Individual emotions

1
Motivation & Emotion
Dr James Neill
Centre for Applied Psychology
University of Canberra
2016
Image source
Individual emotions

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Individual
emotions
Reading:
Reeve (2015)
Ch 14
(pp. 404-428)
20 emotions in three sections:
• Basic emotions (7)
• Self-conscious emotions (5)
• Cognitively complex emotions (8)

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Outline – Individual emotions
Based on Reeve (2015, p. 404)
Basic
 Anger
 Disgust
 Contempt
 Sadness
 Joy
 Interest
Basic
 Anger
 Disgust
 Contempt
 Sadness
 Joy
 Interest
Cognitively
complex
 Envy
 Gratitude
 Disappointment
 Regret
 Hope
 Schadenfreude
 Empathy
 Compassion
Cognitively
complex
 Envy
 Gratitude
 Disappointment
 Regret
 Hope
 Schadenfreude
 Empathy
 Compassion
Self-conscious
 Shame
 Guilt
 Embarrassment
 Pride
 Triumph
Self-conscious
 Shame
 Guilt
 Embarrassment
 Pride
 Triumph

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Basic emotions
Based on Reeve (2015, pp. 406-414)
Basic emotions
Fear Anger Disgust
Sad-
ness
Interest Joy
potential
of threat
and
harm
fighting
off
threat
and
harm
rejecting
threat
and
harm
after
loss or
separ-
ation
motive
involve-
ment
satis-
faction
Cont-
empt
feeling
of super-
iority

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Which emotion is displayed?
Image source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AActress-fear-and-panic.jpg

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Fear
1. Arises from interpretation that the situation is
dangerous, i.e.:
1. Situational threat
(esp. threat of physical or psychological harm)
2. Perceived vulnerability
(perception that one can do little to cope)
2. Trembling, perspiring, looking around, etc.
3. Serves as a warning signal and motivates defense
(flight or freeze)
4. Supports learning new coping skills

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Allies of fear
Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: long-term
trauma arising from experience of extreme
danger; elicits intense fear
Phobias: fears of specific situations, events,
bodily injury, animals, and places.
Anxiety: does not have a identifiable threat but
creates a state of arousal and tension.

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Image source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Angry_woman.jpg

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Anger
1. Caused by obstacles in goal pursuit: Perceived
illegitimate restraint or betrayal of trust, rejection,
unwanted criticism, lack of consideration by others,
or cumulative annoyances.
2. Key function: Motivation to overcome obstacles by
asserting and keeping control.
3. The most passionate emotion - energises,
strengthens, fight/flight, increases sense of control.
4. People who express anger generally get more
respect and status following a wrong.
5. Can motivate change for the better but can also
lead to aggression and damage.

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Image source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/iamagenious/2490996809

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Disgust
1. Disgust’s primitive function is to prevent
consumption of offensive substances.
2. Disgust motivates us to get rid or get away from
contaminated or spoiled objects.
3. Domains: Food, bodily waste, animals, sexual behaviors, poor
hygiene, contact with death or corpses, violations of the exterior body
(gore, deformity), poor hygiene, contact with unsavory people, and
moral offenses (e.g., child abuse, incest, infidelity).
 Object of disgust depends on learning and culture
- infants only show disgust for bitter or sour taste
 Motivates positive coping behaviours to prevent or
avoid contamination sources.

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Image source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:PSM_V36_D704_Facial_expression_of_contempt.jpg

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Contempt
1. Contempt arises from a sense of being morally
superior to another person.
2. Contempt is an inherently social emotion,
because it occurs only during social interactions.
3. The function of contempt is to maintain the social
hierarchy.
4. Contempt signals one’s dominance and
superiority over another.

15
Image source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sad_girl_cropped.jpg

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Sadness
1. Most negative emotion, arising from experiences
of separation or failure.
2. Turns attention inward, promoting personal
reflection.
3. Motivates behaviour to alleviate distressful
circumstances.
4. Indirectly facilitates social cohesiveness (to
prevent separation).
5. Combined with rumination, may lead to
depression which impairs problem solving,
distracts attention, stimulates negative thinking,
and erodes social supports.

17
Image source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Interest.jpg

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Interest
1. Creates urge to explore, investigate, seek,
manipulate and extract info from objects around
us.
2. Most prevalent emotion in day-to-day functioning.
3. Motivates environmental engagement and
promotes learning, skill development, knowledge
acquisition and achievement.
4. Replenishes personal resources. When people
engage in a learning task with the motivational
support of interest, they often experience a vitality
that energises further engagement.

19Image source: https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Happiness_cropped.jpg

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Joy
1. Joy is a positive feeling that makes life pleasant
and balances negative affect.
2. Arises from experiencing desirable outcomes
(e.g., task success, achievement, getting what we
want, pleasant surprise)
3. Creates urge to play and be creative; energises,
enthuses, makes optimistic, increases willingness
to engage in tasks and relationships
4. Also “soothes” → creates pleasant well-being
which helps to dissipate distress

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Self-conscious emotions
Self-conscious
emotions
Shame Guilt
Embar-
rasment
Pride Triumph
publicly
damaged
self-image
self-
evaluation
of failure
social
blunder
after
success
after
compet-
itive
victory

23Image source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Taunting_0001_cropped.jpg

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Shame
 Powerful; associated with inferiority,
worthlessness, and a damaged self-image.
 Function: To provide immediate feedback
about how well one’s self stands up to
moral and performance-based standards.
 Arises after the violation of standards
associated with morality and competent
functioning.
 Moral and performance failures signal that
something is wrong with the self.

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Shame
Based on Reeve (2015, Figure 14.1 Duel motivational model of shame, p. 415)
Shame
Protect
the self
Restore
the self Approach:
Take actionIf situation is
socially safe
If situation is
socially risky
Avoidance:
Withdrawal

26Image source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Daddy,_what_did_You_do_in_the_Great_War_cropped.jpg

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Guilt
 Arises after the person evaluates his/her
behaviour as a failure. Signals that one’s
behaviour has caused harm, loss, or
distress to a relationship partner.
 Focus is on the worth of the self’s
behaviours and actions and what can be
done to undo the harm.
 Guilt-generated behaviors often involve
making amends and apologising to undo
the distressing consequences of the
behaviour.

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Image source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Embarrassed_woman.jpg

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Embarrassment
 Signals that “something is amiss” and that
some aspects of the self need to be hidden
or carefully self-monitored.
 Can occur:
 after a social blunder that is committed in front
of an audience, suggesting some deficiency.
 during positive social situations such as being
congratulated.
 Functions to appease the audience by
taking action to repair the negative self-
impression.

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Image source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:US_Navy_061224-N-9909C-009_A_proud_father_and_Sailor_from_the_destroyer_USS_Halsey_(DDG_97)_holds_his_child_for_the_first_time.jpg

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Pride
 Positive aspect: Arises from one’s success
and promotes:
 Achievement behaviour
 Authentic and heartfelt self-esteem
 Prosocial behaviours such as volunteering and
altruism.
 Negative aspect: Associated with
narcissism and contributes to:
 Aggression
 Relationship conflict
 Antisocial behaviour such as manipulating
others.

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Image source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Triumphant_newlyweds.jpg

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Triumph
 Emotional reaction that follows victory in a
competitive situation.
 Signals dominance and social power over
the defeated.

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Cognitively
complex
emotions

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Cognitive complex emotions
Cognitively
complex
emotions
Envy
Grati-
tude
Disap
point
ment
Regret Hope
Scha-
den-
freude
Em-
pathy
Comp-
assion

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Image source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Subtle_envy.jpg

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Envy
 A painful emotion caused by the good
fortune of others
 Benign envy: aims at improving one’s
position and leads to constructive behaviour
aimed at moving up to the superior position
held by the envied person.
 Malicious envy: aims at improving one’s
position by pulling down the envied person
and leads to destructive behaviour.

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Image source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wikimania_Volunteers_Gratitude_Meetup_P1050338.JPG

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Gratitude
 Gratitude is a positive emotion towards a
person upon receiving something of value
through their generosity and prosocial
behaviour.
 Facilitates “communal relationships”.
 However, acts of kindness can lead to a
focus on what was received, leading to
indebtedness which motivates reciprocity
and contributes to “exchange relationships”

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Gratitude
Based on Reeve (2015, Figure 14.2 Sequence of relation-based events in
gratitude versus indebtedness
Giver's act of
kindness
Kindness →
Gratitude
Benefit →
Indebted-
ness
Builds a
communal
relationship
Perceived
care
Builds an
exchange
relationship
Reciprocity
motivation

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Image source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1868_Renoir_Summer_anagoria_cropped.jpg

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Disappointment
 Arrives when comparing the
outcome one received versus a
better outcome that might have
resulted from the same action.
 Example: I anticipated getting the
job, but did not.

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Image source: https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Regret_cropped.jpg

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Regret
 Arises with the non-occurrence of
a desired outcome caused by a
wrong behavior or bad choice.
 Example: I didn’t study for the test
and now I regret it.

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Different consequences of
disappointment versus regret
Based on Reeve (2015, Table 14.2, p. 423)
Disappointment Regret
Feelings I feel powerless.
Moderate dislike of the
outcome.
I should have known better.
Strong dislike for the outcome.
Thoughts My expectancy was
disconfirmed.
I made a mistake.
Motivation There is nothing I want to
do.
I want a second chance.
I want to undo what happened.
Action
Tendency
There is nothing I want to
do.
I want to correct my mistake.

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Image source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hopeful_Face.jpg

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Hope
 Hope arises with a wish that a
desired goal will be attained.
 Hope is rooted in the desire to
attain some attractive goal.

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Image source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Smug_face_cropped.jpg

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Schadenfreude
 Entails taking pleasure in the
misfortune.
 Typically arises when the other
person is disliked, envied or
resented.

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Image source:

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Empathy
 Involves feeling what another person feels
and has two principle antecedents:
 Mimicry: one’s own facial expressions,
voice tone and posture matches the other
person.
 Perspective-taking: one imagines one's
self in another’s place.
 An experience of empathy heightens the
perceptions of closeness toward the other
and creates an approach-based prosocial
motivational orientation.

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Image source:

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Compassion
 A positive emotion when it
connotes caring and when the
focus is on the another who is
suffering.
 A negative emotion when it is
tightly paired with distress and
suffering and when the individual
focuses on that personal distress.

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Summary: Basic (7)
 Fear: Motivates self-protection in face of perceived danger or
threat
 Anger: Engerises one to overcome obstacle in goal pursuit
 Disgust: Repulsion against contaminated object
 Contempt: Feeling of moral superiority to maintain social
order
 Sadness: Self-reflection following loss or separation
 Joy: Pleasure from desirable outcomes; motivates interaction
and goal striving
 Interest: Curiousity which replenishes and motivates
exploration, engagement and learning.
 Fear: Motivates self-protection in face of perceived danger or
threat
 Anger: Engerises one to overcome obstacle in goal pursuit
 Disgust: Repulsion against contaminated object
 Contempt: Feeling of moral superiority to maintain social
order
 Sadness: Self-reflection following loss or separation
 Joy: Pleasure from desirable outcomes; motivates interaction
and goal striving
 Interest: Curiousity which replenishes and motivates
exploration, engagement and learning.

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Summary: Self-conscious (5)
 Shame: Violation of Violations of moral and competency
standards
 Guilt: Realisation that one's behaviour caused, with desire to
repair
 Embarrassment: Social blunder indicates something amiss
with the self
 Pride: Arises from success; Authentic pride and Hubristic
pride
 Triumph: Reaction to competitive victory; self-expression
and dominance over another
 Shame: Violation of Violations of moral and competency
standards
 Guilt: Realisation that one's behaviour caused, with desire to
repair
 Embarrassment: Social blunder indicates something amiss
with the self
 Pride: Arises from success; Authentic pride and Hubristic
pride
 Triumph: Reaction to competitive victory; self-expression
and dominance over another

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Summary: Complex (8)
Based on Reeve (2015, pp. 427)
 Envy: Arises from others' good fortune; Benign and Malicious
 Gratitude: Arises from receiving a gift from another; can lead
to communal or exchange relations
 Disappointment: Non-occurrence of positive outcome:
Leads to resignation and inertia
 Regret: Non-occurrence of positive outcome: Motivates
making different decisions in future
 Hope: Wish that a desired goal be obtained; motivates
persistence
 Schadenfreude: Pleasure at the misfortune of others
 Empathy: Feeling emotions of another; arises from mimicry
and perspective-taking
 Compassion: Arises from other's suffering (negative) or
overcoming suffering (positive)
 Envy: Arises from others' good fortune; Benign and Malicious
 Gratitude: Arises from receiving a gift from another; can lead
to communal or exchange relations
 Disappointment: Non-occurrence of positive outcome:
Leads to resignation and inertia
 Regret: Non-occurrence of positive outcome: Motivates
making different decisions in future
 Hope: Wish that a desired goal be obtained; motivates
persistence
 Schadenfreude: Pleasure at the misfortune of others
 Empathy: Feeling emotions of another; arises from mimicry
and perspective-taking
 Compassion: Arises from other's suffering (negative) or
overcoming suffering (positive)

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 Individual differences
Unconscious motivation (Ch 14)
Growth psychology (Ch 15)
 Summary & conclusion (Ch 16)
Upcoming lectures

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References
 Reeve, J. (2015). Understanding motivation
and emotion (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
 Reeve, J. (2015). Understanding motivation
and emotion (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Note: Image credits are in the slide notes

59
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 This presentation was made using
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 Free and open source software.
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