEES, and by default
the Columns tab is the active tab showing the structure of the table.
9. View the data of the DEPARTMENTS table.
1. Click the DEPARTMENTS table.

2. Click the Data tab. The tables data is displayed.
Opening a SQL Worksheet

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10. Open a new SQL Worksheet. Examine the shortcut icons available for the SQL Worksheet.

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1. To open a new SQL Worksheet, from the Tools menu, select SQL Worksheet.
2. Alternatively, right-click myconnection and select Open SQL Worksheet.


Solutions for Practice I: Introduction (continued)
3. View the shortcut icons in the SQL Worksheet. Specifically look for the Execute
Statement and Run Script icons.

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Solutions for Practice 1: Retrieving Data Using the SQL SELECT Statement
Part 1
Test your knowledge:
1. The following SELECT statement executes successfully:
SELECT last_name, job_id, salary AS Sal
FROM
employees;

True/False
2. The following SELECT statement executes successfully:
SELECT *
FROM
job_grades;

True/False
3. There are four coding errors in this statement. Can you identify them?
SELECT
sal x 12
FROM

employee_id, last_name
ANNUAL SALARY
employees;

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The EMPLOYEES table does not contain a column called sal. The column is called
SALARY.
The multiplication operator is *, not x, as shown in line 2.

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The ANNUAL SALARY alias cannot include spaces. The alias should read
ANNUAL_SALARY or should be enclosed within double quotation marks.

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A comma is missing after the LAST_NAME column.
Part 2

Note the following points before you begin with the practices:

Save all your lab files at the following location: D:labsSQL1labs.
Enter your SQL statements in a SQL Worksheet. To save a script in SQL Developer,
from the File menu, select Save As or right-click in the SQL Worksheet and select Save
file to save your SQL statement as a lab_<lessonno>_<stepno>.sql script. To
modify an existing script, use File > Open to open the script file, make changes and then
make sure you use Save As to save it with a different filename.

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To run the query, click the Execute Statement icon (or press [F9]) in the SQL Worksheet.
For DML and DDL statements, click the Run Script icon (or press [F5]).

After you have executed a saved script, make sure that you do not enter your next query
in the same worksheet. Open a new worksheet.

(continued)
You have been hired as a SQL programmer for Acme Corporation. Your first task is to create
some reports based on the data from the Human Resources tables.
4. Your first task is to determine the structure of the DEPARTMENTS table and its contents.
a. To determine the DEPARTMENTS table structure:

b. To view the data contained by the DEPARTMENTS table:
SELECT *
FROM
departments;

5. You need to determine the structure of the EMPLOYEES table.
DESCRIBE employees

The HR department wants a query to display the last name, job ID, hire date, and
employee ID for each employee, with the employee ID appearing first. Provide an alias
STARTDATE for the HIRE_DATE column. Save your SQL statement to a file named
lab_01_05.sql so that you can dispatch this file to the HR department.

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SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id, hire_date StartDate
FROM
employees;

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6. Test your query in the file lab_01_05.sql to ensure that it runs correctly.

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SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id, hire_date StartDate
FROM
employees;

7. The HR department wants a query to display all unique job IDs from the EMPLOYEES table.
SELECT DISTINCT job_id
FROM
employees;

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(continued)
Part 3
If you have the time, complete the following exercises:
8. The HR department wants more descriptive column headings for its report on employees.
Copy the statement from lab_01_05.sql to a new SQL Worksheet. Name the column
headings Emp #, Employee, Job, and Hire Date, respectively. Then run your query
again.
SELECT employee_id "Emp #", last_name "Employee",
job_id "Job", hire_date "Hire Date"
FROM
employees;

9. The HR department has requested a report of all employees and their job IDs. Display the
last name concatenated with the job ID (separated by a comma and space) and name the
column Employee and Title.
SELECT last_name||', '||job_id "Employee and Title"
FROM
employees;

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If you want an extra challenge, complete the following exercise:

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10. To familiarize yourself with the data in the EMPLOYEES table, create a query to display all
the data from the EMPLOYEES table. Separate each column output with a comma. Name the
column as THE_OUTPUT.

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SELECT employee_id || ',' || first_name || ',' || last_name
|| ',' || email || ',' || phone_number || ','|| job_id
|| ',' || manager_id || ',' || hire_date || ','
|| salary || ',' || commission_pct || ',' || department_id
THE_OUTPUT
FROM
employees;

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Solutions for Practice 2: Restricting and Sorting Data
The HR department needs your assistance in creating some queries.
1. Because of budget issues, the HR department needs a report that displays the last name and
salary of employees earning more than $12,000. Save your SQL statement as a file named
lab_02_01.sql. Run your query.
SELECT
FROM
WHERE

last_name, salary
employees
salary > 12000;

2. Open a new SQL Worksheet. Create a report that displays the last name and department
number for employee number 176.
SELECT
FROM
WHERE

last_name, department_id
employees
employee_id = 176;

3. The HR departments needs to find employees with high salary and low salary. Modify
lab_02_01.sql to display the last name and salary for all employees whose salary is not
in the range of $5,000 to $12,000. Save your SQL statement as lab_02_03.sql.
SELECT
FROM
WHERE

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last_name, salary
employees
salary NOT BETWEEN 5000 AND 12000;

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4. Create a report to display the last name, job ID, and hire date for employees with the last
names of Matos and Taylor. Order the query in ascending order by hire date.
SELECT
FROM
WHERE
ORDER BY

last_name, job_id, hire_date
employees
last_name IN ('Matos', 'Taylor')
hire_date;

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5. Display the last name and department ID of all employees in departments 20 or 50 in
ascending alphabetical order by name.
SELECT
FROM
WHERE
ORDER BY

last_name, department_id
employees
department_id IN (20, 50)
last_name ASC;

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Solutions for Practice 2: Restricting and Sorting Data (continued)
6. Modify lab_02_03.sql to list the last name and salary of employees who earn between
$5,000 and $12,000, and are in department 20 or 50. Label the columns Employee and
Monthly Salary, respectively. Resave lab_02_03.sql as lab_02_06.sql. Run
the statement in lab_02_06.sql.
SELECT
FROM
WHERE
AND

last_name "Employee", salary "Monthly Salary"
employees
salary BETWEEN 5000 AND 12000
department_id IN (20, 50);

7. The HR department needs a report that displays the last name and hire date for all employees
who were hired in 1994.
SELECT
FROM
WHERE

last_name, hire_date
employees
hire_date LIKE '%94';

8. Create a report to display the last name and job title of all employees who do not have a
manager.
SELECT
FROM
WHERE

last_name, job_id
employees
manager_id IS NULL;

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9. Create a report to display the last name, salary, and commission for all employees who earn
commissions. Sort data in descending order of salary and commissions. Use the column’s
numeric position in the ORDER BY clause.
SELECT
FROM
WHERE
ORDER BY

last_name, salary, commission_pct
employees
commission_pct IS NOT NULL
2 DESC, 3 DESC;

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10. Members of the HR department want to have more flexibility with the queries that you are
writing. They would like a report that displays the last name and salary of employees who
earn more than an amount that the user specifies after a prompt. (You can use the query
created in practice exercise 1 and modify it.) Save this query to a file named
lab_02_10.sql.
a. Enter 12000 when prompted for a value in a dialog box. Click OK.
SELECT
FROM
WHERE

last_name, salary
employees
salary > &sal_amt;

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Solutions for Practice 2: Restricting and Sorting Data (continued)
11. The HR department wants to run reports based on a manager. Create a query that prompts the
user for a manager ID and generates the employee ID, last name, salary, and department for
that manager’s employees. The HR department wants the ability to sort the report on a
selected column. You can test the data with the following values:
manager _id = 103, sorted by last_name
manager_id = 201, sorted by salary
manager_id = 124, sorted by employee_id
SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary, department_id
FROM employees
WHERE manager_id = &mgr_num
ORDER BY &order_col;

12. Display all employee last names in which the third letter of the name is “a.”
SELECT
FROM
WHERE

last_name
employees
last_name LIKE '__a%';

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13. Display the last names of all employees who have both an “a” and an “e” in their last name.
SELECT
FROM
WHERE
AND

last_name
employees
last_name LIKE '%a%'
last_name LIKE '%e%';

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If you want an extra challenge, complete the following exercises:

14. Display the last name, job, and salary for all employees whose job is that of a sales
representative or a stock clerk, and whose salary is not equal to $2,500, $3,500, or $7,000.
SELECT
FROM
WHERE
AND

last_name, job_id, salary
employees
job_id IN ('SA_REP', 'ST_CLERK')
salary NOT IN (2500, 3500, 7000);

15. Modify lab_02_06.sql to display the last name, salary, and commission for all
employees whose commission amount is 20%. Resave lab_02_06.sql as
lab_02_15.sql. Rerun the statement in lab_02_15.sql.

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SELECT
FROM
WHERE

last_name "Employee", salary "Monthly Salary",
commission_pct
employees
commission_pct = .20;


Solutions for Practice 3: Using Single-Row Functions to Customize Output
1. Write a query to display the system date. Label the column Date.
Note: If your database is remotely located in a different time zone, the output will be the date
for the operating system on which the database resides.
SELECT
FROM

sysdate "Date"
dual;

2. The HR department needs a report to display the employee number, last name, salary, and
salary increased by 15.5% (expressed as a whole number) for each employee. Label the
column New Salary. Save your SQL statement in a file named lab_03_02.sql.
SELECT
FROM

employee_id, last_name, salary,
ROUND(salary * 1.155, 0) "New Salary"
employees;

3. Run your query in the file lab_03_02.sql.
SELECT

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FROM

ROUND(salary * 1.155, 0) "New Salary"
employees;

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4. Modify your query lab_03_02.sql to add a column that subtracts the old salary from the
new salary. Label the column Increase. Save the contents of the file as
lab_03_04.sql. Run the revised query.
SELECT

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FROM

ROUND(salary * 1.155, 0) "New Salary",
ROUND(salary * 1.155, 0) - salary "Increase"
employees;

5. Write a query that displays the last name (with the first letter in uppercase and all the other
letters in lowercase) and the length of the last name for all employees whose name starts with
the letters “J,” “A,” or “M.” Give each column an appropriate label. Sort the results by the
employees’ last names.
SELECT

INITCAP(last_name) "Name",
LENGTH(last_name) "Length"
FROM
employees
WHERE
last_name LIKE 'J%'
OR
last_name LIKE 'M%'
OR
last_name LIKE 'A%'
ORDER BY last_name ;

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(continued)
Rewrite the query so that the user is prompted to enter a letter that starts the last name. For
example, if the user enters H (capitalized) when prompted for a letter, then the output should
show all employees whose last name starts with the letter “H.”
SELECT

INITCAP(last_name) "Name",
FROM
employees
WHERE
last_name LIKE '&start_letter%'
ORDER BY last_name;

Modify the query such that the case of the entered letter does not affect the output. The entered
letter must be capitalized before being processed by the SELECT query.
SELECT INITCAP(last_name) "Name",
FROM
employees
WHERE
last_name LIKE UPPER('&start_letter%' )
ORDER BY last_name;

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6. The HR department wants to find the duration of employment for each employee. For each
employee, display the last name and calculate the number of months between today and the
date on which the employee was hired. Label the column MONTHS_WORKED. Order your
results by the number of months employed. Round the number of months up to the closest
whole number.

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Note: Because this query depends on the date when it was executed, the values in the
MONTHS_WORKED column will differ for you.

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SELECT last_name, ROUND(MONTHS_BETWEEN(
SYSDATE, hire_date)) MONTHS_WORKED
FROM
employees
ORDER BY months_worked;


7. Create a query to display the last name and salary for all employees. Format the salary to be
15 characters long, left-padded with the $ symbol. Label the column SALARY.
SELECT last_name,
LPAD(salary, 15, '$') SALARY
FROM
employees;

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(continued)
8. Create a query that displays the first eight characters of the employees’ last names and
indicates the amounts of their salaries with asterisks. Each asterisk signifies a thousand
dollars. Sort the data in descending order of salary. Label the column
EMPLOYEES_AND_THEIR_SALARIES.
SELECT rpad(last_name, 8)||' '||
rpad(' ', salary/1000+1, '*')
EMPLOYEES_AND_THEIR_SALARIES
FROM employees
ORDER BY salary DESC;

9. Create a query to display the last name and the number of weeks employed for all employees
in department 90. Label the number of weeks column as TENURE. Truncate the number of
weeks value to 0 decimal places. Show the records in descending order of the employee’s
tenure.
a. Note: The TENURE value will differ as it depends on the date when you run the query.
SELECT last_name, trunc((SYSDATE-hire_date)/7) AS TENURE
FROM
employees
WHERE department_id = 90
ORDER BY TENURE DESC

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Solutions for Practice 4: Using Conversion Functions and Conditional
Expressions
1. Create a report that produces the following for each employee:
<employee last name> earns <salary> monthly but wants <3 times salary.>. Label the
column as Dream Salaries.
SELECT

FROM

last_name || ' earns '
|| TO_CHAR(salary, 'fm$99,999.00')
|| ' monthly but wants '
|| TO_CHAR(salary * 3, 'fm$99,999.00')
|| '.' "Dream Salaries"
employees;

2. Display each employee’s last name, hire date, and salary review date, which is the first
Monday after six months of service. Label the column REVIEW. Format the dates to appear
in the format similar to “Monday, the Thirty-First of July, 2000.”
SELECT last_name, hire_date,
TO_CHAR(NEXT_DAY(ADD_MONTHS(hire_date, 6),'MONDAY'),
'fmDay, "the" Ddspth "of" Month, YYYY') REVIEW
FROM
employees;

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3. Display the last name, hire date, and day of the week on which the employee started. Label
the column as DAY. Order the results by the day of the week, starting with Monday.
SELECT last_name, hire_date,
TO_CHAR(hire_date, 'DAY') DAY
FROM
employees
ORDER BY TO_CHAR(hire_date - 1, 'd');

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4. Create a query that displays the employees’ last names and commission amounts. If an
employee does not earn commission, show “No Commission.” Label the column as COMM.
SELECT last_name,
NVL(TO_CHAR(commission_pct), 'No Commission') COMM
FROM
employees;

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Solutions for Practice 4: Using Conversion Functions and Conditional
Expressions (continued)
5. Using the DECODE function, write a query that displays the grade of all employees based on
the value of the JOB_ID column, using the following data:
Job

Grade

AD_PRES

A

ST_MAN

B

IT_PROG

C

SA_REP

D

ST_CLERK

E

None of the above

0

SELECT job_id, decode (job_id,
'ST_CLERK',
'SA_REP',
'IT_PROG',
'ST_MAN',
'AD_PRES',
'0')GRADE
FROM employees;

'E',
'D',
'C',
'B',
'A',

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6. Rewrite the statement in the preceding exercise using the CASE syntax.
SELECT job_id, CASE
WHEN
WHEN
WHEN
WHEN
WHEN
ELSE
FROM employees;

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job_id
'ST_CLERK' THEN
'SA_REP'
THEN
'IT_PROG' THEN
'ST_MAN'
THEN
'AD_PRES' THEN
'0' END GRADE

'E'
'D'
'C'
'B'
'A'

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Solutions for Practice 5: Reporting Aggregated Data Using the Group Functions
Determine the validity of the following three statements. Circle either True or False.
1. Group functions work across many rows to produce one result per group.
True/False
2. Group functions include nulls in calculations.
True/False
3. The WHERE clause restricts rows before inclusion in a group calculation.
True/False
The HR department needs the following reports:
4. Find the highest, lowest, sum, and average salary of all employees. Label the columns
Maximum, Minimum, Sum, and Average, respectively. Round your results to the nearest
whole number. Save your SQL statement as lab_05_04.sql. Run the query.
SELECT ROUND(MAX(salary),0)
ROUND(MIN(salary),0)
ROUND(SUM(salary),0)
ROUND(AVG(salary),0)
FROM
employees;

"Maximum",
"Minimum",
"Sum",
"Average"

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5. Modify the query in lab_05_04.sql to display the minimum, maximum, sum, and
average salary for each job type. Resave lab_05_04.sql as lab_05_05.sql. Run the
statement in lab_05_05.sql.
SELECT job_id, ROUND(MAX(salary),0)
ROUND(MIN(salary),0)
ROUND(SUM(salary),0)
ROUND(AVG(salary),0)
FROM
employees
GROUP BY job_id;

"Maximum",
"Minimum",
"Sum",
"Average"

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6. Write a query to display the number of people with the same job.
SELECT job_id, COUNT(*)
FROM
employees
GROUP BY job_id;

Generalize the query so that the user in the HR department is prompted for a job title. Save
the script to a file named lab_05_06.sql. Run the query. Enter IT_PROG when
prompted and click OK.

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SELECT job_id, COUNT(*)
FROM
employees
WHERE job_id = '&job_title'
GROUP BY job_id;

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(continued)
7. Determine the number of managers without listing them. Label the column as Number of
Managers. Hint: Use the MANAGER_ID column to determine the number of managers.
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT manager_id) "Number of Managers"
FROM
employees;

8. Find the difference between the highest and lowest salaries. Label the column as
DIFFERENCE.
SELECT
FROM

MAX(salary) - MIN(salary) DIFFERENCE
employees;

9. Create a report to display the manager number and the salary of the lowest-paid employee for
that manager. Exclude anyone whose manager is not known. Exclude any groups where the
minimum salary is $6,000 or less. Sort the output in descending order of salary.
SELECT
FROM
WHERE
GROUP BY
HAVING
ORDER BY

manager_id, MIN(salary)
employees
manager_id IS NOT NULL
manager_id
MIN(salary) > 6000
MIN(salary) DESC;

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10. Create a query that will display the total number of employees and, of that total, the number
of employees hired in 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998. Create appropriate column headings.
SELECT

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FROM

COUNT(*) total,
SUM(DECODE(TO_CHAR(hire_date,
employees;

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'YYYY'),1995,1,0))"1995",
'YYYY'),1996,1,0))"1996",
'YYYY'),1997,1,0))"1997",
'YYYY'),1998,1,0))"1998"

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(continued)
11. Create a matrix query to display the job, the salary for that job based on the department
number, and the total salary for that job, for departments 20, 50, 80, and 90, giving each
column an appropriate heading.
SELECT

job_id "Job",
SUM(DECODE(department_id
SUM(salary) "Total"
FROM
employees
GROUP BY job_id;

,
,
,
,

20,
50,
80,
90,

salary))
salary))
salary))
salary))

"Dept
"Dept
"Dept
"Dept

20",
50",
80",
90",

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Solutions for Practice 6: Displaying Data from Multiple Tables
1. Write a query for the HR department to produce the addresses of all the departments. Use
the LOCATIONS and COUNTRIES tables. Show the location ID, street address, city, state or
province, and country in the output. Use a NATURAL JOIN to produce the results.
SELECT location_id, street_address, city, state_province, country_name
FROM
locations
NATURAL JOIN countries;

2. The HR department needs a report of all employees. Write a query to display the last name,
department number, and department name for all the employees.
SELECT last_name, department_id, department_name
FROM
employees
JOIN
departments
USING (department_id);

3. The HR department needs a report of employees in Toronto. Display the last name, job,
department number, and department name for all employees who work in Toronto.
SELECT e.last_name, e.job_id, e.department_id, d.department_name
FROM
ON
JOIN
locations l
ON
(d.location_id = l.location_id)
WHERE LOWER(l.city) = 'toronto';

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4. Create a report to display employees’ last names and employee number along with their
managers’ last names and manager number. Label the columns Employee, Emp#,
Manager, and Mgr#, respectively. Save your SQL statement as lab_06_04.sql. Run
the query.

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SELECT w.last_name "Employee", w.employee_id "EMP#",
m.last_name "Manager", m.employee_id "Mgr#"
FROM
employees w join employees m
ON
(w.manager_id = m.employee_id);

5. Modify lab_06_04.sql to display all employees including King, who has no manager.
Order the results by the employee number. Save your SQL statement as lab_06_05.sql.
Run the query in lab_06_05.sql.
FROM
employees w
LEFT
OUTER JOIN employees m
ON
(w.manager_id = m.employee_id)
ORDER BY 2;

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Solutions for Practice 6: Displaying Data from Multiple Tables (continued)
6. Create a report for the HR department that displays employee last names, department
numbers, and all the employees who work in the same department as a given employee. Give
each column an appropriate label. Save the script to a file named lab_06_06.sql. Run
the query.
SELECT e.department_id department, e.last_name employee,
c.last_name colleague
FROM
employees e JOIN employees c
ON
(e.department_id = c.department_id)
WHERE e.employee_id <> c.employee_id
ORDER BY e.department_id, e.last_name, c.last_name;

7. The HR department needs a report on job grades and salaries. To familiarize yourself with
the JOB_GRADES table, first show the structure of the JOB_GRADES table. Then create a
query that displays the name, job, department name, salary, and grade for all employees.
DESC JOB_GRADES
SELECT e.last_name, e.job_id, d.department_name,
e.salary, j.grade_level
FROM
ON
JOIN
job_grades j
ON
(e.salary BETWEEN j.lowest_sal AND j.highest_sal);


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8. The HR department wants to determine the names of all employees who were hired after
Davies. Create a query to display the name and hire date of any employee hired after
employee Davies.
SELECT
FROM
ON
WHERE

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e.last_name, e.hire_date
employees e JOIN employees davies
(davies.last_name = 'Davies')
davies.hire_date < e.hire_date;

9. The HR department needs to find the names and hire dates for all employees who were hired
before their managers, along with their managers’ names and hire dates. Save the script to a
file named lab_06_09.sql.
SELECT w.last_name, w.hire_date, m.last_name, m.hire_date
FROM
employees w JOIN employees m
ON
(w.manager_id = m.employee_id)
WHERE
w.hire_date < m.hire_date;

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Solutions for Practice 7: Using Subqueries to Solve Queries
1. The HR department needs a query that prompts the user for an employee last name. The
query then displays the last name and hire date of any employee in the same department as
the employee whose name they supply (excluding that employee). For example, if the user
enters Zlotkey, find all employees who work with Zlotkey (excluding Zlotkey).
UNDEFINE Enter_name
SELECT last_name, hire_date
FROM
employees
WHERE department_id = (SELECT department_id
FROM
employees
WHERE last_name = '&&Enter_name')
AND
last_name <> '&Enter_name';

2. Create a report that displays the employee number, last name, and salary of all employees
who earn more than the average salary. Sort the results in order of ascending salary.
SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary
FROM
employees
WHERE salary > (SELECT AVG(salary)
FROM
employees)
ORDER BY salary;

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3. Write a query that displays the employee number and last name of all employees who work
in a department with any employee whose last name contains a “u.” Save your SQL
statement as lab_07_03.sql. Run your query.

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SELECT employee_id, last_name
FROM
employees
WHERE department_id IN (SELECT department_id
FROM
employees
WHERE last_name like '%u%');

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4. The HR department needs a report that displays the last name, department number, and job
ID of all employees whose department location ID is 1700.
SELECT last_name, department_id, job_id
FROM
employees
FROM
departments
WHERE location_id = 1700);

Modify the query so that the user is prompted for a location ID. Save this to a file named
lab_07_04.sql.

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SELECT last_name, department_id, job_id
FROM
employees
FROM
departments
WHERE location_id = &Enter_location);

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Solutions for Practice 7: Using Subqueries to Solve Queries (continued)
5. Create a report for HR that displays the last name and salary of every employee who reports
to King.
SELECT last_name, salary
FROM
employees
WHERE manager_id = (SELECT employee_id
FROM
employees
WHERE last_name = 'King');

6. Create a report for HR that displays the department number, last name, and job ID for every
employee in the Executive department.
SELECT department_id, last_name, job_id
FROM
employees
FROM
departments
WHERE department_name = 'Executive');

If you have the time, complete the following exercise:
7. Modify the query in lab_07_03.sql to display the employee number, last name, and
salary of all employees who earn more than the average salary and who work in a department
with any employee whose last name contains a “u.” Resave lab_07_03.sql to
lab_07_07.sql. Run the statement in lab_07_07.sql.

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SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary
FROM
employees
FROM
employees
WHERE last_name like '%u%')
AND
salary > (SELECT AVG(salary)
FROM
employees);

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Solutions for Practice 8: Using the Set Operators
1. The HR department needs a list of department IDs for departments that do not contain the job
ID ST_CLERK. Use the set operators to create this report.
SELECT
FROM
MINUS
SELECT
FROM
WHERE

department_id
departments
department_id
employees
job_id = 'ST_CLERK';

2. The HR department needs a list of countries that have no departments located in them.
Display the country ID and the name of the countries. Use the set operators to create this
report.
SELECT country_id,country_name
FROM countries
MINUS
SELECT l.country_id,c.country_name
FROM locations l JOIN countries c
ON (l.country_id = c.country_id)
JOIN departments d
ON d.location_id=l.location_id;

SELECT distinct job_id, department_id
FROM employees
UNION ALL
SELECT DISTINCT job_id, department_id
FROM employees
UNION ALL
SELECT DISTINCT job_id, department_id
FROM employees

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3. Produce a list of jobs for departments 10, 50, and 20, in that order. Display job ID and
department ID using the set operators.

Solutions for Practice 8: Using the Set Operators (continued)
4. Create a report that lists the employee IDs and job IDs of those employees who currently
have a job title that is the same as their job title when they were initially hired by the
company (that is, they changed jobs but have now gone back to doing their original job).
SELECT
employee_id,job_id
FROM
employees
INTERSECT
SELECT
employee_id,job_id
FROM
job_history;

5. The HR department needs a report with the following specifications:
•

Last name and department ID of all the employees from the EMPLOYEES table,
regardless of whether or not they belong to a department

•

Department ID and department name of all the departments from the DEPARTMENTS
table, regardless of whether or not they have employees working in them

Write a compound query to accomplish this.
SELECT last_name,department_id,TO_CHAR(null)
FROM
employees
UNION
SELECT TO_CHAR(null),department_id,department_name
FROM departments;

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Solutions for Practice 9: Manipulating Data
The HR department wants you to create SQL statements to insert, update, and delete employee
data. As a prototype, use the MY_EMPLOYEE table before giving the statements to the HR
department.
Note: For all the DML statements, click the Run Script icon (or press [F5]) to execute the query.
This way you get to see the feedback messages on the Script Output tabbed page. For SELECT
queries, continue to click the Execute Statement icon or press [F9] to get the formatted output on
the Results tabbed page.
Insert data into the MY_EMPLOYEE table.
1. Run the statement in the lab_09_01.sql script to build the MY_EMPLOYEE table used in
this practice.
a. From File menu, select Open. In the Open dialog box, navigate to
D:labssql1labs folder, double-click lab_09_01.sql.
b. After the statement is opened in a SQL Worksheet, click the Run Script icon to run
the script. You get a Create Table succeeeded message on the Script Output tabbed
page.
2. Describe the structure of the MY_EMPLOYEE table to identify the column names.

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DESCRIBE my_employee

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3. Create an INSERT statement to add the first row of data to the MY_EMPLOYEE table from
the following sample data. Do not list the columns in the INSERT clause.
ID

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5

895

Betty

bdancs

860

Ben

bbiri

Newman

4

rpatel

Biri

3

Ralph

Dancs

2

USERID

Patel

1

FIRST_NAME

Chad

cnewman

Ropeburn

Audrey

aropebur

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INSERT INTO my_employee
VALUES (1, 'Patel', 'Ralph', 'rpatel', 895);


SALARY

1100
750
1550

Solutions for Practice 9: Manipulating Data (continued)
4. Populate the MY_EMPLOYEE table with the second row of the sample data from the
preceding list. This time, list the columns explicitly in the INSERT clause.
INSERT INTO my_employee (id, last_name, first_name,
userid, salary)
VALUES (2, 'Dancs', 'Betty', 'bdancs', 860);

SELECT
FROM

*
my_employee;

6. Write an insert statement in a dynamic reusable script file to load the remaining rows into the
MY_EMPLOYEE table. The script should prompt for all the columns (ID, LAST_NAME,
FIRST_NAME, USERID and SALARY). Save this script to a file named lab_09_06.sql.
VALUES (&p_id, '&p_last_name', '&p_first_name',
'&p_userid', &p_salary);

7. Populate the table with the next two rows of sample data listed in step 3 by running the
INSERT statement in the script that you created.


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SELECT
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FROM my_employee;

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9. Make the data additions permanent.
COMMIT;

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Update and delete data in the MY_EMPLOYEE table.
10. Change the last name of employee 3 to Drexler.
UPDATE
SET
WHERE

my_employee
last_name = 'Drexler'
id = 3;

11. Change the salary to $1,000 for all employees with a salary less than $900.
UPDATE
SET
WHERE

my_employee
salary = 1000
salary < 900;

12. Verify your changes to the table.
SELECT
FROM

*
my_employee;

13. Delete Betty Dancs from the MY_EMPLOYEE table.

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DELETE
FROM my_employee
WHERE last_name = 'Dancs';

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14. Confirm your changes to the table.
SELECT
FROM

*
my_employee;

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15. Commit all pending changes.
COMMIT;

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Control data transaction to the MY_EMPLOYEE table.

16. Populate the table with the last row of the sample data listed in step 3 by using the statements
in the script that you created in step 6. Run the statements in the script.

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SELECT
FROM

*
my_employee;

18. Mark an intermediate point in the processing of the transaction.
SAVEPOINT step_17;

19. Delete all the rows from the MY_EMPLOYEE table.
DELETE
FROM my_employee;

20. Confirm that the table is empty.
SELECT *
FROM
my_employee;

21. Discard the most recent DELETE operation without discarding the earlier INSERT operation.
ROLLBACK TO step_17;

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22. Confirm that the new row is still intact.
SELECT *
FROM
my_employee;

23. Make the data addition permanent.
COMMIT;

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If you have time, complete the following exercise:

24. Modify the lab_09_06.sql script such that the USERID is generated automatically by
concatenating the first letter of the first name and the first seven characters of the last name.
The generated USERID must be in lowercase. Hence, the script should not prompt for the
USERID. Save this script to a file named lab_09_24.sql.
SET ECHO OFF
SET VERIFY OFF
VALUES (&p_id, '&&p_last_name', '&&p_first_name',
lower(substr('&p_first_name', 1, 1) ||
substr('&p_last_name', 1, 7)), &p_salary);
SET VERIFY ON
SET ECHO ON
UNDEFINE p_first_name
UNDEFINE p_last_name

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25. Run the script lab_09_24.sql to insert the following record:
ID

LAST_NAME

FIRST_NAME

USERID

SALARY

6

Anthony

Mark

manthony

1230

26. Confirm that the new row was added with the correct USERID.
SELECT *
FROM my_employee
WHERE ID=’6’;

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Solutions for Practice 10: Using DDL Statements to Create and Manage Tables
Note: For all the DDL and DML statements, click the Run Script icon (or press [F5]) to execute
the query. This way you get to see the feedback messages on the Script Output tabbed page. For
SELECT queries, continue to click the Execute Statement icon or press [F9] to get the formatted
output on the Results tabbed page.
1. Create the DEPT table based on the following table instance chart. Save the statement in a
script called lab_10_01.sql, and then execute the statement in the script to create the
CREATE TABLE dept
(id
NUMBER(7)CONSTRAINT department_id_pk PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR2(25));

a. To confirm that the table was created and to view its structure, issue the following
command:
DESCRIBE dept

2. Populate the DEPT table with data from the DEPARTMENTS table. Include only those
columns that you need.

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INSERT INTO dept
SELECT department_id, department_name
FROM
departments;

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3. Create the EMP table based on the following table instance chart. Save the statement in a
script called lab_10_03.sql, and then execute the statement in the script to create the

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CREATE TABLE emp
(id
NUMBER(7),
last_name
VARCHAR2(25),
first_name
VARCHAR2(25),
dept_id
NUMBER(7)
CONSTRAINT emp_dept_id_FK REFERENCES dept (id)
);

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a. To confirm that the table was created and to view its structure:
DESCRIBE emp

4. Create the EMPLOYEES2 table based on the structure of the EMPLOYEES table. Include only
the EMPLOYEE_ID, FIRST_NAME, LAST_NAME, SALARY, and DEPARTMENT_ID
columns. Name the columns in your new table ID, FIRST_NAME, LAST_NAME, SALARY,
and DEPT_ID, respectively.

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CREATE TABLE employees2 AS
SELECT employee_id id, first_name, last_name, salary,
department_id dept_id
FROM
employees;


Solutions for Practice 10: Using DDL Statements to Create and Manage Tables
(continued)
5. Alter the EMPLOYEES2 table status to read-only.
ALTER TABLE employees2 READ ONLY

6. Try to insert the following row in the EMPLOYEES2 table.
a. Note, you will get “Update operation not allowed on table” error message. Hence,
you will not be allowed to insert any row into the table because it is assigned a
read only status.
INSERT INTO employees2
VALUES (34, 'Grant','Marcie',5678,10)

7. Revert the EMPLOYEES2 table to the read/write status. Now try to insert the same row again.
a. Now, because the table is assigned a READ WRITE status, you will be allowed to
insert a row into the table.
ALTER TABLE employees2 READ WRITE

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INSERT INTO employees2
VALUES (34, 'Grant','Marcie',5678,10)

8. Drop the EMPLOYEES2 table.

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a. Note: You can even drop a table that is in the READ ONLY mode. To test this,
alter the table again to READ ONLY status and then issue the DROP TABLE
command. The table EMPLOYEES2 will be dropped.

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DROP TABLE employees2;

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Solutions for Practice 11: Creating Other Schema Objects
Part 1
1. The staff in the HR department wants to hide some of the data in the EMPLOYEES table.
They want a view called called EMPLOYEES_VU based on the employee numbers, employee
last names, and department numbers from the EMPLOYEES table. They want the heading for
the employee name to be EMPLOYEE.
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW employees_vu AS
SELECT employee_id, last_name employee, department_id
FROM employees;

2. Confirm that the view works. Display the contents of the EMPLOYEES_VU view.
SELECT
FROM

*
employees_vu;

3. Using your EMPLOYEES_VU view, write a query for the HR department to display all
employee names and department numbers.
SELECT
FROM

employee, department_id
employees_vu;

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4. Department 50 needs access to its employee data. Create a view named DEPT50 that
contains the employee numbers, employee last names, and department numbers for all
employees in department 50. They have requested that you label the view columns
EMPNO, EMPLOYEE, and DEPTNO. For security purposes, do not allow an employee to be
reassigned to another department through the view.
CREATE VIEW dept50 AS
SELECT
employee_id empno, last_name employee,
department_id deptno
FROM
employees
WHERE
department_id = 50
WITH CHECK OPTION CONSTRAINT emp_dept_50;

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5. Display the structure and contents of the DEPT50 view.
DESCRIBE dept50
SELECT
FROM

*
dept50;

6. Test your view. Attempt to reassign Matos to department 80.
UPDATE
SET
WHERE

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dept50
deptno = 80
employee = 'Matos';

The error is because the DEPT50 view has been created with the WITH CHECK OPTION
constraint. This ensures that the DEPTNO column in the view is protected from being changed.


Solutions for Practice 11: Creating Other Schema Objects (continued)
Part 2
7. You need a sequence that can be used with the primary key column of the DEPT table. The
sequence should start at 200 and have a maximum value of 1,000. Have your sequence
increment by 10. Name the sequence DEPT_ID_SEQ.
CREATE SEQUENCE dept_id_seq
START WITH 200
INCREMENT BY 10
MAXVALUE 1000;

8. To test your sequence, write a script to insert two rows in the DEPT table. Name your script
lab_11_08.sql. Be sure to use the sequence that you created for the ID column. Add two
departments: Education and Administration. Confirm your additions. Run the commands in
your script.
INSERT INTO dept
VALUES (dept_id_seq.nextval, 'Education');
INSERT INTO dept
VALUES (dept_id_seq.nextval, 'Administration');

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9. Create a nonunique index on the NAME column in the DEPT table.

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CREATE INDEX dept_name_idx ON dept (name);

10. Create a synonym for your EMPLOYEES table. Call it EMP.
CREATE SYNONYM emp FOR EMPLOYEES;

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Solutions for Practice C: Oracle Join Syntax
1. Write a query for the HR department to produce the addresses of all the departments. Use the
LOCATIONS and COUNTRIES tables. Show the location ID, street address, city, state or
province, and country in the output. Run the query.
SELECT location_id, street_address, city, state_province, country_name
FROM
locations, countries
WHERE locations.country_id = countries.country_id;

department number, and department name for all employees. Run the query.
SELECT e.last_name, e.department_id, d.department_name
FROM
employees e, departments d
WHERE e.department_id = d.department_id;

SELECT
FROM
WHERE
AND
AND

e.last_name, e.job_id, e.department_id, d.department_name
employees e, departments d , locations l
e.department_id = d.department_id
d.location_id = l.location_id
LOWER(l.city) = 'toronto';

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4. Create a report to display the employee last name and the employee number along with the
last name of the employee’s manager and manager number. Label the columns Employee,
Emp#, Manager, and Mgr#, respectively. Save your SQL statement as lab_c_04.sql.
FROM
employees w, employees m
WHERE w.manager_id = m.employee_id;

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5. Modify lab_c_04.sql to display all employees including King, who has no manager.
Order the results by the employee number. Save the SQL statement as lab_c_05.sql.
Run the query in lab_c_05.sql.
FROM
employees w, employees m
WHERE w.manager_id = m.employee_id (+);

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Solutions for Practice C: Oracle Join Syntax (continued)
6. Create a report for the HR department that displays employee last names, department
numbers, and all the employees who work in the same department as a given employee. Give
each column an appropriate label. Save the script to a file named lab_c_06.sql.
SELECT e1.department_id department, e1.last_name employee,
e2.last_name colleague
FROM
employees e1, employees e2
WHERE e1.department_id = e2.department_id
AND
e1.employee_id <> e2.employee_id
ORDER BY e1.department_id, e1.last_name, e2.last_name;

7. The HR department needs a report on job grades and salaries. To familiarize yourself with
the JOB_GRADES table, first show the structure of the JOB_GRADES table. Then create a
query that displays the name, job, department name, salary, and grade for all employees.
DESC JOB_GRADES
SELECT e.last_name, e.job_id, d.department_name,
e.salary, j.grade_level
FROM
employees e, departments d, job_grades j
WHERE e.department_id = d.department_id
AND
e.salary BETWEEN j.lowest_sal AND j.highest_sal;

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8. The HR department wants to determine the names of all employees hired after Davies. Create
a query to display the name and hire date of any employee hired after employee Davies.
SELECT
FROM
WHERE
AND

e.last_name, e.hire_date
employees e , employees davies
davies.last_name = 'Davies'
davies.hire_date < e.hire_date;

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before their managers, along with their managers’ names and hire dates. Label the columns
Employee, Emp Hired, Manager, and Mgr Hired, respectively. Save the script to a file
named lab_c_09.sql.
SELECT
FROM
WHERE
AND

w.last_name, w.hire_date, m.last_name, m.hire_date
employees w , employees m
w.manager_id = m.employee_id
w.hire_date < m.hire_date;

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Table Descriptions

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Schema Description
Overall Description
The Oracle database sample schemas portray a sample company that operates worldwide to fill orders
for several different products. The company has three divisions:
• Human Resources: Tracks information about the employees and facilities
• Order Entry: Tracks product inventories and sales through various channels
• Sales History: Tracks business statistics to facilitate business decisions
Each of these divisions is represented by a schema. In this course, you have access to the objects in
all the schemas. However, the emphasis of the examples, demonstrations, and practices is on the
Human Resources (HR) schema.
All scripts necessary to create the sample schemas reside in the
$ORACLE_HOME/demo/schema/ folder.
Human Resources (HR)
This is the schema that is used in this course. In the Human Resource (HR) records, each employee
has an identification number, email address, job identification code, salary, and manager. Some
employees earn commissions in addition to their salary.
The company also tracks information about jobs within the organization. Each job has an
identification code, job title, and a minimum and maximum salary range for the job. Some employees
have been with the company for a long time and have held different positions within the company.
When an employee resigns, the duration the employee was working for, the job identification
number, and the department are recorded.

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The sample company is regionally diverse, so it tracks the locations of its warehouses and
departments. Each employee is assigned to a department, and each department is identified either by
a unique department number or a short name. Each department is associated with one location, and
each location has a full address that includes the street name, postal code, city, state or province, and
the country code.
In places where the departments and warehouses are located, the company records details such as the
country name, currency symbol, currency name, and the region where the country is located
geographically.

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Oracle Database 11g: SQL Fundamentals I B - 2

The HR Entity Relationship Diagram

HR

DEPARTMENTS
department_id
department_name
manager_id
location_id

JOB_HISTORY
employee_id
start_date
end_date
job_id
department_id

JOBS

job_id
job_title
min_salary
max_salary

LOCATIONS
location_id
street_address
postal_code
city
state_province
country_id

EMPLOYEES
employee_id
first_name
last_name
email
phone_number
hire_date
job_id
salary
commission_pct
manager_id
department_id

COUNTRIES
country_id
country_name
region_id

REGIONS
region_id
region_name

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The Human Resources (HR) Table Descriptions
DESCRIBE countries

SELECT * FROM countries;

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The Human Resources (HR) Table Descriptions (continued)

SELECT * FROM departments;

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DESCRIBE employees

SELECT * FROM employees;

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DESCRIBE job_history

SELECT * FROM job_history

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DESCRIBE jobs

SELECT * FROM jobs

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DESCRIBE locations

SELECT * FROM locations

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DESCRIBE regions

SELECT * FROM regions

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Oracle Join Syntax

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Objectives
After completing this appendix, you should be able to do the
following:
• Write SELECT statements to access data from more than
one table using equijoins and nonequijoins
• Join a table to itself by using a self-join
• View data that generally does not meet a join condition by
using outer joins
• Generate a Cartesian product of all rows from two or more
tables

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Objectives
This lesson explains how to obtain data from more than one table. A join is used to view information
from multiple tables. Therefore, you can join tables together to view information from more than one
table.

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Note: Information on joins is found in the section on “SQL Queries and Subqueries: Joins” in Oracle

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Oracle Database 11g: SQL Fundamentals I C - 2

Obtaining Data from Multiple Tables

EMPLOYEES

DEPARTMENTS

…

…

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Obtaining Data from Multiple Tables
Sometimes you need to use data from more than one table. In the example in the slide, the report
displays data from two separate tables:
• Employee IDs exist in the EMPLOYEES table.
• Department IDs exist in both the EMPLOYEES and DEPARTMENTS tables.
• Department names exist in the DEPARTMENTS table.
To produce the report, you need to link the EMPLOYEES and DEPARTMENTS tables, and access data
from both of them.

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Cartesian Products
•

A Cartesian product is formed when:
– A join condition is omitted
– A join condition is invalid
– All rows in the first table are joined to all rows in the second
table

•

To avoid a Cartesian product, always include a valid join
condition in a WHERE clause.

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Cartesian Products
When a join condition is invalid or omitted completely, the result is a Cartesian product, in which all
combinations of rows are displayed. In other words, all rows in the first table are joined to all rows in
the second table.

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A Cartesian product tends to generate a large number of rows and the result is rarely useful.
Therefore, you should always include a valid join condition unless you have a specific need to
combine all rows from all tables.
However, Cartesian products are useful for some tests when you need to generate a large number of
rows to simulate a reasonable amount of data.

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Generating a Cartesian Product
EMPLOYEES (20 rows)

DEPARTMENTS (8 rows)

…

Cartesian product:
20 x 8 = 160 rows

…


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Generating a Cartesian Product
A Cartesian product is generated when a join condition is omitted. The example in the slide displays
the employee last name and the department name from the EMPLOYEES and DEPARTMENTS tables.
Because no join condition has been specified, all rows (20 rows) from the EMPLOYEES table are
joined with all rows (8 rows) in the DEPARTMENTS table, thereby generating 160 rows in the output.

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SELECT last_name, department_name dept_name
FROM employees, departments;

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Types of Oracle-Proprietary Joins
•
•
•
•

Equijoin
Nonequijoin
Outer join
Self-join

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Types of Joins
To join tables, you can use Oracle’s join syntax.
Note: Before the Oracle9i release, the join syntax was proprietary. The SQL:1999–compliant join
syntax does not offer any performance benefits over the Oracle-proprietary join syntax.
Oracle does not have an equivalent syntax to support the FULL OUTER JOIN of the SQL:1999–
compliant join syntax.

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Joining Tables Using Oracle Syntax
Use a join to query data from more than one table:
SELECT
FROM
WHERE

table1.column, table2.column
table1, table2
table1.column1 = table2.column2;

•

Write the join condition in the WHERE clause.

•

Prefix the column name with the table name when the
same column name appears in more than one table.

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Joining Tables Using Oracle Syntax
When data from more than one table in the database is required, a join condition is used. Rows in one
table can be joined to rows in another table according to common values that exist in the
corresponding columns (that is, usually primary and foreign key columns).
To display data from two or more related tables, write a simple join condition in the WHERE clause.

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In the syntax:
table1.column
table1.column1 =
table2.column2

denotes the table and column from which data is retrieved
is the condition that joins (or relates) the tables together

Guidelines
• When writing a SELECT statement that joins tables, precede the column name with the table
name for clarity and to enhance database access.
• If the same column name appears in more than one table, the column name must be prefixed
with the table name.
• To join n tables together, you need a minimum of n-1 join conditions. For example, to join four
tables, a minimum of three joins is required. This rule may not apply if your table has a
concatenated primary key, in which case more than one column is required to uniquely identify
each row.

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Qualifying Ambiguous
Column Names
•
•
•
•

Use table prefixes to qualify column names that are in
multiple tables.
Use table prefixes to improve performance.
Instead of full table name prefixes, use table aliases.
Table aliases give a table a shorter name.
– Keeps SQL code smaller, uses less memory

•

Use column aliases to distinguish columns that have
identical names, but reside in different tables.

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Qualifying Ambiguous Column Names
When joining two or more tables, you need to qualify the names of the columns with the table name
to avoid ambiguity. Without the table prefixes, the DEPARTMENT_ID column in the SELECT list
could be from either the DEPARTMENTS table or the EMPLOYEES table. Therefore, it is necessary
to add the table prefix to execute your query. If there are no common column names between the two
tables, there is no need to qualify the columns. However, using a table prefix improves performance,
because you tell the Oracle server exactly where to find the columns.
Qualifying column names with table names can be very time consuming, particularly if table names
are lengthy. Therefore, you can use table aliases instead of table names. Just as a column alias gives
a column another name, a table alias gives a table another name. Table aliases help to keep SQL code
smaller, thereby using less memory.
The table name is specified in full, followed by a space and then the table alias. For example, the
EMPLOYEES table can be given an alias of e, and the DEPARTMENTS table an alias of d.

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Guidelines
• Table aliases can be up to 30 characters in length, but shorter aliases are better than longer ones.
• If a table alias is used for a particular table name in the FROM clause, then that table alias must
be substituted for the table name throughout the SELECT statement.
• Table aliases should be meaningful.
• A table alias is valid only for the current SELECT statement.

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Equijoins
DEPARTMENTS

EMPLOYEES

Primary key

…

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Foreign key

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Equijoins
To determine an employee’s department name, you compare the value in the DEPARTMENT_ID
column in the EMPLOYEES table with the DEPARTMENT_ID values in the DEPARTMENTS table.
The relationship between the EMPLOYEES and DEPARTMENTS tables is an equijoin; that is, values
in the DEPARTMENT_ID column in both tables must be equal. Often, this type of join involves
primary and foreign key complements.
Note: Equijoins are also called simple joins or inner joins.

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Retrieving Records with Equijoins

SELECT e.employee_id, e.last_name, e.department_id,
d.department_id, d.location_id
FROM
WHERE e.department_id = d.department_id;

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…

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Retrieving Records with Equijoins
In the example in the slide:
• The SELECT clause specifies the column names to retrieve:
- Employee last name, employee number, and department number, which are columns in the
EMPLOYEES table
- Department number, department name, and location ID, which are columns in the
DEPARTMENTS table
• The FROM clause specifies the two tables that the database must access:
- EMPLOYEES table
- DEPARTMENTS table
• The WHERE clause specifies how the tables are to be joined:

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Because the DEPARTMENT_ID column is common to both tables, it must be prefixed with the table
alias to avoid ambiguity. Other columns that are not present in both the tables need not be qualified
by a table alias, but it is recommended for better performance.
Note: SQL Developer suffixes a “_1” to differentiate between the two DEPARTMENT_IDs.

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Retrieving Records with Equijoins: Example

SELECT d.department_id, d.department_name,
d.location_id, l.city
FROM
departments d, locations l
WHERE d.location_id = l.location_id;

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Retrieving Records with Equijoins: Example
In the example in the slide, the LOCATIONS table is joined to the DEPARTMENTS table by the
LOCATION_ID column, which is the only column of the same name in both the tables. Table aliases
are used to qualify the columns and avoid ambiguity.

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Additional Search Conditions
Using the AND Operator
SELECT d.department_id, d.department_name, l.city
FROM
departments d, locations l
WHERE
d.location_id = l.location_id
AND d.department_id IN (20, 50);

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Additional Search Conditions Using the AND Operator
In addition to the join, you may have criteria for your WHERE clause to restrict the rows under
consideration for one or more tables in the join. The example in the slide limits the rows of output to
those with a department ID equal to 20 or 50:
For example, to display employee Matos’ department number and department name, you need an
additional condition in the WHERE clause.

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SELECT e.last_name, e.department_id,
d.department_name
FROM
WHERE e.department_id = d.department_id
AND
last_name = 'Matos';

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Joining More than Two Tables

EMPLOYEES

DEPARTMENTS

LOCATIONS

…
To join n tables together, you need a minimum of n–1
join conditions. For example, to join three tables, a
minimum of two joins is required.

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Joining More than Two Tables
Sometimes you may need to join more than two tables. For example, to display the last name, the
department name, and the city for each employee, you have to join the EMPLOYEES,
DEPARTMENTS, and LOCATIONS tables.
SELECT
FROM
WHERE
AND

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e.last_name, d.department_name, l.city
employees e, departments d, locations l
d.location_id = l.location_id;

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Nonequijoins

EMPLOYEES

…

JOB_GRADES

JOB_GRADES table defines LOWEST_SAL
and HIGHEST_SAL range of values for
each GRADE_LEVEL. Hence, the
GRADE_LEVEL column can be used to
assign grades to each employee.


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Nonequijoins
A nonequijoin is a join condition containing something other than an equality operator.
The relationship between the EMPLOYEES table and the JOB_GRADES table is an example of a
nonequijoin. The SALARY column in the EMPLOYEES table ranges between the values in the
LOWEST_SAL and HIGHEST_SAL columns of the JOB_GRADES table. Therefore, each employee
can be graded based on the salary. The relationship is obtained using an operator other than the
equality operator (=).

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Retrieving Records
with Nonequijoins
SELECT e.last_name, e.salary, j.grade_level
FROM
employees e, job_grades j
WHERE e.salary
BETWEEN j.lowest_sal AND j.highest_sal;

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Retrieving Records with Nonequijoins
The example in the slide creates a nonequijoin to evaluate an employee’s salary grade. The salary
must be between any pair of the low and high salary ranges.
It is important to note that all employees appear exactly once when this query is executed. No
employee is repeated in the list. There are two reasons for this:
• None of the rows in the job grade table contain grades that overlap. That is, the salary value for
an employee can lie only between the low salary and high salary values of one of the rows in the
salary grade table.
• All of the employees’ salaries lie within the limits that are provided by the job grade table. That
is, no employee earns less than the lowest value contained in the LOWEST_SAL column or more
than the highest value contained in the HIGHEST_SAL column.
Note: Other conditions (such as <= and >=) can be used, but BETWEEN is the simplest. Remember
to specify the low value first and the high value last when using the BETWEEN condition. The Oracle
server translates the BETWEEN condition to a pair of AND conditions. Therefore, using BETWEEN has
no performance benefits, but should be used only for logical simplicity.
Table aliases have been specified in the example in the slide for performance reasons, not because of
possible ambiguity.

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Returning Records with No Direct Match
with Outer Joins
DEPARTMENTS

EMPLOYEES

…
There are no employees in
department 190.

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Returning Records with No Direct Match with Outer Joins
If a row does not satisfy a join condition, the row does not appear in the query result. For example, in
the equijoin condition of the EMPLOYEES and DEPARTMENTS tables, department ID 190 does not
appear because there are no employees with that department ID recorded in the EMPLOYEES table.
Similarly, there is an employee whose DEPARTMENT_ID is set to NULL, so this row will also not
appear in the query result of an equijoin. To return the department record that does not have any
employees, or to return the employee record that does not belong to any department, you can use the
outer join.

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Outer Joins: Syntax
•

You use an outer join to see rows that do not meet the join
condition.
The outer join operator is the plus sign (+).

•

SELECT table1.column, table2.column
FROM
table1, table2
WHERE table1.column(+) = table2.column;
SELECT table1.column, table2.column
FROM
table1, table2
WHERE table1.column = table2.column(+);

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Outer Joins: Syntax
Missing rows can be returned if an outer join operator is used in the join condition. The operator is a
plus sign enclosed with parentheses (+), and is placed on the “side” of the join that is deficient in the
information. This operator has the effect of creating one or more null rows, to which one or more
rows from the nondeficient table can be joined.

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In the syntax:
table1.column =
is the condition that joins (or relates) the tables together
table2.column (+) is the outer join symbol, which can be placed on either side of the
WHERE clause condition, but not on both sides (Place the outer join symbol following the name of
the column in the table without the matching rows.)

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Using Outer Joins

FROM
WHERE e.department_id(+) = d.department_id ;

…

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Using Outer Joins
The slide example displays employee last names, department IDs, and department names. The
Contracting department does not have any employees. The empty value is shown in the output.
Outer Join Restrictions
• The outer join operator can appear on only one side of the expression—the side in which the
information is missing. It returns those rows, from one table, that have no direct match in the
other table.
• A condition involving an outer join cannot use the IN operator or be linked to another condition
by the OR operator.
Note: Oracle’s join syntax does not have an equivalent for the FULL OUTER JOIN of the
SQL:1999– compliant join syntax.

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Outer Join: Another Example

FROM
WHERE e.department_id = d.department_id(+) ;

…

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Outer Join: Another Example
The query in the above example retrieves all rows in the EMPLOYEES table, even if there is no
match in the DEPARTMENTS table.

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Joining a Table to Itself

EMPLOYEES (WORKER)

…

EMPLOYEES (MANAGER)

…
MANAGER_ID in the WORKER table is equal to
EMPLOYEE_ID in the MANAGER table.

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Joining a Table to Itself
Sometimes you need to join a table to itself. To find the name of each employee’s manager, you need
to join the EMPLOYEES table to itself, or perform a self-join. For example, to find the name of
Lorentz’s manager, you need to:
• Find Lorentz in the EMPLOYEES table by looking at the LAST_NAME column
• Find the manager number for Lorentz by looking at the MANAGER_ID column. Lorentz’s
manager number is 103.
• Find the name of the manager with EMPLOYEE_ID 103 by looking at the LAST_NAME column.
Hunold’s employee number is 103, so Hunold is Lorentz’s manager.
In this process, you look in the table twice. The first time you look in the table to find Lorentz in the
LAST_NAME column and the MANAGER_ID value of 103. The second time you look in the
EMPLOYEE_ID column to find 103 and the LAST_NAME column to find Hunold.

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Self-Join: Example

SELECT worker.last_name || ' works for '
|| manager.last_name
FROM
employees worker, employees manager
WHERE worker.manager_id = manager.employee_id ;

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Self-Join: Example
The slide example joins the EMPLOYEES table to itself. To simulate two tables in the FROM clause,
there are two aliases, namely worker and manager, for the same table, EMPLOYEES.
In this example, the WHERE clause contains the join that means “where a worker’s manager number
matches the employee number for the manager.”

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Summary
In this appendix, you should have learned how to use joins to
display data from multiple tables by using Oracle-proprietary
syntax.

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Summary
There are multiple ways to join tables.
Types of Joins
• Cartesian products
• Equijoins
• Nonequijoins
• Outer joins
• Self-joins
Cartesian Products
A Cartesian product results in a display of all combinations of rows. This is done by omitting the
WHERE clause.

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Table Aliases
• Table aliases speed up database access.
• Table aliases can help to keep SQL code smaller by conserving memory.

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Practice C: Overview
• Joining tables by using an equijoin
• Performing outer and self-joins
• Adding conditions

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Practice C: Overview
This practice is intended to give you practical experience in extracting data from more than one table
using the Oracle join syntax.

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Practice C
1. Write a query for the HR department to produce the addresses of all the departments. Use the
LOCATIONS and COUNTRIES tables. Show the location ID, street address, city, state or
province, and country in the output. Run the query.

department number, and department name for all employees. Run the query.

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Practice C (continued)

4. Create a report to display the employees’ last names and employee number along with their
managers’ last names and manager number. Label the columns Employee, Emp#, Manager,
and Mgr#, respectively. Save your SQL statement as lab_c_04.sql.

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5. Modify lab_c_04.sql to display all employees including King, who has no manager. Order
the results by the employee number. Save your SQL statement as lab_c_05.sql. Run the
query in lab_c_05.sql.

…

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6. Create a report for the HR department that displays employee last names, department numbers,
and all employees who work in the same department as a given employee. Give each column an
appropriate label. Save the script to a file named lab_c_06.sql.

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7. The HR department needs a report on job grades and salaries. To familiarize yourself with the
JOB_GRADES table, first show the structure of the JOB_GRADES table. Then create a query
that displays the name, job, department name, salary, and grade for all employees.

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…

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8. The HR department wants to determine the names of all employees who were hired after
Davies. Create a query to display the name and hire date of any employee hired after employee
Davies.

before their managers, along with their managers’ names and hire dates. Save the script to a file
named lab_c_09.sql.

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Using SQL*Plus

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Objectives
following:
• Log in to SQL*Plus
• Edit SQL commands
• Format output using SQL*Plus commands
• Interact with script files

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Objectives
You might want to create SELECT statements that can be used again and again. This appendix also
covers the use of SQL*Plus commands to execute SQL statements. You learn how to format output
using SQL*Plus commands, edit SQL commands, and save scripts in SQL*Plus.

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Oracle Database 11g: SQL Fundamentals I D - 2

SQL and SQL*Plus Interaction

SQL statements
Server
SQL*Plus

Query results
Buffer

SQL
scripts


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SQL and SQL*Plus
SQL is a command language used for communication with the Oracle server from any tool or
application. Oracle SQL contains many extensions. When you enter a SQL statement, it is stored in a
part of memory called the SQL buffer and remains there until you enter a new SQL statement.
SQL*Plus is an Oracle tool that recognizes and submits SQL statements to the Oracle9i Server for
execution. It contains its own command language.
Features of SQL
• Can be used by a range of users, including those with little or no programming
experience
• Is a nonprocedural language
• Reduces the amount of time required for creating and maintaining systems
• Is an English-like language
Features of SQL*Plus
• Accepts ad hoc entry of statements
• Accepts SQL input from files
• Provides a line editor for modifying SQL statements
• Controls environmental settings
• Formats query results into basic reports
• Accesses local and remote databases

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SQL Statements Versus
SQL*Plus Commands
SQL
• A language
• ANSI-standard
• Keywords cannot be
abbreviated
• Statements manipulate
data
and table definitions in the
database
SQL
statements

SQL
buffer

SQL*Plus
• An environment
• Oracle-proprietary
• Keywords can be
abbreviated
• Commands do not
allow manipulation of
values in the database

SQL*Plus
commands


SQL and SQL*Plus (continued)
The following table compares SQL and SQL*Plus:

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SQL
Is a language for communicating with the
Oracle server to access data
Is based on American National Standards
Institute (ANSI)–standard SQL
Manipulates data and table definitions in the
database
Is entered into the SQL buffer on one or
more lines
Does not have a continuation character

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Cannot be abbreviated
Uses a termination character to execute
commands immediately
Uses functions to perform some formatting

SQL*Plus
buffer

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SQL*Plus
Recognizes SQL statements and sends them
to the server
Is the Oracle-proprietary interface for
executing SQL statements
Does not allow manipulation of values in the
database
Is entered one line at a time, not stored in the
SQL buffer
Uses a dash (–) as a continuation character if
the command is longer than one line
Can be abbreviated
Does not require termination characters;
executes commands immediately
Uses commands to format data


Overview of SQL*Plus
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Log in to SQL*Plus.
Describe the table structure.
Edit your SQL statement.
Execute SQL from SQL*Plus.
Save SQL statements to files and append SQL statements
to files.
Execute saved files.
Load commands from file to buffer to edit.

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SQL*Plus
SQL*Plus is an environment in which you can:
• Execute SQL statements to retrieve, modify, add, and remove data from the database
• Format, perform calculations on, store, and print query results in the form of reports
• Create script files to store SQL statements for repeated use in the future
SQL*Plus commands can be divided into the following main categories:
Category
Environment
Format
File manipulation
Execution
Edit
Interaction

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Miscellaneous

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Purpose

Affect the general behavior of SQL statements for the session
Format query results
Save, load, and run script files
Send SQL statements from the SQL buffer to the Oracle server
Modify SQL statements in the buffer
Create and pass variables to SQL statements, print variable values, and
print messages to the screen
Connect to the database, manipulate the SQL*Plus environment, and
display column definitions


Logging In to SQL*Plus

1

sqlplus [username[/password[@database]]]

2


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Logging In to SQL*Plus
How you invoke SQL*Plus depends on which type of operating system or Windows environment
you are running.

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To log in from a Windows environment:
1. Select Start > Programs > Oracle > Application Development > SQL*Plus.
2. Enter the username, password, and database name.
To log in from a command-line environment:
1. Log on to your machine.
2. Enter the sqlplus command shown in the slide.
In the syntax:
username Your database username
password Your database password (Your password is visible if you enter it here.)
@database The database connect string

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Note: To ensure the integrity of your password, do not enter it at the operating system prompt.
Instead, enter only your username. Enter your password at the password prompt.


Changing the Settings of SQL*Plus Environment

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Changing Settings of SQL*Plus Environment
You can optionally change the look of the SQL*Plus environment by using the SQL*Plus Properties
dialog box.

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In the SQL*Plus window, right-click the title bar and in the shortcut menu that appears, select
Properties. You can then use the Colors tab of the SQL*Plus Properties dialog box to set Screen
Background and Screen Text.

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Displaying Table Structure
Use the SQL*Plus DESCRIBE command to display the structure
of a table:
DESC[RIBE] tablename

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In SQL*Plus, you can display the structure of a table using the DESCRIBE command. The result of
the command is a display of column names and data types as well as an indication if a column must
contain data.

In the syntax:

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tablename The name of any existing table, view, or synonym that is accessible to
the user
To describe the DEPARTMENTS table, use this command:
SQL> DESCRIBE DEPARTMENTS
Name
Null?
Type
----------------------- -------- ---------------

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DEPARTMENT_ID
DEPARTMENT_NAME
MANAGER_ID
LOCATION_ID

NOT NULL NUMBER(4)
NOT NULL VARCHAR2(30)
NUMBER(6)
NUMBER(4)




Name
----------------------DEPARTMENT_ID
DEPARTMENT_NAME
MANAGER_ID
LOCATION_ID

Null?
Type
-------- -----------NOT NULL NUMBER(4)
NOT NULL VARCHAR2(30)
NUMBER(6)
NUMBER(4)

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Displaying Table Structure (continued)
The example in the slide displays the information about the structure of the DEPARTMENTS table. In
the result:
Null?: Specifies whether a column must contain data (NOT NULL indicates that a column must
contain data.)
Type: Displays the data type for a column

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SQL*Plus Editing Commands
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

A[PPEND] text
C[HANGE] / old / new
C[HANGE] / text /
CL[EAR] BUFF[ER]
DEL
DEL n
DEL m n

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SQL*Plus commands are entered one line at a time and are not stored in the SQL buffer.

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Comm and
A[PPEND] text
C[HANGE] / old / new

D escription
A dds text to the end of the current line
Changes old text to new in the current line

C[HANGE] / text /
CL[EAR] BUFF[ER]
DEL
DEL n
DEL m n

D eletes
D eletes
D eletes
D eletes
D eletes

text from the current line
all lines from the SQL buffer
current line
line n
lines m to n inclusive

Guidelines
• If you press [Enter] before completing a command, SQL*Plus prompts you with a line number.
• You terminate the SQL buffer either by entering one of the terminator characters (semicolon or
slash) or by pressing [Enter] twice. The SQL prompt then appears.

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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

I[NPUT]
I[NPUT] text
L[IST]
L[IST] n
L[IST] m n
R[UN]
n
n text
0 text

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SQL*Plus Editing Commands (continued)

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Command
I[NPUT]
I[NPUT] text
L[IST]
L[IST] n
L[IST] m n
R[UN]
n
n text
0 text

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Description
Inserts an indefinite number of lines
Inserts a line consisting of text
Lists all lines in the SQL buffer
Lists one line (specified by n)
Lists a range of lines (m to n) inclusive
Displays and runs the current SQL statement in the buffer
Specifies the line to make the current line
Replaces line n with text
Inserts a line before line 1

Note: You can enter only one SQL*Plus command for each SQL prompt. SQL*Plus commands are
not stored in the buffer. To continue a SQL*Plus command on the next line, end the first line with a
hyphen (-).

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Using LIST, n, and APPEND

LIST
1 SELECT last_name
2* FROM
employees

1
1* SELECT last_name

A , job_id
1* SELECT last_name, job_id

LIST
1 SELECT last_name, job_id
2* FROM
employees

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Using LIST, n, and APPEND
• Use the L[IST] command to display the contents of the SQL buffer. The asterisk (*) beside
line 2 in the buffer indicates that line 2 is the current line. Any edits that you made apply to the
current line.
• Change the number of the current line by entering the number (n) of the line that you want to
edit. The new current line is displayed.
• Use the A[PPEND] command to add text to the current line. The newly edited line is displayed.
Verify the new contents of the buffer by using the LIST command.
Note: Many SQL*Plus commands, including LIST and APPEND, can be abbreviated to just their
first letter. LIST can be abbreviated to L; APPEND can be abbreviated to A.

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Using the CHANGE Command

LIST
1* SELECT * from employees

c/employees/departments
1* SELECT * from departments

LIST
1* SELECT * from departments


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Using the CHANGE Command
• Use L[IST] to display the contents of the buffer.
• Use the C[HANGE] command to alter the contents of the current line in the SQL buffer. In this
case, replace the employees table with the departments table. The new current line is
displayed.
• Use the L[IST] command to verify the new contents of the buffer.

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SQL*Plus File Commands
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

SAVE filename
GET filename
START filename
@ filename
EDIT filename
SPOOL filename
EXIT

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SQL*Plus File Commands
SQL statements communicate with the Oracle server. SQL*Plus commands control the environment,
format query results, and manage files. You can use the commands described in the following table:
Command

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Description

SAV[E] filename [.ext]
[REP[LACE]APP[END]]

Saves current contents of SQL buffer to a file. Use APPEND
to add to an existing file; use REPLACE to overwrite an
existing file. The default extension is .sql.

GET filename [.ext]

Writes the contents of a previously saved file to the SQL
buffer. The default extension for the file name is .sql.
Runs a previously saved command file

STA[RT] filename [.ext]

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@ filename

Runs a previously saved command file (same as START)

Invokes the editor and saves the buffer contents to a file
named afiedt.buf

ED[IT]

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ED[IT] [filename[.ext]]
SPO[OL]
[filename[.ext]|
OFF|OUT]
EXIT

Invokes the editor to edit the contents of a saved file
Stores query results in a file. OFF closes the spool file. OUT
closes the spool file and sends the file results to the printer.
Quits SQL*Plus


Using the SAVE, START, and EDIT Commands
LIST
1 SELECT last_name, manager_id, department_id
2* FROM employees
SAVE my_query
Created file my_query

START my_query
LAST_NAME
MANAGER_ID DEPARTMENT_ID
------------------------- ---------- ------------King
90
Kochhar
100
90
...
107 rows selected.


SAVE

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Use the SAVE command to store the current contents of the buffer in a file. In this way, you can store
frequently used scripts for use in the future.
START
Use the START command to run a script in SQL*Plus. You can also, alternatively, use the symbol @
to run a script.
@my_query

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EDIT my_query

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Using the SAVE, START, and EDIT Commands (continued)
EDIT

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Use the EDIT command to edit an existing script. This opens an editor with the script file in it. When
you have made the changes, quit the editor to return to the SQL*Plus command line.
Note: The “/” is a delimiter that signifies the end of the statement. When encountered in a file,
SQL*Plus runs the statement prior to this delimiter. The delimiter must be the first character of a new
line immediately following the statement.

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SERVEROUTPUT Command
•

•

Use the SET SERVEROUT[PUT] command to control
whether to display the output of stored procedures or
PL/SQL blocks in SQL*Plus.
The DBMS_OUTPUT line length limit is increased from 255
bytes to 32767 bytes.
The default size is now unlimited.
Resources are not preallocated when SERVEROUTPUT is
set.
Because there is no performance penalty, use UNLIMITED
unless you want to conserve physical memory.

•
•
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SET SERVEROUT[PUT] {ON | OFF} [SIZE {n | UNL[IMITED]}]
[FOR[MAT] {WRA[PPED] | WOR[D_WRAPPED] | TRU[NCATED]}]


SERVEROUTPUT Command

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Most of the PL/SQL programs perform input and output through SQL statements, to store data in
database tables or query those tables. All other PL/SQL input/output is done through APIs that
interact with other programs. For example, the DBMS_OUTPUT package has procedures such as
PUT_LINE. To see the result outside of PL/SQL requires another program, such as SQL*Plus, to
read and display the data passed to DBMS_OUTPUT.
SQL*Plus does not display DBMS_OUTPUT data unless you first issue the SQL*Plus command SET
SERVEROUTPUT ON as follows:
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON

Note
• SIZE sets the number of bytes of the output that can be buffered within the Oracle Database
server. The default is UNLIMITED. n cannot be less than 2000 or greater than 1,000,000.
• For additional information about SERVEROUTPUT, see the Oracle Database PL/SQL User's
Guide and Reference 11g.

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Using the SQL*Plus SPOOL Command
SPO[OL] [file_name[.ext] [CRE[ATE] | REP[LACE] |
APP[END]] | OFF | OUT]
Option

Description

file_name[.ext]

Spools output to the specified file name

CRE[ATE]

Creates a new file with the name specified

REP[LACE]

Replaces the contents of an existing file. If the file
does not exist, REPLACE creates the file.

APP[END]

Adds the contents of the buffer to the end of the file
you specify

OFF

Stops spooling

OUT

Stops spooling and sends the file to your computer's
standard (default) printer

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Using the SQL*Plus SPOOL Command
The SPOOL command stores query results in a file or optionally sends the file to a printer. The
SPOOL command has been enhanced. You can now append to, or replace an existing file, where
previously you could only use SPOOL to create (and replace) a file. REPLACE is the default.

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To spool output generated by commands in a script without displaying the output on the screen, use
SET TERMOUT OFF. SET TERMOUT OFF does not affect output from commands that run
interactively.
You must use quotes around file names containing white space. To create a valid HTML file using
SPOOL APPEND commands, you must use PROMPT or a similar command to create the HTML
page header and footer. The SPOOL APPEND command does not parse HTML tags. SET
SQLPLUSCOMPAT[IBILITY] to 9.2 or earlier to disable the CREATE, APPEND and SAVE
parameters.

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Using the AUTOTRACE Command
•

Displays a report after the successful execution of SQL
DML statements such as SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or
DELETE

•

May optionally include the query execution path and
execution statistics

SET AUTOT[RACE] {ON | OFF | TRACE[ONLY]} [EXP[LAIN]]
[STAT[ISTICS]]

SET AUTOTRACE ON
-- The AUTOTRACE report includes both the optimizer
-- execution path and the SQL statement execution
-- statistics


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Using the AUTOTRACE Command
EXPLAIN shows the query execution path by performing an EXPLAIN PLAN. STATISTICS
displays SQL statement statistics. The formatting of your AUTOTRACE report may vary depending
on the version of the server to which you are connected and the configuration of the server. The
DBMS_XPLAN package provides an easy way to display the output of the EXPLAIN PLAN
command in several predefined formats.
Note
• For additional information about the package and subprograms, see the Oracle Database
PL/SQL Packages and Types Reference 11g guide.
• For additional information about the EXPLAIN PLAN, see the Oracle Database SQL Reference
11g.
• For additional information about Execution Plans and the statistics, see the Oracle Database
Performance Tuning Guide 11g.

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Summary
In this appendix, you should have learned how to use SQL*Plus
as an environment to do the following:
• Execute SQL statements
• Edit SQL statements
• Format output
• Interact with script files

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Summary
SQL*Plus is an execution environment that you can use to send SQL commands to the database
server and to edit and save SQL commands. You can execute commands from the SQL prompt or
from a script file.

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Using SQL Developer

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Objectives
following:
• List the key features of Oracle SQL Developer
• Install Oracle SQL Developer 1.2.1
• Identify menu items of Oracle SQL Developer
• Create a database connection
• Manage database objects
• Use SQL Worksheet
• Save and Run SQL scripts
• Create and save reports
• Install and use Oracle SQL Developer 1.5.3


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Objectives
In this appendix, you are introduced to the graphical tool called SQL Developer. You learn how
to use SQL Developer for your database development tasks. You learn how to use SQL
Worksheet to execute SQL statements and SQL scripts.

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Oracle Database 11g: SQL Fundamentals I E - 2

What Is Oracle SQL Developer?
•
•

Oracle SQL Developer is a graphical tool that enhances
productivity and simplifies database development tasks.
You can connect to any target Oracle database schema by
using standard Oracle database authentication.

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SQL Developer


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What Is Oracle SQL Developer?
Oracle SQL Developer is a free graphical tool designed to improve your productivity and
simplify the development of everyday database tasks. With just a few clicks, you can easily
create and debug stored procedures, test SQL statements, and view optimizer plans.
SQL Developer, the visual tool for database development, simplifies the following tasks:
• Browsing and managing database objects
• Executing SQL statements and scripts
• Editing and debugging PL/SQL statements
• Creating reports
You can connect to any target Oracle database schema by using standard Oracle database
authentication. When connected, you can perform operations on objects in the database.
Note: The SQL Developer 1.2 release is called the Migration release because it tightly
integrates with Developer Migration Workbench that provides users with a single point to
browse database objects and data in third-party databases, and to migrate from these databases to
Oracle. You can also connect to schemas for selected third-party (non-Oracle) databases such as
MySQL, Microsoft SQL Server, and Microsoft Access, and you can view metadata and data in
these databases.
Additionally, SQL Developer includes support for Oracle Application Express 3.0.1 (Oracle
APEX).

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Specifications of SQL Developer
•
•
•
•

Developed in Java
Supports Windows, Linux, and Mac OS X platforms
Default connectivity by using the JDBC Thin driver
Does not require an installer
– Unzip the downloaded SQL Developer kit and double-click
sqldeveloper.exe to start SQL Developer.

•
•

Connects to Oracle Database version 9.2.0.1 and later
Freely downloadable from the following link:
– http://www.oracle.com/technology/products/database/sql_de
veloper/index.html

•

Needs JDK 1.5 installed on your system that can be
downloaded from the following link:
– http://java.sun.com/javase/downloads/index_jdk5.jsp

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Specifications of SQL Developer
Oracle SQL Developer is developed in Java leveraging the Oracle JDeveloper integrated
development environment (IDE). Therefore, it is a cross-platform tool. The tool runs on
Windows, Linux, and Mac operating system (OS) X platforms. You can install SQL Developer
on the Database Server and connect remotely from your desktop, thus avoiding client/server
network traffic.
Default connectivity to the database is through the Java Database Connectivity (JDBC) Thin
driver, and therefore, no Oracle Home is required. SQL Developer does not require an installer
and you need to simply unzip the downloaded file. With SQL Developer, users can connect to
Oracle Databases 9.2.0.1 and later, and all Oracle database editions including Express Edition.

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SQL Developer can be downloaded with the following packaging options:
• Oracle SQL Developer for Windows (option to download with or without JDK 1.5)
• Oracle SQL Developer for Multiple Platforms (you should have JDK 1.5 already installed)
• Oracle SQL Developer for Mac OS X platforms (you should have JDK 1.5 already
installed)
• Oracle SQL Developer RPM for Linux (you should have JDK 1.5 already installed)

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Installing SQL Developer
Download the Oracle SQL Developer kit and unzip into any
directory on your machine.

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Installing SQL Developer
Oracle SQL Developer does not require an installer. To install SQL Developer, you need an
unzip tool.

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To install SQL Developer, perform the following steps:
1. Create a folder as <local drive>:SQL Developer.
2. Download the SQL Developer kit from
http://www.oracle.com/technology/products/database/sql_developer/index.html.
3. Unzip the downloaded SQL Developer kit into the folder created in step 1.
To start SQL Developer, go to <local drive>:SQL Developer, and double-click
sqldeveloper.exe.
Notes: SQL Developer 1.2 is already installed on the classroom machine. The installation kit for
SQL Developer 1.5.3 is also on the classroom machine. You may use either version of SQL
Developer in this course. Instructions for installing SQL Developer version 1.5.3 are available at
the end of this appendix.

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SQL Developer 1.2 Interface

You must define a
connection to start
using SQL Developer
for running SQL queries
on a database schema.

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SQL Developer 1.2 Interface
SQL Developer 1.2 has two main navigation tabs:
• Connections Navigator: By using this, you can browse database objects and users to
which you have access.
• Reports tab: By using this tab, you can run predefined reports or create and add your own
reports.
SQL Developer uses the left side for navigation to find and select objects, and the right side to
display information about selected objects. You can customize many aspects of the appearance
and behavior of SQL Developer by setting preferences. The following menus contain standard
entries, plus entries for features specific to SQL Developer:
• View: Contains options that affect what is displayed in the SQL Developer interface
• Navigate: Contains options for navigating to panes and in the execution of subprograms
• Run: Contains the Run File and Execution Profile options that are relevant when a
function or procedure is selected
• Debug: Contains options that are relevant when a function or procedure is selected for
debugging
• Source: Contains options for use when you edit functions and procedures
• Migration: Contains options related to migrating third-party databases to Oracle
• Tools: Invokes SQL Developer tools such as SQL*Plus, Preferences, and SQL Worksheet
Note: You need to define at least one connection to be able to connect to a database schema and
issue SQL queries or run procedures/functions.

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Creating a Database Connection
•
•

You must have at least one database connection to use
SQL Developer.
You can create and test connections for:
– Multiple databases
– Multiple schemas

•

SQL Developer automatically imports any connections
defined in the tnsnames.ora file on your system.

•

You can export connections to an Extensible Markup
Language (XML) file.
Each additional database connection created is listed in
the Connections Navigator hierarchy.

•

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A connection is a SQL Developer object that specifies the necessary information for connecting
to a specific database as a specific user of that database. To use SQL Developer, you must have
at least one database connection, which may be existing, created, or imported.
You can create and test connections for multiple databases and for multiple schemas.
By default, the tnsnames.ora file is located in the $ORACLE_HOME/network/admin
directory, but it can also be in the directory specified by the TNS_ADMIN environment variable
or registry value. When you start SQL Developer and display the Database Connections dialog
box, SQL Developer automatically imports any connections defined in the tnsnames.ora file
on your system.
Note: On Windows, if the tnsnames.ora file exists but its connections are not being used by
SQL Developer, define TNS_ADMIN as a system environment variable.

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You can export connections to an XML file so that you can reuse it later.
You can create additional connections as different users to the same database or to connect to the
different databases.

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Creating a Database Connection (continued)
To create a database connection, perform the following steps:
1. On the Connections tabbed page, right-click Connections and select New Connection.
2. In the New/Select Database Connection window, enter the connection name. Enter the
username and password of the schema that you want to connect to.
1. From the Role drop-down box, you can select either default or SYSDBA (you choose
SYSDBA for the sys user or any user with database administrator privileges).
2. You can select the connection type as:
- Basic: In this type, enter hostname and SID for the database you want to connect
to. Port is already set to 1521. Or you can also choose to enter the Service name
directly if you use a remote database connection.
- TNS: You can select any one of the database aliases imported from the
tnsnames.ora file.
- Advanced: You can define a custom Java Database Connectivity (JDBC) URL to
connect to the database.
3. Click Test to ensure that the connection has been set correctly.
4. Click Connect.

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Creating a Database Connection (continued)
If you select the Save Password check box, the password is saved to an XML file. So,
after you close the SQL Developer connection and open it again, you are not prompted
for the password.
3. The connection gets added in the Connections Navigator. You can expand the
connection to view the database objects and view object definitions, for example,
dependencies, details, statistics, and so on.
Note: From the same New/Select Database Connection window, you can define connections
to non-Oracle data sources using the Access, MySQL, and SQL Server tabs. However, these
connections are read-only connections that enable you to browse objects and data in that data
source.

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Browsing Database Objects
Use the Connections Navigator to:
• Browse through many objects in a database schema
• Review the definitions of objects at a glance

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Browsing Database Objects
After you create a database connection, you can use the Connections Navigator to browse
through many objects in a database schema including Tables, Views, Indexes, Packages,
Procedures, Triggers, and Types.
display information about the selected objects. You can customize many aspects of the
appearance of SQL Developer by setting preferences.

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You can see the definition of the objects broken into tabs of information that is pulled out of the
data dictionary. For example, if you select a table in the Navigator, the details about columns,
constraints, grants, statistics, triggers, and so on are displayed on an easy-to-read tabbed page.
If you want to see the definition of the EMPLOYEES table as shown in the slide, perform the
following steps:
1. Expand the Connections node in the Connections Navigator.
2. Expand Tables.
3. Click EMPLOYEES. By default, the Columns tab is selected. It shows the column
description of the table. Using the Data tab, you can view the table data and also enter new
rows, update data, and commit these changes to the database.

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Creating a Schema Object
•

SQL Developer supports the creation of any schema
object by:
– Executing a SQL statement in SQL Worksheet
– Using the context menu

•
•

Edit the objects by using an edit dialog or one of the many
context-sensitive menus.
View the data definition language (DDL) for adjustments
such as creating a new object or editing an existing
schema object.

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Creating a Schema Object
SQL Developer supports the creation of any schema object by executing a SQL statement in
SQL Worksheet. Alternatively, you can create objects using the context menus. When created,
you can edit the objects using an edit dialog or one of the many context-sensitive menus.
As new objects are created or existing objects are edited, the DDL for those adjustments is
available for review. An Export DDL option is available if you want to create the full DDL for
one or more objects in the schema.

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The slide shows how to create a table using the context menu. To open a dialog box for creating
a new table, right-click Tables and select New Table. The dialog boxes to create and edit
database objects have multiple tabs, each reflecting a logical grouping of properties for that type
of object.

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Creating a New Table: Example

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Creating a New Table: Example
In the Create Table dialog box, if you do not select the Advanced check box, you can create a
table quickly by specifying columns and some frequently used features.

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If you select the Advanced check box, the Create Table dialog box changes to one with multiple
options, in which you can specify an extended set of features while you create the table.
The example in the slide shows how to create the DEPENDENTS table by selecting the
Advanced check box.
To create a new table, perform the following steps:
1. In the Connections Navigator, right-click Tables.
2. Select Create TABLE.
3. In the Create Table dialog box, select Advanced.
4. Specify column information.
5. Click OK.
Although it is not required, you should also specify a primary key by using the Primary Key tab
in the dialog box. Sometimes, you may want to edit the table that you have created; to do so,
right-click the table in the Connections Navigator and select Edit.

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Using the SQL Worksheet
•
•

Use the SQL Worksheet to enter and execute SQL,
PL/SQL, and SQL *Plus statements.
Specify any actions that can be processed by the database
connection associated with the worksheet.

Click the Open SQL
Worksheet icon.

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Select SQL
Worksheet from the
Tools menu, or


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When you connect to a database, a SQL Worksheet window for that connection automatically
opens. You can use the SQL Worksheet to enter and execute SQL, PL/SQL, and SQL*Plus
statements. The SQL Worksheet supports SQL*Plus statements to a certain extent. SQL*Plus
statements that are not supported by the SQL Worksheet are ignored and not passed to the
database.
You can specify actions that can be processed by the database connection associated with the
worksheet, such as:
• Creating a table
• Inserting data
• Creating and editing a trigger
• Selecting data from a table
• Saving the selected data to a file
You can display a SQL Worksheet by using one of the following:
• Select Tools > SQL Worksheet.
• Click the Open SQL Worksheet icon.

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2

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Using the SQL Worksheet (continued)
You may want to use the shortcut keys or icons to perform certain tasks such as executing a SQL
statement, running a script, and viewing the history of SQL statements that you have executed.
You can use the SQL Worksheet toolbar that contains icons to perform the following tasks:
1. Execute Statement: Executes the statement where the cursor is located in the Enter SQL
Statement box. You can use bind variables in the SQL statements, but not substitution
variables.
2. Run Script: Executes all statements in the Enter SQL Statement box by using the Script
Runner. You can use substitution variables in the SQL statements, but not bind variables.
3. Commit: Writes any changes to the database and ends the transaction
4. Rollback: Discards any changes to the database, without writing them to the database, and
ends the transaction
5. Cancel: Stops the execution of any statements currently being executed
6. SQL History: Displays a dialog box with information about SQL statements that you have
executed
7. Execute Explain Plan: Generates the execution plan, which you can see by clicking the
Explain tab
8. Autotrace: Generates trace information for the statement
9. Clear: Erases the statement or statements in the Enter SQL Statement box

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•
•

Use the SQL Worksheet to enter and execute SQL,
PL/SQL, and SQL*Plus statements.
Specify any actions that can be processed by the database
connection associated with the worksheet.

Enter SQL
statements.

Results are
shown here.


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Using the SQL Worksheet (continued)
When you connect to a database, a SQL Worksheet window for that connection automatically
opens. You can use the SQL Worksheet to enter and execute SQL, PL/SQL, and SQL*Plus
statements. All SQL and PL/SQL commands are supported as they are passed directly from the
SQL Worksheet to the Oracle database. SQL*Plus commands used in the SQL Developer have
to be interpreted by the SQL Worksheet before being passed to the database.
The SQL Worksheet currently supports a number of SQL*Plus commands. Commands not
supported by the SQL Worksheet are ignored and are not sent to the Oracle database. Through
the SQL Worksheet, you can execute SQL statements and some of the SQL*Plus commands.
You can display a SQL Worksheet by using any of the following two options:
• Select Tools > SQL Worksheet.
• Click the Open SQL Worksheet icon.

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Executing SQL Statements
Use the Enter SQL Statement box to enter single or multiple
SQL statements.

Use the Enter SQL
Statement box to
enter single or
multiple SQL
statements.

View the results on
the Script Output
tabbed page.

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In the SQL Worksheet, you can use the Enter SQL Statement box to enter single or multiple
SQL statements. For a single statement, the semicolon at the end is optional.

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When you enter the statement, the SQL keywords are automatically highlighted. To execute a
SQL statement, ensure that your cursor is within the statement and click the Execute Statement
icon. Alternatively, you can press the F9 key.
To execute multiple SQL statements and see the results, click the Run Script icon. Alternatively,
you can press the F5 key.
In the example in the slide, because there are multiple SQL statements, the first statement is
terminated with a semicolon. The cursor is in the first statement, and therefore, when the
statement is executed, results corresponding to the first statement are displayed in the Results
box.

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Saving SQL Scripts
Click the Save icon to
save your SQL
statement to a file.

Enter a file name and
identify a location to
save the file, and
click Save.

The contents of the
saved file are visible
and editable in your
SQL Worksheet
window.

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Saving SQL Scripts
You can save your SQL statements from the SQL Worksheet into a text file. To save the
contents of the Enter SQL Statement box, follow these steps:
1. Click the Save icon or use the File > Save menu item.
2. In the Windows Save dialog box, enter a file name and the location where you want the
file saved.
3. Click Save.
After you save the contents to a file, the Enter SQL Statement window displays a tabbed page of
your file contents. You can have multiple files open at the same time. Each file displays as a
tabbed page.

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Script Pathing
You can select a default path to look for scripts and to save scripts. Under Tools > Preferences >
Database > Worksheet Parameters, enter a value in the “Select default path to look for scripts”
field.

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Executing Saved Script Files: Method 1
Right-click in the SQL
Worksheet area, and select
Open File from the shortcut
menu.

To run the code, click
the Run Script (F5) icon.
Select (or navigate
to) the script file that
you want to open.
Click Open.

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To open a script file and display the code in the SQL Worksheet area, perform the following:
1. Right-click in the SQL Worksheet area, and select Open File from the menu. The Open
dialog box is displayed.
2. In the Open dialog box, select (or navigate to) the script file that you want to open.
3. Click Open. The code of the script file is displayed in the SQL Worksheet area.
4. To run the code, click the Run Script (F5) icon on the SQL Worksheet toolbar.

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Use the @ command
followed by the location and
name of the file you want to
execute, and click the Run
Script icon.

The output from the
script is displayed on
the Script Output
tabbed page.

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To run a saved SQL script, perform the following:
1. Use the @ command, followed by the location, and name of the file you want to run, in the
Enter SQL Statement window.
2. Click the Run Script icon.
The results from running the file are displayed on the Script Output tabbed page. You can also
save the script output by clicking the Save icon on the Script Output tabbed page. The Windows
File Save dialog box appears and you can identify a name and location for your file.

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Use the Enter SQL Statement box to enter single or multiple
SQL statements.

F9

F5
F5
F9

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The example in the slide shows the difference in output for the same query when the [F9] key or
Execute Statement is used versus the output when [F5] or Run Script is used.

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Formatting the SQL Code
Before
formatting

After
formatting

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Formatting the SQL Code
You may want to beautify the indentation, spacing, capitalization, and line separation of the
SQL code. SQL Developer has a feature for formatting SQL code.

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To format the SQL code, right-click in the statement area, and select Format SQL.
In the example in the slide, before formatting, the SQL code has the keywords not capitalized
and the statement not properly indented. After formatting, the SQL code is beautified with the
keywords capitalized and the statement properly indented.

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Using Snippets
Snippets are code fragments that may be just syntax or
examples.
When you place your cursor here,
it shows the Snippets window.
From the drop-down list, you can
select the functions category you
want.

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Using Snippets
You may want to use certain code fragments when you use the SQL Worksheet or create or edit
a PL/SQL function or procedure. SQL Developer has the feature called Snippets. Snippets are
code fragments such as SQL functions, Optimizer hints, and miscellaneous PL/SQL
programming techniques. You can drag snippets into the Editor window.
To display Snippets, select View > Snippets.
The Snippets window is displayed at the right side. You can use the drop-down list to select a
group. A Snippets button is placed in the right window margin, so that you can display the
Snippets window if it becomes hidden.

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Using Snippets: Example

Inserting a
snippet

Editing the
snippet

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Using Snippets: Example
To insert a Snippet into your code in a SQL Worksheet or in a PL/SQL function or procedure,
drag the snippet from the Snippets window into the desired place in your code. Then you can
edit the syntax so that the SQL function is valid in the current context. To see a brief description
of a SQL function in a tool tip, place the cursor over the function name.
The example in the slide shows that CONCAT(char1, char2)is dragged from the Character
Functions group in the Snippets window. Then the CONCAT function syntax is edited and the
rest of the statement is added as in the following:

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SELECT CONCAT(first_name, last_name)
FROM employees;

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Using SQL*Plus
•
•

You can invoke the SQL*Plus command-line interface from
SQL Developer.
Close all the SQL Worksheets to enable the SQL*Plus
menu option.

Provide the
location of the
sqlplus.exe
file only the
first time you
invoke
SQL*Plus.

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Using SQL*Plus
The SQL Worksheet supports most of the SQL*Plus statements. SQL*Plus statements must be
interpreted by the SQL Worksheet before being passed to the database; any SQL*Plus
statements that are not supported by the SQL Worksheet are ignored and not passed to the
database. To display the SQL*Plus command window, from the Tools menu, select SQL*Plus.
To use this feature, the system on which you use SQL Developer must have an Oracle home
directory or folder, with a SQL*Plus executable under that location. If the location of the
SQL*Plus executable is not already stored in your SQL Developer preferences, you are asked to
specify its location.
For example, some of the SQL*Plus statements that are not supported by SQL Worksheet are:
•
append
•
archive
•
attribute
•
break

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For the complete list of SQL*Plus statements that are either supported or not supported by SQL
Worksheet, refer to the SQL*Plus Statements Supported and Not Supported in SQL Worksheet
topic in the SQL Developer online Help.


Debugging Procedures and Functions
•

•

Use SQL Developer to debug
PL/SQL functions and
procedures.
Use the Compile for Debug
option to perform a PL/SQL
compilation so that the
procedure can be debugged.
Use Debug menu options to set
breakpoints, and to perform step
into, step over tasks.

•

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Debugging Procedures and Functions
In SQL Developer, you can debug PL/SQL procedures and functions. Using the Debug menu
options, you can perform the following debugging tasks:
• Find Execution Point goes to the next execution point.
• Resume continues execution.
• Step Over bypasses the next method and goes to the next statement after the method.
• Step Into goes to the first statement in the next method.
• Step Out leaves the current method and goes to the next statement.
• Step to End of Method goes to the last statement of the current method.
• Pause halts execution but does not exit, thus allowing you to resume execution.
• Terminate halts and exits the execution. You cannot resume execution from this point;
instead, to start running or debugging from the beginning of the function or procedure,
click the Run or Debug icon in the Source tab toolbar.
• Garbage Collection removes invalid objects from the cache in favor of more frequently
accessed and more valid objects.
These options are also available as icons in the debugging toolbar.

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Database Reporting
SQL Developer provides a number of predefined reports about
the database and its objects.

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Database Reporting
SQL Developer provides many reports about the database and its objects. These reports can be
grouped into the following categories:
• About Your Database reports
• Database Administration reports
• Table reports
• PL/SQL reports
• Security reports
• XML reports
• Jobs reports
• Streams reports
• All Objects reports
• Data Dictionary reports
• User-Defined reports
To display reports, click the Reports tab at the left side of the window. Individual reports are
displayed in tabbed panes at the right side of the window; and for each report, you can select
(using a drop-down list) the database connection for which to display the report. For reports
about objects, the objects shown are only those visible to the database user associated with the
selected database connection, and the rows are usually ordered by Owner. You can also create
your own user-defined reports.

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Creating a User-Defined Report
Create and save user-defined reports for repeated use.

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Organize reports in folders.


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Creating a User-Defined Report
User-defined reports are reports created by SQL Developer users. To create a user-defined
report, perform the following steps:
1. Right-click the User Defined Reports node under Reports, and select Add Report.
2. In the Create Report Dialog box, specify the report name and the SQL query to retrieve
information for the report. Then, click Apply.
In the example in the slide, the report name is specified as emp_sal. An optional description is
provided indicating that the report contains details of employees with salary >= 10000.
The complete SQL statement for retrieving the information to be displayed in the user-defined
report is specified in the SQL box. You can also include an optional tool tip to be displayed
when the cursor stays briefly over the report name in the Reports navigator display.
You can organize user-defined reports in folders, and you can create a hierarchy of folders and
subfolders. To create a folder for user-defined reports, right-click the User Defined Reports node
or any folder name under that node and select Add Folder. Information about user-defined
reports, including any folders for these reports, is stored in a file named UserReports.xml
under the directory for user-specific information.

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Search Engines and External Tools

Shortcuts to
frequently used tools

1
2

Links to popular
search engines and
discussion forums

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Search Engines and External Tools
To enhance productivity of the SQL developers, SQL Developer has added quick links to
popular search engines and discussion forums such as AskTom, Google, and so on. Also, you
have shortcut icons to some of the frequently used tools such as Notepad, Microsoft Word, and
Dreamweaver, available to you.
You can add external tools to the existing list or even delete shortcuts to tools that you do not
use frequently. To do so, perform the following:
1. From the Tools menu, select External Tools.
2. In the External Tools dialog box, select New to add new tools. Select Delete to remove any
tool from the list.

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Setting Preferences
•
•

Customize the SQL Developer interface and environment.
In the Tools menu, select Preferences.

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Setting Preferences
You can customize many aspects of the SQL Developer interface and environment by modifying
SQL Developer preferences according to your preferences and needs. To modify SQL Developer
preferences, select Tools, then Preferences.
The preferences are grouped into the following categories:
• Environment
• Accelerators (Keyboard shortcuts)
• Code Editors
• Database
• Debugger
• Documentation
• Extensions
• File Types
• Migration
• PL/SQL Compilers
• PL/SQL Debugger, and so on.

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Specifications of SQL Developer 1.5.3
•
•

SQL Developer 1.5.3 is the first translation release, and is
a patch to Oracle SQL Developer 1.5.
New feature list is available at:
veloper/files/newFeatures_v15.html

•
•
•

Supports Windows, Linux, and Mac OS X platforms
To install, unzip the downloaded SQL Developer kit, which
includes the required minimum JDK (JDK1.5.0_06).
To start, double-click sqldeveloper.exe

•
•

Connects to Oracle Database version 9.2.0.1 and later
Freely downloadable from the following link:

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Specifications of SQL Developer 1.5.3
SQL Developer 1.5.3 is also available, as it is the latest version of the product that was available
at the time of the release of this of course

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Like version 1.2, SQL Developer 1.5.3 is developed in Java leveraging the Oracle JDeveloper
integrated development environment (IDE). Therefore, it is a cross-platform tool. The tool runs
on Windows, Linux, and Mac operating system (OS) X platforms. You can install SQL
Developer on the Database Server and connect remotely from your desktop, thus avoiding
client/server network traffic.
Default connectivity to the database is through the Java Database Connectivity (JDBC) Thin
driver, and therefore, no Oracle Home is required. The JDBC drivers that are shipped with
version 1.5.3 support 11g R1. Therefore, users will no longer be able to connect to an Oracle
8.1.7 database.
SQL Developer does not require an installer and you need to simply unzip the downloaded file.
With SQL Developer, users can connect to Oracle Databases 9.2.0.1 and later, and all Oracle
database editions including Express Edition.

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Installing SQL Developer 1.5.3
Download the Oracle SQL Developer kit and unzip into any
directory on your machine.

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Installing SQL Developer 1.5.3
Oracle SQL Developer does not require an installer. To install SQL Developer, you need an
unzip tool.

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To install SQL Developer, perform the following steps:
1. Create a folder. For example: <local drive>:software
2. Download the SQL Developer kit from
http://www.oracle.com/technology/products/database/sql_developer/index.html.
3. Unzip the downloaded SQL Developer kit into the folder created in step 1.
Starting SQL Developer
To start SQL Developer, go to <local drive>:softwaresqldeveloper, and
double-click sqldeveloper.exe.

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Note
• The SQL Developer 1.5.3 kit, named sqldeveloper-5783.zip, is located in is
d:labssoftware on your classroom machine.
• When you open SQL Developer 1.5.3 for the first time, select No when prompted to
migrate settings from a previous release.

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SQL Developer 1.5.3 Interface

You must define a
connection to start
using SQL Developer
for running SQL queries
on a database schema.

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SQL Developer 1.5.3 Interface
The SQL Developer 1.5.3 interface contains all of the features found in version 1.2, and also
some additional features.
Version 1.5.3 contains three main navigation tabs, from left to right:
• Connections tab: By using this tab, you can browse database objects and users to which
you have access.
• Files tab: Identified by the Files folder icon, this tab enables you to access files from your
local machine without having to use the File > Open menu.
• Reports tab: Identified by the Reports icon, this tab enables you to run predefined reports
or create and add your own reports.
General Navigation and Use
display information about selected objects. You can customize many aspects of the appearance
and behavior of SQL Developer by setting preferences.
The features and functions that have been covered previously in this lesson for version 1.2, such
as Creating a Connection, Browsing Database Objects, Creating Schema Objects, Using the SQL
Worksheet, Using Snippets, Creating Reports, and Setting Preferences, are equivalent in the
1.5.3 interface.
Note: As with version 1.2, you need to define at least one connection to be able to connect to a
database schema and issue SQL queries or run procedures/functions.

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SQL Developer 1.5.3 Interface (continued)
Menus
The following menus contain standard entries, plus entries for features specific to SQL
Developer:
• View: Contains options that affect what is displayed in the SQL Developer interface
• Navigate: Contains options for navigating to panes and in the execution of subprograms
• Run: Contains the Run File and Execution Profile options that are relevant when a
function or procedure is selected, and also debugging options.
• Source: Contains options for use when you edit functions and procedures
• Versioning: Provides integrated support for the following versioning and source control
systems: CVS (Concurrent Versions System) and Subversion.
• Migration: Contains options related to migrating third-party databases to Oracle
• Tools: Invokes SQL Developer tools such as SQL*Plus, Preferences, and SQL Worksheet
Note: The Run menu also contains options that are relevant when a function or procedure is
selected for debugging. These are the same options that are found in the Debug menu in version
1.2.

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Summary
In this appendix, you should have learned how to use SQL
Developer to do the following:
• Browse, create, and edit database objects
• Execute SQL statements and scripts in SQL Worksheet
• Create and save custom reports

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Summary
SQL Developer is a free graphical tool to simplify database development tasks. Using SQL
Developer, you can browse, create, and edit database objects. You can use SQL Worksheet to
run SQL statements and scripts. SQL Developer enables you to create and save your own special
set of reports for repeated use.
Version 1.2 is the default version set up for this class. Version 1.5.3 is also available on the
classroom machine for use with all examples, demos, and practices.

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Index

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A
Alias 1-17
ALL Operator 7-19, 8-16, 8-17
ALTER TABLE Statement 10-35
Alternative Quote (q) Operator 1-23
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) i-30, 4-4, 6-5
Ampersand Substitution 2-29, 2-30, 2-33
AND Operator 2-16, 2-21, C-12
ANY Operator 7-18
Arithmetic Expressions 1-11, 1-15, 1-19
Arithmetic Operators 1-11, 1-12, 3-26
Attributes i-23
B
BETWEEN Operator 2-10
BI Publisher i-14
C
Cartesian Product 6-33, C-5
CASE Expression 4-37, 4-38
Character strings 2-7
CHECK Constraint 10-27
COALESCE Function 4-32, 4-33, 4-34
Column Alias 1-17
Comparison Operators 2-8, 2-9
Concatenation Operator 1-20
Constraints 9-4, 10-2, 10-16, 10-17, 10-18, 10-19, 10-29, 10-30
Conversion Functions i-5, 3-7, 3-11, 3-12, 3-28, 4-1, 4-4,
4-9
COUNT Function 5-9
CREATE SEQUENCE Statement 11-25
CREATE TABLE Statement 10-7
Creating a Database Connection i-37, i-38, i-39, i-58
Cross Joins 6-34
CURRENT_DATE 3-24, 9-9
CURRVAL 10-9, 10-27, 11-3, 11-22, 11-27, 11-28, 11-29, 11-33, 11-40

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Oracle Database 11g: SQL Fundamentals I Index - 2

D
Data Types 4-28, 10-12, 10-13, 10-14
Database i-2, i-3, i-4, i-8, i-9, i-10, i-11, i-12, i-13,
i-14, i-15, i-16, i-17, i-18, i-19, i-27, i-28, i-29, i-30, i-33,
i-35, i-37, i-38, i-39, i-40, i-47, i-49, i-50, i-53, i-54, i-55,
i-56, i-58, i-59, 1-14, 1-15, 3-4, 3-5, 3-10, 3-16, 3-24, 4-9,
4-27, 5-27, 6-2, 6-6, 7-8, 9-3, 9-13, 9-15, 9-19, 9-21, 9-25,
9-26, 9-27, 9-31, 9-39, 9-40, 9-42, 10-3, 10-4, 10-5, 10-6, 10-11,
10-14, 10-15, 10-17, 10-31, 10-34, 10-36, 10-37, 10-38, 11-4, 11-6, 11-16,
11-26, 11-28, 11-31, 11-35, 11-37, 11-42, 11-43, C-2, D-17, D-19, E-3,
E-13, E-15
Database Transactions 9-26, 9-27
Date i-18, 1-9, 1-21, 1-33, 2-24, 2-31, 3-3, 3-5, 3-7, 3-8,
3-15, 3-20, 3-22, 3-23, 3-24, 3-27, 3-28, 3-29, 3-31, 3-33, 4-12,
4-13, 4-14, 4-22, 9-10, 10-12, 10-14
Datetime Data Types 10-14
DBMS i-17, D-17, D-19
DECODE Function 4-39, 4-40, 4-41
DEFAULT Option 10-9
DELETE Statement 9-21
DESCRIBE Command 1-27
DISTINCT Keyword 5-10
DUAL Table 3-17
Duplicate Rows 1-24
E

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Entity Relationship i-21, i-22, i-23, B-3
Equijoins 6-12, 6-35, C-9, C-10, C-11, C-22
Execute SQL D-5, D-20

Execute Statement icon i-44, i-47, 1-8, 1-30, 9-48, 10-40
Explicit Data Type Conversion 4-7, 4-8, 4-9
F

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FOR UPDATE clause 9-3, 9-13, 9-19, 9-25, 9-39, 9-42, 9-43, 9-44,
9-46
Format Model 4-12, 4-14

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F
Functions i-5, 2-7, 3-1, 3-2, 3-4, 3-5, 3-6, 3-7, 3-9,
3-10, 3-11, 3-12, 3-13, 3-14, 3-15, 3-16, 3-28, 3-29, 3-30, 4-1,
4-4, 4-9, 4-20, 4-21, 4-24, 4-25, 4-27, 5-1, 5-4, 5-5, 5-6,
5-7, 5-8, 5-11, 5-19, 5-20, 5-26, 7-12
G
GROUP BY Clause 5-14, 5-15, 5-16, 5-18
Group Functions i-5, 3-5, 5-1, 5-4, 5-5, 5-6, 5-11, 5-19,
5-20, 5-26, 7-12
Group Functions in a Subquery 7-12
H
HAVING Clause 5-22, 5-23, 5-24, 7-13
I
Implicit Data Type Conversion 4-5, 4-6
IN Operator 2-11
Index 10-4, 11-23, 11-34, 11-37, 11-38, 11-39, 11-41
INSERT Statement 9-6
International Standards Organization (ISO) i-31
INTERSECT Operator 8-19, 8-20
INTERVAL YEAR TO MONTH 10-14
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Java i-9, i-35, i-56
Joining Tables 6-6, C-7
K

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Keywords 1-8, 10-26, D-4
L

LIKE Operator 2-12
Literal 1-21, 1-22, 10-9

M
MINUS Operator 8-22, 8-23
MOD Function 3-19

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N

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Naming 10-3, 10-5, 10-6, 10-11, 10-15, 10-31, 10-34, 10-37
NEXTVAL 10-9, 10-27, 11-3, 11-22, 11-27, 11-28, 11-29, 11-33, 11-40
NEXTVAL and CURRVAL Pseudocolumns 11-27, 11-28

N
Nonequijoins 6-3, 6-8, 6-19, 6-22, 6-23, 6-24, 6-25, 6-35, C-14,
C-15, C-22
NOT NULL Constraint 10-20
NOT Operator 2-18
NULL Conditions 2-14
Null Value 1-14
Null Values 1-15, 1-20, 5-11, 7-21, 7-22, 9-8
NULLIF Function 4-31
Number Functions 3-16
NVL Function 4-28, 4-29
NVL2 Function 4-30
O
Object Relational i-16
OLTP i-11, i-16
ON clause 6-3, 6-5, 6-6, 6-8, 6-15, 6-16, 6-18, 6-19, 6-21,
6-22, 6-25, 6-31
ON DELETE CASCADE 10-26
ON DELETE SET NULL 10-26
OR Operator 2-17
Oracle Database 11g i-2, i-3, i-4, i-8, i-9, i-10, i-11,
i-14, i-15, i-29, i-33, i-49, i-50, i-53, i-54, i-55, i-56, 3-24,

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7-8, 10-14, 10-36, 10-38
Oracle Enterprise Manager Grid Control 10g i-13, i-56
Oracle Fusion Middleware i-12, i-13, i-56
Oracle Server 8-6
Oracle SQL Developer i-2, i-32, i-40, i-41, E-3, E-5
ORDBMS i-2, i-56
Order 2-40, 3-35, 4-25, 4-45, 6-39, B-2, C-26
ORDER BY Clause 2-23, 8-28
P

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PRIMARY KEY Constraint 10-23
Projection 1-4

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P
Pseudocolumns 11-27, 11-28
Q
q operator 1-23
Queries i-5, 5-19, 5-20, 6-2, 7-1, 7-8, 8-4, 8-5, 10-27,
C-2
Query i-30, 7-15, D-3
R
RDBMS i-2, i-18, i-25, i-27, i-56, 9-43
Read Consistency 9-40, 9-41
Read-only tables 10-3, 10-6, 10-11, 10-15, 10-31, 10-34, 10-37
REFERENCES 10-25, 10-26, 10-28
Relational Database i-16, i-18, i-19, i-27, i-28
ROUND and TRUNC Functions 3-30
ROUND Function 3-17
RR Date Format 3-22, 4-22
Rules of Precedence 1-12, 2-20, 2-21

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S
Schema i-6, i-51, 10-5, 10-8, 11-1, 11-35, B-2, E-11
SELECT Statement i-5, 1-1, 1-5, 1-19, 1-28, 8-26, 9-43
Selection 1-4, 2-4
Sequences 11-23, 11-24
Set operators 8-4, 8-5
SET VERIFY ON 2-36
Sorting i-5, 2-1, 2-3, 2-19, 2-22, 2-24, 2-25, 2-26, 2-34,
2-38

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SQL Developer i-7, i-32, i-37, i-40, 1-6, 1-8, 1-9, 1-14, 1-17,
1-26, 1-30, 2-28, 2-29, 2-30, 2-31, 2-33, 2-35, 2-36, 6-16,
9-4, 9-21, 9-27, 9-31, 9-32, 9-43, 10-9, 10-40, 11-8, C-10, E-1,
E-2, E-3, E-4, E-5, E-6, E-7, E-15, E-21, E-22, E-24, E-25, E-26,
E-27, E-28, E-29, E-30, E-31, E-32
Subquery 7-3, 7-4, 7-5, 7-6, 7-8, 7-9, 7-12, 7-15, 7-16,
7-20, 7-21, 7-22, 9-17, 10-32, 10-33
Substitution Variables 2-27, 2-28, 2-31

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S
Synonym i-23, 10-4, 11-23, 11-34, 11-41, 11-42, 11-43
SYSDATE Function 3-24
T
TO_CHAR Function 4-11, 4-16, 4-17, 4-18, 4-19
Transactions 9-26, 9-27
TRUNC Function 3-18
U
UNION ALL Operator 8-16, 8-17
UNION Operator 8-13, 8-14, 8-15
UNIQUE Constraint 10-21, 10-22
Unique Identifier i-23
UPDATE Statement 9-15
USING Clause 6-11, 6-13, 6-14
Using Snippets E-22, E-23
V
VARIANCE 5-5, 5-8, 5-27
VERIFY Command 2-36
Views i-40, 11-6, 11-7, E-10
W
When to Create an Index 11-38
WHERE Clause 2-6, 6-10
WITH CHECK OPTION 11-8, 11-9, 11-17
X

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XML i-9, i-14, i-37, i-38, i-56

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