Ethics of Ict opinion 26 final
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The document is an opinion from the European Group on Ethics in Science and New Technologies to the European Commission regarding the ethics of information and communication technologies. It references many European laws, policies, and studies related to data protection, privacy, telecommunications, and information technology. The opinion will address ethical issues raised by new technologies and provide recommendations to help ensure policies respect fundamental rights and ethics.
![10 | RECOMMENDATIONS
Ethics of information and communication technologies
Scope of the Opinion
Every day more than 250 million Europeans connect to The impact of the new technologies is so far‑reaching
the Internet, to work, learn, communicate, play and so‑ that it is impossible to address the vast range of issues
cialise. But the digital economy, which has grown rap‑ that are encompassed within the scope of information
idly around all those activities, poses new challenges and communication technologies. In accepting the re‑
to governments and regulators. Business models are quest the EGE decided to focus on Internet technolo‑
likely to change significantly as Internet access allows gies. As the EGE will be examining security issues aris‑
consumers to compare goods and prices and to shop ing from ICT in a subsequent opinion, it will not address
across borders. Work and play will also change dramati‑ them in this document. There will be similarities in the
cally, as personal interactions continue to change from ethical issues arising from the use of ICT in health, gov‑
word of mouth and personal meetings to include inter‑ ernment, education, agriculture and commerce as they
actions unlimited by place or time. Communication and impact on society and individuals. The EGE will there‑
mechanisms for interacting with others have already fore deal with the ethical problems in general, using
changed beyond recognition, and this will almost cer‑ examples to highlight issues within particular domains.
tainly continue at an accelerating pace. The digital rev‑ ICT in the home and in the interaction of individuals is
olution has and will impact on everything people do, as important as the Internet, and the implications are
from their life choices to their health, their shopping, just as far‑reaching. This Opinion should provide sug‑
their education and the way they communicate. Most gestions for an ethically sound use of ICT.
importantly, national and regional boundaries are be‑
coming, and will continue to become, blurred as a re‑ The EGE has decided not to address issues related to
sult of the speed and accessibility of new technologies. IPR and ICT even though it is aware of the controversy
related to the ongoing and future negotiations of the
According to the Digital Agenda,39 fragmented markets Anti‑Counterfeiting Trade Agreement.
currently hinder European digital commerce. The lack
of interoperability between national systems also acts On 21 March 2011 President José Manuel Barroso asked
as a brake on the development of commerce. Rising the EGE to draft an Opinion on the ethical issues arising
levels of crime create significant problems in providing from the rapid expansion of information and communi‑
European citizens with a reliable and safe digital envi‑ cation technologies (ICT). President Barroso indicated
ronment that engenders trust. Ideas for mechanisms that the Opinion could ‘offer a reference point to the
to improve the use of technology across the European Commission to promote a responsible use of the Digital
Union are addressed. The Agenda also recognises that Agenda for Europe and facilitate the societal accept‑
‘[T]oday, under EU law, citizens in the EU enjoy a series ance of such an important policy item.
of rights that are relevant to the digital environment,
such as freedom of expression and information, pro‑ The EGE is aware of the changes that have come about
tection of personal data and privacy, requirements for in the lives of most citizens of the European Union, and
transparency and universal telephone and functional further afield, as a result of the pervasiveness of new
Internet services and a minimum quality of service’. In electronic media. The challenge is to ensure that the
addition to the impact on commerce, there is a very availability of electronic information and the use of ICT
considerable impact on the manner in which we live are handled in an ethical manner.
our lives. Technology is likely to impinge on us in both
positive and negative ways. The Digital Agenda for Eu‑
rope (DAE) emphasises that this should be built into the
various technologies as they become available.
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![10 | RECOMMENDATIONS STATE OF THE ART: SCIENCE, REGULATION AND POLICIES | PART A:
Ethics of information and communication technologies
as a toolbox of routines that could be strung together to have 16 gigabytes or more built in. In 1980 a comput‑
to provide required functionality. 42 er memory board with about 32 kilobytes cost about
$ 3000, which was a significant sum. Memory was very
Computing started off with the storage and analysis expensive, if relatively fast.
of information. Nothing was inter‑connected. Mecha‑
nisms were required for providing the computers with Slower bulk memory was needed for storing large
two input types. Firstly, the programmes that defined amounts of data. If necessary, programs could be
what were to be done with the data. Initially, this was paged in and out of the faster memory. Initially, mag‑
a series of sequential instructions with a mechanism for netic drums were used, followed by floppy disks that
jumping to a different sequence of instructions based could hold up to 360 Kbytes of data, and then by floppy
on tests performed on the data. [This has become disks capable of storing 1.4 megabytes of data. Storage
more sophisticated, relying on sequences of instruc‑ media in the form of USB sticks and solid‑state memory
tions based on actions (e.g. the position of a mouse, are relatively recent. The main memory for long‑term
or a mouse click, or input coming from somewhere storage remains hard disk drives. They tend to be rela‑
else)]. The second source of information was the data tively slow but can store large amounts of data in an
to be analysed using these instructions. The two sorts easily accessible manner. All these are organised into
of information were kept separate. Mechanisms for the file systems that allow for logical storage of the data
output of results were also required. Punched cards and the metadata that provides information such as
(Hollerith cards initially) and punched tape were the ownership, amount of data, date and time of creation
first to be used and were read at a relatively high speed and of last use, etc.
by the computers.
It is both the size of such memory systems and the
Magnetic tape and magnetic discs followed rapidly speed of access that have turned computers into infor‑
during the latter part of the 20th century. In the 1960s mation and communication devices. The real advances
teletypewriters were used which provided a coded that have made computers ubiquitous are, on the one
form of information (for either control or data) directly hand, the software to search through data and allow
to the memory of the computer, there was no contact rapid and effective access in real time and, on the other,
with other machines or other users. mechanisms to access the data and provide it in a read‑
able form for the user.
Primary data storage, often referred to as memory, is
the system that makes data directly available to the 1.1.2 Initial Use of Computers
computer itself. Computers had some memory dedicat‑
ed to the system as well as some memory dedicated to Initially, computers were used on their own to analyse
the user(s). The system memory consisted of both the scientific data. In the office, word‑processors, less pow‑
memory in which programs and data were held and the erful than those found today, but with similarities to the
registers used by the computer in which to perform the typewriters they replaced, except that editing was pos‑
basic operations specified by a program, or linear se‑ sible slowly became ubiquitous. Initially the data was
quences of instructions. User memory was often sepa‑ stored on removable diskettes and did not even include
rated into (at least) two segments —one that contained spell‑checkers. As the first word processors did not pro‑
the program and one that contained the data to be ad‑ vide a WYSIWYG interface (what you see is what you
dressed and modified by the program. From the early get), the final output depended on the available printers
1950’s this was some form of magnetic memory that and they were, in some ways, more difficult to use than
could be accessed randomly, as required. Initially these typewriters, for codes had to be included in the ‘copy’
were magnetic cores whose magnetic states were al‑ to indicate formatting (bold, italic, justification etc).
tered by the passage of an electric charge. They were Spreadsheets quickly replaced numeric calculators, mak‑
replaced by semi‑conductor memory in about 1975. ing the job of those working with figures significantly
The earliest personal computers (circa 1975-1980) had easier than it had been. The days of laboriously adding
as little as 16 kilobytes of semi‑conductor memory. To‑ up long columns of figures were numbered once per‑
day’s home computers have up to 64 gigabytes (4 mil‑ sonal calculators, and then computers, appeared on the
lion times as large) and even mobile phones are likely scene. While the concept of spreadsheets had been used
for centuries, and similar calculation programs existed
before, the computerised spreadsheet was probably in‑
42
http://www.bell‑labs.com/history/unix/. vented in about 1978 by Dan Bricklin and Bob Frankston.
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![PART B: | EGE OPINION RECOMMENDATIONS | 10
Additional criteria should apply when the controller is
established outside the EU/EEA with a view to ensuring Digital Divide Best Practice
that a sufficient connection exists with the EU territory
and to avoid EU territory being used to conduct illegal A diverse range of initiatives have been undertak‑
data processing activities by controllers established in en in different countries with a view to closing the
third countries. More harmonisation in regard to the digital divide that exists between different sectors
obligation of controllers established in third countries of society, e.g. due to issues relating to age, socio-
to appoint a representative in the EU with the objec‑ economic status, geographic location and disabil‑
tive of giving more effectiveness to the role of the rep‑ ity. Some of these initiatives have proven successful
resentative is recommended. In particular, the extent in helping to minimise the digital divide.
to which data subjects should be able to effectively
exercise their rights against the representative should South Korea has emerged as one of the foremost
be clarified.190 countries in alleviating problems associated with
the digital divide, with the Digital Opportunity In‑
4. Sphere of Social Implications, dex, which measures the degree of balance within
the information society, ranking it first among Or‑
Culture, Education and
ganisation for Economic Co-operation and Devel‑
Environmental Protection opment (OECD) countries for the last three years.
South Korea took an assertive, highly focused
4.1 Social Inclusion in the Age of ICT and ultimately very successful approach to deal
with the digital divide issue. This began in the late
Rapid developments in, and the ubiquitous diffusion 1990s with the establishment of a specific body
of, ICT increasingly means that to utilise many everyday dedicated to this task, namely the Korean Agency
services, one has to have access to ICT and the requisite for Digital Opportunity and Promotion (KADO).
skills and motivation to use the technology in order to The KADO’s role was to provide easy and afford‑
fully participate in today’s society. Digital inclusion is able access to ICT services (e.g. IT education, the
fast becoming a prerequisite for social inclusion. Thus, Internet and email) to individuals with disabilities,
it is a matter of concern that despite the great strides the elderly, low-income families and to those in ru‑
made in creating the information society, there remains ral communities. Since its inception the KADO has
a ‘digital divide’ where due to age, gender, geographi‑ provided these services to over 10 million Koreans.
cal location or socioeconomic status, there is unequal In addition to establishing the KADO, the govern‑
access to and use of ICT. ment also introduced specific legislation [i.e. the
Digital Divide Act (2001)] and has produced two
A large proportion of Internet users are young comprehensive ‘Master Plans’ to bridge the digi‑
people,191 who are often not fully aware of the impli‑ tal divide in 2001 and 2005 respectively. Given the
cations that may arise from their use of ICT. The com‑ success of its initiatives at a national level, South
mercial nature of social networks and the complexity Korea has changed focus to provide more support
of privacy protection, the difficulty of erasing data (in‑ to global informatisation and bridging the digital
cluding pictures and videos or participation in blogs) divide internationally, particularly within develop‑
or the possible uncontrolled diffusion of data originally ing countries. As part of this change the KADO has
addressed to another cyber‑user and then spread in been merged with the National Information Society
cyber‑space, are all examples of possible risks confront‑ Agency (NIA). The NIA now runs a number of initia‑
ing Internet users. tives, such as the IT and Policy Assistance Program
and Korea IT Volunteers, with other countries to
provide expertise, experience, training, technical
assistance and best practice as part of national IT
developments in these partner countries.
190
Article 29 Data Protection Working Party, Opinion 8/2010 on The One Laptop per Child project, which began in
applicable law, 31-32. 2007 aims to provide the opportunity and resourc‑
Economist Intelligence Unit. Closing Europe’s digital divide.
191 es to children to help facilitate their ‘self-empow‑
October 2008. http://graphics.eiu.com/upload/Intel_ ered’ education in low-income countries. To date
Digital_Divide.pdf. accessed on 2 December 2011.
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![PARTIE C: | RECOMMANDATIONS RECOMMANDATIONS | 4
«[l] a dignité humaine est inviolable. Elle doit être s’applique par conséquent dans plusieurs domaines
respectée et protégée.» (Article 1);221 de la vie d’une personne, comme l’éducation, le tra-
vail, le commerce et la santé. Le GEE se félicite des me-
• le respect de la liberté, qui garantit notamment le sures prises par la Commission européenne dans le
droit à la communication et à l’agence sans censure secteur des TIC et invite l’Union européenne à parti-
dans l’ère numérique; ciper activement et à promouvoir l’accès aux TIC dans
les sociétés européennes, tout en garantissant l’accès
• le respect de la démocratie, de la citoyenneté et aux services sociétaux de base par les citoyens qui
de la participation qui inclut notamment la pro- ne sont pas disposés à utiliser les outils TIC ou qui ne
tection contre l’exclusion injustifiée et la protection sont pas en mesure de les utiliser, en raison de diffi-
contre la discrimination illégale; cultés techniques, éducatives ou socio-économiques.
• le respect de la vie privée qui garantit notamment • Le GEE recommande à l’UE de garantir et promou-
la sphère privée personnelle contre les interven- voir le droit d’accès à Internet. Le GEE souligne
tions injustifiées; que cette approche devrait également être promue
à l’échelle internationale en accordant une atten-
• le respect de l’autonomie et du consentement tion particulière aux régions les moins développées
éclairé qui garantit notamment le droit à l’informa- du monde.
tion et au consentement à l’utilisation des données
ou aux actions qui reposent sur le traitement des • Le GEE appelle à la mise en place de programmes
données; éducatifs permettant aux personnes de dévelop-
per une culture technique et/ou numérique: des
• la justice qui garantit notamment l’égalité d’ac- outils qui visent à simplifier les applications des
cès aux TIC et une répartition équitable de ses TIC et à accroître la culture numérique au sein de
bénéfices; la population de l’UE, qui répondent spécialement
aux attentes des personnes qui ont des besoins
• la solidarité parmi les citoyens européens a no- particuliers et qui informent le public sur la façon
tamment pour objectif l’inclusion de quiconque d’utiliser Internet (par exemple, de la banque en
souhaite participer aux TIC, mais elle vise égale- ligne à la lecture numérique).
ment à garantir l’inclusion sociale de ceux qui, par
exemple, ne peuvent pas participer à des pratiques • Le GEE appelle à la mise en place de programmes
en ligne ou souhaitent maintenir des interactions éducatifs qui responsabilisent et sensibilisent
sociales alternatives. à l’impact des TIC sur l’identité personnelle, sociale
et morale de chacun.
Le GEE salue les nombreuses actions positives déjà
entreprises par l’Union européenne et ses institutions • Le GEE se félicite des mesures prises par l’UE en
et formule diverses recommandations visant à faire en matière de libre accès et appelle à l’étude de nou-
sorte que l’agenda numérique pour l’Europe contribue velles mesures dans ce domaine.
à la prospérité de l’Union tout en respectant les valeurs
qui la fondent et qu’elle continue de promouvoir. 5.3 Recommandations concernant l’identité
individuelle
5.2 Droit d’accès aux TIC
Les concepts d’identité personnelle – l’identification,
La Charte européenne des droits fondamentaux exige à savoir l’authentification de l’identité d’un utilisateur
que chacun ait la possibilité de contribuer à construire prenant part aux multiples activités rendues possibles
la société européenne, ce qui inclut évidemment l’uti- par les TIC, et l’identité individuelle, à savoir l’identité
lisation des TIC. La protection du principe d’égalité d’une personne, y compris ses valeurs, ses objectifs, ou
son auto-interprétation – revêtent de nouvelles formes
et évoluent considérablement dans l’«ère numérique».
Dans la partie précédente, le GEE a abordé plusieurs
221
«La dignité de la personne humaine n’est pas seulement un droit
fondamental en soi, mais constitue la base même des droits défis éthiques qui commandent une analyse et un exa-
fondamentaux.» (Déclaration concernant les explications men plus approfondis de la question de l’identité. Le
relatives à la Charte des droits fondamentaux). groupe recommande diverses mesures:
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Ethics of Ict opinion 26 final
- 1. NJ-AJ-12-026-EN-C Ethics of Information and Communication Technologies Opinion No. 26 Ethics of Information and Communication Technologies Brussels, 22 February 2012 doi:10.2796/13541
- 2. HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS Free publications: • via EU Bookshop (http://bookshop.europa.eu); • a t the European Union’s representations or delegations. You can obtain their contact details on the Internet (http://ec.europa.eu) or by sending a fax to +352 2929-42758. Priced publications: • via EU Bookshop (http://bookshop.europa.eu). Priced subscriptions (e.g. annual series of the Official Journal of the European Union and reports of cases before the Court of Justice of the European Union): • v ia one of the sales agents of the Publications Office of the European Union (http://publications.europa.eu/others/agents/index_en.htm).
- 3. HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS Free publications: • via EU Bookshop (http://bookshop.europa.eu); • a t the European Union’s representations or delegations. You can obtain their contact details on the Internet (http://ec.europa.eu) or by sending a fax to +352 2929-42758. Priced publications: • via EU Bookshop (http://bookshop.europa.eu). Priced subscriptions (e.g. annual series of the Official Journal of the European Union and reports of cases before the Court of Justice of the European Union): • v ia one of the sales agents of the Publications Office of the European Union (http://publications.europa.eu/others/agents/index_en.htm).
- 4. European Group on Ethics in Science and New Technologies to the European Commission Ethics of information and communication technologies Brussels, 22 February 2012 Maurizio SALVI Chief Editor Head of the EGE Secretariat Opinion No
- 5. Europe Direct is a service to help you find answers to your questions about the European Union. Freephone number (*): 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (*) Certain mobile telephone operators do not allow access to 00 800 numbers or these calls may be billed. More information on the European Union is available on the Internet (http://europa.eu). Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this publication. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2012 © European Union, 2012 Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged. ISBN 978-92-79-22734-9 doi:10.2796/13541 Printed in Luxembourg Printed on elemental chlorine-free bleached paper (ECF)
- 6. OPINION OF THE EUROPEAN GROUP ON ETHICS IN SCIENCE AND NEW TECHNOLOGIES TO THE EUROPEAN COMMISSION Ethics of information and communication technologies No 26 22/02/2012 Reference: Request from President Barroso Rapporteurs: Julian Kinderlerer, Peter Dabrock, Hille Haker, Herman Nys THE EUROPEAN GROUP ON ETHICS IN SCIENCE AND NEW TECHNOLOGIES (EGE), Having regard to the Treaty on European Union, and in particular Article 6 of the common provisions concerning respect for fundamental rights, Having regard to the Treaty on the functioning of the European Union, and in particular Article 16 concerning the right to the protection of personal data, Having regard to the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, and in particular Article 1 (Human dignity), Article 3 (Right to the integrity of the person), Article 7 (Respect for private and family life), Article 8 (Protection of personal data), Article 14 (Right to education), Article 29 (Right of access to placement services), Article 34 (Social security and social assistance), Article 35 (Health care), Article 36 (Access to services of general economic interest), Article 41 (Right to good administration) and Article 42 (Right of access to documents) thereof,1 Having regard to Article 6 of the Seventh Framework Programme of the European Union for research, technological development and demonstration activities (2007-2013), which states that ‘All the research activities carried out under the Seventh Framework Programme shall be carried out in compliance with fundamental ethical principles’, Having regard to the Council of Europe Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine, signed on 4 April 1997 in Oviedo,2 Having regard to Directive 2002/21/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 March 2002 on a common regulatory framework for electronic communications networks and services3 (Framework Directive), Having regard to Directive 2002/19/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 March 2002 on access to, and interconnection of, electronic communications networks and associated facilities4 (Access Directive), Having regard to Directive 2002/20/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 March 2002 on the authorisation of electronic communications networks and services5 (Authorisation Directive), Having regard to Directive 2002/22/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 March 2002 on universal service and users’ rights relating to electronic communications net- works and services6 (Universal Service Directive), 1 Official Journal C 364 of 18 November 2000, pp. 1 – 22. 2 http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/en/treaties/html/164.htm. 3 OJ L 108, 24.4.2002. 4 OJ L 108, 24.4.2002. 5 OJ L 108, 24.4.2002. 6 OJ L 108, 24.4.2002. 3
- 7. Ethics of information and communication technologies Having regard to Directive 2002/58/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 July 2002 concerning the processing of personal data and the protection of privacy in the electronic communications sector7 (Directive on privacy and electronic communications), Having regard to Regulation (EC) No 717/2007 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 June 2007 on roaming on public mobile communications networks within the Community8, Having regard to Commission Decision 2002/627/EC of 29 July 2002 establishing the European Regulators Group for Electronic Communications Networks and Services9 to advise and assist the Commission in the development of the internal market and, more generally, to provide an interface between national regulatory authorities (NRAs) and the Commission, Having regard to the Radio Spectrum Policy Group established under Commission Decision 2002/622/EC of 26 July 200210, Having regard to the Contact Committee established under Directive 97/36/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 June 1997 amending Council Directive 89/552/EEC on the coordination of certain provisions laid down by law, regulation or administrative action in Mem- ber States concerning the pursuit of television broadcasting activities11, Having regard to Regulation (EC) No 1211/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 November 2009 establishing the Body of European Regulators for Electronic Communi- cations (BEREC), Having regard to Directive 2009/136/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 No- vember 2009 amending Directive 2002/22/EC on universal service and users’ rights relating to electronic communications networks and services, Directive 2002/58/EC concerning the pro- cessing of personal data and the protection of privacy in the electronic communications sector and Regulation (EC) No 2006/2004 on cooperation between national authorities responsible for the enforcement of consumer protection laws, Having regard to Directive 2009/140/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 November 2009 amending Directives 2002/21/EC on a common regulatory framework for electronic communications networks and services, 2002/19/EC on access to, and interconnec- tion of, electronic communications networks and associated facilities, and 2002/20/EC on the authorisation of electronic communications networks and services, Having regard to Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 Oc- tober 1995 on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, Having regard to Regulation (EC) No 45/2001 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2000 on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data by the Community institutions and bodies and on the free movement of such data, and in particular Article 41(2) thereof, 7 OJ L 201, 31.7.2002. 8 OJ L 171, 29.6.2007. 9 OJ L 200, 30.7.2002. 10 OJ L 198, 27.7.2002. 11 OJ L 202, 30.7.1997. 4
- 8. Having regard to Directive 1999/5/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 9 March 1999 on radio equipment and telecommunications terminal equipment and the mutual rec- ognition of their conformity12, Having regard to Decision No 676/2002/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 March 2002 on a regulatory framework for radio spectrum policy in the European Commu- nity13 (Radio Spectrum Decision), Having regard to the Internet of Things (IoT) strategic research roadmap14, Having regard to Commission Decision 2002/622/EC of 26 July 2002 establishing a Radio Spec- trum Policy Group15, Having regard to Recommendation CM/Rec (2010) 13 of the Committee of Ministers to the member states of the Council of Europe on the protection of individuals with regard to auto- matic processing of personal data in the context of profiling, Having regard to Regulation (EC) No 460/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 10 March 2004 establishing the European Network and Information Security Agency16, Having regard to the Commission Recommendation of 11 February 2003 on relevant product and service markets within the electronic communications sector susceptible to ex-ante regu- lation in accordance with Directive 2002/21/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on a common regulatory framework for electronic communications networks and services17, Having regard to Council Framework Decision 2008/977/JHA of 27 November 2008 on the protection of personal data processed in the framework of police and judicial cooperation in criminal matters, Having regard to the 2009 EU telecoms reform package for stronger consumer rights, an open In- ternet, a single European telecoms market and a high-speed Internet connection for all citizens 18, Having regard to the Commission decisions on the adequacy of the protection of personal data in third countries based on Article 25(6) of Directive 95/46/EC to assess whether a third country ensures an adequate level of protection by reason of its domestic law or the international com- mitments it has entered into19, Having regard to the Eurobarometer report ‘Attitudes on Data Protection and Electronic Identity in the European Union’ (June 2011)20, Having regard to the new strategy adopted by the European Commission on corporate social responsibility (CSR) from 25 October 201121, 12 OJ L 91, 7.4.1999. 13 OJ L 108, 24.4.2002. 14 http://www.internet-of-things-research.eu/pdf/IoT_Cluster_Strategic_Research_Agenda_2011.pdf 15 OJ L 198, 27.7.2002. 16 OJ L 77, 13.3.2004. 17 OJ L 114, 8.5.2003. 18 http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=MEMO/09/568 19 http://ec.europa.eu/justice/data-protection/document/international-transfers/adequacy/index_en.htm. 20 http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_359_en.pdf. 21 http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/sustainable-business/files/csr/new-csr/act_en.pdf 5
- 9. Ethics of information and communication technologies Having regard to a number of thematic reports22 on data protection governance including: the Report on the Economic Evaluation of Data Protection Directive 95/46/EC (Final Report prepared by Rambøll Management for the European Commission); the IPTS (Institute for Prospective Tech- nological Studies) Report - Issue 67 of September 2002 on Identity and Privacy; the results of the two Eurobarometer surveys on data protection awareness in the European Union carried out in autumn 2003; the f report on the implementation of the data protection directive (95/46/EC); irst the Report to the European Parliament Committee on Citizens’ Freedoms and Rights, Justice and Home Affairs (LIBE) on Security and Privacy for the Citizen in the Post-September 11 Digital Age - A Prospective Overview; the implementation of Directive 95/46/EC to the Processing of Sound and Image Data, British Institute of International and Comparative Law; the IPTS Report to the European Parliament Committee on Industry, External Trade, Research and Energy (ITRE) on Future Bottlenecks in the Information Society; and the Commission study entitled: ‘ “Junk” e-mail costs Internet users EUR10 billion a year worldwide’, Having regard to the Resolutions of the European Parliament of 1 December 2005 and 4 April 2006 concerning the Doha Round and the WTO Ministerial Conferences, where the Parliament calls for basic public services, such as audio-visual services, to be excluded from liberalisation under the GATT negotiations. Having regard to the Resolution of the European Parliament of 27 April 2006 on the proposal of a Council decision on the conclusion of the UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promo- tion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions, which states in particular that ‘cultural activities, goods and services have both an economic and a cultural nature, because they convey identi- ties, values and meanings, and must therefore not be treated as solely having commercial value’, Having regard to the Council Decision23 of 18 May 2006 on the conclusion of the Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions approved by the UNESCO Convention on behalf of the Community, the Convention entering into force on 18 March 2007, Having regard to the Commission Communication on the future of European regulatory audio- visual policy24, Having regard to Decision 2004/68/JHA of the Council of the European Union of 22 Decem- ber 2003 on combating the sexual exploitation of children and child pornography25, Having regard to the Commission communication ‘i2010: European Information Society26’, Having regard to the Madrid Resolution on international standards for the protection of per- sonal data and privacy adopted by the International Conference of Data Protection and Privacy Commissioners on 5 November 2011, Having regard to the Granada Ministerial Declaration on the European Digital Agenda, agreed on 19 April 201027, Having regard to the Commission communication ‘Digital Agenda for Europe’28 (26/08/2010), 22 http://ec.europa.eu/justice/data-protection/document/studies/index_en.htm. 23 OJ L 201 of 25.7.2006. 24 The future of European regulatory audio-visual policy — COM(2003) 784, 15.12.2003. 25 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32004F0068:EN:HTML 26 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:52005DC0229:EN:NOT. 27 http://www.eu2010.es/export/sites/presidencia/comun/descargas/Ministerios/en_declaracion_granada.pdf. 28 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:52010DC0245R(01):EN:NOT. 6
- 10. Having regard to Europe’s Digital Competitiveness report, 2010 drafted by the European Commission29 17/05/2010, Having regard to the Council of Europe Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data30 (ETS No 108), which was opened for signature on 28 January 1981 (allowing the European Communities to accede) and adopted by the Commit- tee of Ministers of the Council of Europe on 15 June 1999, Having regard to the revision of the EU data protection law (which will be adopted in co-decision by the European Parliament and Council from 25 January 201231), Having regard to the Communication entitled ‘A comprehensive approach to personal data protection in the European Union’32, Having regard to the Council of Europe ‘Additional protocol to Convention 108 regarding supervisory authorities and transborder data flows’33 (ETS No 181), Having regard to the Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights adopt- ed by UNESCO on 11 November 1997,34 the Declaration on Human Genetic Data adopted by UNESCO on 16 October 2003 and the Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights adopted by UNESCO on 19 October 2005, Having regard to the hearings of experts and Commission departments by the EGE during their meetings in March 2011, April 2011, May 2011, June 2011, September 2011, October 2011, November 2011 and December 201135, Having regard to the EGE General report of Activities 2005-201036, Having regard to EGE Opinion No 20 – 16/03/2005 — on Ethical aspects of ICT Implants in the Human Body37, Having regard to EGE Opinion No 13 – 30/07/1999 — on Ethical issues of healthcare in the information society38, Having regard to the roundtable organised by the EGE on 15 November 2011 in Brussels, Having regard to the contributions from the EGE open consultation on ethics and ICT, Having heard the EGE Rapporteurs, Julian Kinderlerer, Peter Dabrock, Hille Haker and Herman Nys, Hereby adopts the following Opinion: 29 http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/digital-agenda/documents/edcr.pdf. 30 http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/standardsetting/DataProtection/convention_en.asp. 31 http://ec.europa.eu/justice/newsroom/data-protection/news/120125_en.htm 32 Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, ‘A comprehensive approach on personal data protection in the European Union’, 4 November 2010, COM (2010) 609 final, 2 33 http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/standardsetting/DataProtection/convention_en.asp. 34 http://portal.unesco.org/shs/en/ev.php-URL_ID=2228URL_DO=DO_TOPICURL_SECTION=201.html. 35 See agendas on the EGE website: http://europa.eu.int/comm/european_group_ethics/index_en.htm. 36 http://ec.europa.eu/bepa/european-group-ethics/docs/gar_ege_2005-2010_web.pdf. 37 http://ec.europa.eu/bepa/european-group-ethics/docs/avis20_en.pdf. 38 http://ec.europa.eu/bepa/european-group-ethics/docs/avis13_en.pdf. 7
- 12. TABLE OF CONTENTS 14 Scope of the Opinion 15 1. Scientific Aspects 15 1.1 Introduction 15 1.1.1 Age of Hardware 16 1.1.2 Initial Use of Computers 17 1.1.3 The Personal Computer Revolution 18 1.1.4 Internet 19 1.1.5 Age of Software 19 1.2 The Current Use of the Internet 20 1.2.1 Data mining 20 1.2.2 Cloud Computing 21 1.2.3 Internet of Things 22 1.2.4 Social Networks 23 1.3 The Future Internet 24 1.4 Mobile Devices 25 2. Regulatory Frameworks and Policy Frameworks 25 2.1 Internet Governance: International Bodies 25 2.1.1 The United Nations Internet Governance Forum 26 2.1.2 UNESCO: Code of Conduct for the Information Society 26 2.1.3 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development 26 2.1.4 Council of Europe 26 2.1.5 Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) 27 2.2 European Union Policy Regarding ICT 27 2.2.1 The Digital Agenda for Europe (DAE). 27 2.2.2 E‑Government 28 2.2.3 E‑Commerce 30 2.2.4 Corporate Social Responsibility 30 2.2.5 Interoperability and Standards 30 2.2.6 Very Fast Internet 31 2.2.7 E‑Skills 31 2.2.8 E‑Advertising
- 13. 31 2.2.9 Cybercrime 32 2.2.10 Digital Divide 32 2.2.11 Net Neutrality 33 2.2.12 Internet of Things 33 2.2.13 E‑Health 34 2.3 Current EU Regulatory Frameworks for Personal Data Protection 36 2.4 Gaps or Deficits in Regulations and Policies 37 3. Ethical Aspects 37 3.1 Challenges to the Concept of Identity 37 3.1.1 Introduction 38 3.1.2 The Digital Identity 38 3.1.3 The Concept of Personal Identity n the Digital Era 42 3.1.4 Individual Identity and Social Identity in ICT. 42 3.1.5 The Concept of Moral Identity in ICT Domains 44 3.2 Privacy as a Fundamental Right 45 3.2.1 Concerns Regarding the Current EU Legal Protection of Personal Data 45 3.2.2 Safety of Personal Data 46 3.2.3 Profiling and Data Mining 46 3.2.4 Sensitive Data 46 3.2.5 Giving and Withdrawing Consent 47 3.2.6 Transparency 47 3.2.6.1 Mandatory Breach Notification 47 3.2.6.2 Managing One’s own Data 48 3.2.7 Right to Data Deletion 48 3.2.8 Special Protection for Minors 49 4. Sphere of Social Implications, Culture, Education and Environmental Protection 49 4.1 Social Inclusion in the Age of ICT 51 4.2 E‑Government 51 4.3 Education 51 4.3.1 Culture 52 4.4 E‑Health 52 4.5 E‑environment
- 14. 55 4.6 Political Dimension 56 4.7 E‑Commerce 57 4.7.1 Data Mining 57 4.7.2 Internet of Things (IoT) 58 4.7.3 E‑advertising 58 4.8 Conclusions 59 5. Recommendations 59 5.1 The Ethical Framework of the Opinion 60 5.2 Right of Access to ICT 60 5.3 Recommendations Concerning Individual Identity 61 5.4 The Right to Privacy and Protection of Data 62 5.5 Social Aspects: Digital divide 62 5.5.1 Digital Divide 63 5.5.2 Work‑Life Balance 63 5.6 Political participation 63 5.7 Recommendations Concerning the Sphere of Commerce 63 5.7.1 Commercial Transactions 64 5.7.2 Corporate Social Responsibility 64 5.8 Cross‑Correlative Data Mining 64 5.9 Environment and Raw Materials 65 5.10 Concluding Recommendation 69 6. ANNEX 1 79 7. ANNEX 2
- 16. European Group on Ethics in Science and New Technologies to the European Commission 1. OPINION OF THE EUROPEAN GROUP ON ETHICS IN SCIENCE AND NEW TECHNOLOGIES TO THE EUROPEAN COMMISSION Ethics of information and communication technologies Reference: Request from President Barroso Julian Kinderlerer, Peter Dabrock, Rapporteurs: Hille Haker, Herman Nys; Maurizio SALVI Chief Editor Head of the EGE Secretariat 26 Opinion No
- 17. 10 | RECOMMENDATIONS Ethics of information and communication technologies Scope of the Opinion Every day more than 250 million Europeans connect to The impact of the new technologies is so far‑reaching the Internet, to work, learn, communicate, play and so‑ that it is impossible to address the vast range of issues cialise. But the digital economy, which has grown rap‑ that are encompassed within the scope of information idly around all those activities, poses new challenges and communication technologies. In accepting the re‑ to governments and regulators. Business models are quest the EGE decided to focus on Internet technolo‑ likely to change significantly as Internet access allows gies. As the EGE will be examining security issues aris‑ consumers to compare goods and prices and to shop ing from ICT in a subsequent opinion, it will not address across borders. Work and play will also change dramati‑ them in this document. There will be similarities in the cally, as personal interactions continue to change from ethical issues arising from the use of ICT in health, gov‑ word of mouth and personal meetings to include inter‑ ernment, education, agriculture and commerce as they actions unlimited by place or time. Communication and impact on society and individuals. The EGE will there‑ mechanisms for interacting with others have already fore deal with the ethical problems in general, using changed beyond recognition, and this will almost cer‑ examples to highlight issues within particular domains. tainly continue at an accelerating pace. The digital rev‑ ICT in the home and in the interaction of individuals is olution has and will impact on everything people do, as important as the Internet, and the implications are from their life choices to their health, their shopping, just as far‑reaching. This Opinion should provide sug‑ their education and the way they communicate. Most gestions for an ethically sound use of ICT. importantly, national and regional boundaries are be‑ coming, and will continue to become, blurred as a re‑ The EGE has decided not to address issues related to sult of the speed and accessibility of new technologies. IPR and ICT even though it is aware of the controversy related to the ongoing and future negotiations of the According to the Digital Agenda,39 fragmented markets Anti‑Counterfeiting Trade Agreement. currently hinder European digital commerce. The lack of interoperability between national systems also acts On 21 March 2011 President José Manuel Barroso asked as a brake on the development of commerce. Rising the EGE to draft an Opinion on the ethical issues arising levels of crime create significant problems in providing from the rapid expansion of information and communi‑ European citizens with a reliable and safe digital envi‑ cation technologies (ICT). President Barroso indicated ronment that engenders trust. Ideas for mechanisms that the Opinion could ‘offer a reference point to the to improve the use of technology across the European Commission to promote a responsible use of the Digital Union are addressed. The Agenda also recognises that Agenda for Europe and facilitate the societal accept‑ ‘[T]oday, under EU law, citizens in the EU enjoy a series ance of such an important policy item. of rights that are relevant to the digital environment, such as freedom of expression and information, pro‑ The EGE is aware of the changes that have come about tection of personal data and privacy, requirements for in the lives of most citizens of the European Union, and transparency and universal telephone and functional further afield, as a result of the pervasiveness of new Internet services and a minimum quality of service’. In electronic media. The challenge is to ensure that the addition to the impact on commerce, there is a very availability of electronic information and the use of ICT considerable impact on the manner in which we live are handled in an ethical manner. our lives. Technology is likely to impinge on us in both positive and negative ways. The Digital Agenda for Eu‑ rope (DAE) emphasises that this should be built into the various technologies as they become available. http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CEL 39 EX:52010DC0245R(01):EN:NOT. 14
- 18. PART A: | STATE OF THE ART: SCIENCE, REGULATION AND POLICIES RECOMMENDATIONS | 10 PART A: STATE OF THE ART: SCIENCE, REGULATION AND POLICIES 1. Scientific Aspects which are essential to our lives. The first computers were impossible to imagine as personal devices. The Harvard 1.1 Introduction Mark I, designed by Aiken and Hopper in 1944, was ap‑ proximately 15 metres long and 3 metres tall, weighing The science of information and communication technolo‑ some 5 tonnes. It contained 7600.00 separate pieces gies has changed very drastically over the last 70 years. and was in use until 1959!41 It was capable of addition, The invention of the transistor in 1947 was to herald a rev‑ subtraction and multiplication and it could store some olution in consumer electronics that was unimaginable results. Data was stored and counted mechanically in previous times. For most of the first half of the 20th using 3000 decimal storage wheels, 1400 rotary dial century thermionic valves enabled radio and radar com‑ switches and 500 miles of wire. Its electromagnetic re‑ munication. The development of computing equipment lays classified the machine as a relay computer. All out‑ relied on a very large number of transistors. It was minia‑ put was displayed on an electric typewriter. By today’s turisation that led to the massive change in availability of standards, the Mark I was slow, requiring 3-5 seconds electronic devices, and hence in people’s expectations. for a multiplication operation. As a solid‑state de‑ The computer on the Apollo missions that placed men vice, the transistor on the moon had 2000 bytes of memory. It ran at 1 MHz BC182 was small, used rela‑ and had a total of 32 Kilobits of storage. Today, a mobile BC108 tively little power (and hence heat) and was the basis for the microproces‑ sor, integrated circuit and memory storage devices. Whereas the valves used in the original computing systems meas‑ ured several tens of cubic centimetres, even the original transistors were orders of magnitude smaller. Current microprocessors contain millions of transistors on a tiny area of silicon.40 Heat is a problem only because of the number of individual structures on the die used for creating integrated circuits. Today the most advanced circuits contain several hundred millions components telephone carried in a pocket may have more than 32 on an area no larger than a fingernail. The transistors gigabytes of memory and run at over 1 GHz. Program‑ on these chips measure about 90 nm, you could fit hun‑ ming has become complex and depends on an operat‑ dreds of these transistors inside a red blood cell. ing system (IOS, Windows 7 or Android, for example) Programming today involves the interaction of code 1.1.1 Age of Hardware produced by many individuals and teams. There is no longer a linear sequence of instructions and programs Although computers were initially developed during the are unlikely to be understood in full by any individual. First World War, the personal computer did not become Originally, programmers wrote very basic (or low‑level) available until the 1980s. In less than 30 years, comput‑ calls to a micro‑coded ‘hard‑wired’ system. Today, oper‑ ers have changed from number‑crunching, data‑analys‑ ation is dependent on very sophisticated software rou‑ ing machines to being primarily communication tools tines that run the computer — the operating system. In the early 1970s computer languages were developed that provided an interface between the ordinary user and the computer. UNIX, for example, was developed ht tp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 40 thumb/0/00/Transistor_Count_and_Moore%27s_Law_- _2011.svg/2000px‑Transistor_Count_and_Moore%27s_ Law_-_2011.svg.png. http://inventors.about.com/library/weekly/aa052198.htm. 41 15
- 19. 10 | RECOMMENDATIONS STATE OF THE ART: SCIENCE, REGULATION AND POLICIES | PART A: Ethics of information and communication technologies as a toolbox of routines that could be strung together to have 16 gigabytes or more built in. In 1980 a comput‑ to provide required functionality. 42 er memory board with about 32 kilobytes cost about $ 3000, which was a significant sum. Memory was very Computing started off with the storage and analysis expensive, if relatively fast. of information. Nothing was inter‑connected. Mecha‑ nisms were required for providing the computers with Slower bulk memory was needed for storing large two input types. Firstly, the programmes that defined amounts of data. If necessary, programs could be what were to be done with the data. Initially, this was paged in and out of the faster memory. Initially, mag‑ a series of sequential instructions with a mechanism for netic drums were used, followed by floppy disks that jumping to a different sequence of instructions based could hold up to 360 Kbytes of data, and then by floppy on tests performed on the data. [This has become disks capable of storing 1.4 megabytes of data. Storage more sophisticated, relying on sequences of instruc‑ media in the form of USB sticks and solid‑state memory tions based on actions (e.g. the position of a mouse, are relatively recent. The main memory for long‑term or a mouse click, or input coming from somewhere storage remains hard disk drives. They tend to be rela‑ else)]. The second source of information was the data tively slow but can store large amounts of data in an to be analysed using these instructions. The two sorts easily accessible manner. All these are organised into of information were kept separate. Mechanisms for the file systems that allow for logical storage of the data output of results were also required. Punched cards and the metadata that provides information such as (Hollerith cards initially) and punched tape were the ownership, amount of data, date and time of creation first to be used and were read at a relatively high speed and of last use, etc. by the computers. It is both the size of such memory systems and the Magnetic tape and magnetic discs followed rapidly speed of access that have turned computers into infor‑ during the latter part of the 20th century. In the 1960s mation and communication devices. The real advances teletypewriters were used which provided a coded that have made computers ubiquitous are, on the one form of information (for either control or data) directly hand, the software to search through data and allow to the memory of the computer, there was no contact rapid and effective access in real time and, on the other, with other machines or other users. mechanisms to access the data and provide it in a read‑ able form for the user. Primary data storage, often referred to as memory, is the system that makes data directly available to the 1.1.2 Initial Use of Computers computer itself. Computers had some memory dedicat‑ ed to the system as well as some memory dedicated to Initially, computers were used on their own to analyse the user(s). The system memory consisted of both the scientific data. In the office, word‑processors, less pow‑ memory in which programs and data were held and the erful than those found today, but with similarities to the registers used by the computer in which to perform the typewriters they replaced, except that editing was pos‑ basic operations specified by a program, or linear se‑ sible slowly became ubiquitous. Initially the data was quences of instructions. User memory was often sepa‑ stored on removable diskettes and did not even include rated into (at least) two segments —one that contained spell‑checkers. As the first word processors did not pro‑ the program and one that contained the data to be ad‑ vide a WYSIWYG interface (what you see is what you dressed and modified by the program. From the early get), the final output depended on the available printers 1950’s this was some form of magnetic memory that and they were, in some ways, more difficult to use than could be accessed randomly, as required. Initially these typewriters, for codes had to be included in the ‘copy’ were magnetic cores whose magnetic states were al‑ to indicate formatting (bold, italic, justification etc). tered by the passage of an electric charge. They were Spreadsheets quickly replaced numeric calculators, mak‑ replaced by semi‑conductor memory in about 1975. ing the job of those working with figures significantly The earliest personal computers (circa 1975-1980) had easier than it had been. The days of laboriously adding as little as 16 kilobytes of semi‑conductor memory. To‑ up long columns of figures were numbered once per‑ day’s home computers have up to 64 gigabytes (4 mil‑ sonal calculators, and then computers, appeared on the lion times as large) and even mobile phones are likely scene. While the concept of spreadsheets had been used for centuries, and similar calculation programs existed before, the computerised spreadsheet was probably in‑ 42 http://www.bell‑labs.com/history/unix/. vented in about 1978 by Dan Bricklin and Bob Frankston. 16
- 20. PART A: | STATE OF THE ART: SCIENCE, REGULATION AND POLICIES RECOMMENDATIONS | 10 It was called VisiCalc and was designed for use on an in the early years of computing memory devices were Apple personal computer. extremely limited. This has clearly changed, to the ex‑ tent that random access memory costs about € 4 per The first computer users were primarily scientists, who gigabyte. This is the ‘fast’ memory used within the had to do a great deal of their own programming. Com‑ computer which enables a range of activities to be un‑ puter languages (either interpreted or compiled) were dertaken. Random‑access memory (RAM) is made up of invented to make this possible. Interpreted languages integrated circuits that allow stored data to be accessed were translated at the time of use into code that could in any order. As RAM is usually volatile, stored informa‑ be implemented by the computer. This had to be done tion is lost if the power is removed. Slower memory, each time the programme was used. Compilers took either in the form of semi‑conductors or some kind of the code produced by the programmer and translated magnetic disk, is used to retain data over a long period. it into code that could then be used by the computer. 1.1.3 The Personal Computer Revolution Languages like BASIC were interpreted; Fortran, Al‑ gol, Lisp, C, C++ and Java were compiled. Operating In 1980 it was estimated that less than 5 million com‑ systems, which provide routines that can be accessed puters were in use worldwide. Today it is estimated that by user programmes for particular purposes were by 2015 there will be more than 2 billion. In 2010 there ‘invented’. were over 5 billion mobile phones, which are them‑ selves computers, in use (for a world population of ap‑ With the advent of systems like UNIX, an Application proximately 7 billion). The penetration (% of population Programme Interface (API) was developed that allowed using computers) and quarterly growth of computers programmes to talk to systems which sat between the in 2008 is indicated below. basic machine and the program produced for a par‑ ticular task. The API is the definition of that which is By 2011, the picture had changed very significantly, implemented in a library of machine‑specific routines with major penetration growth in emerging and even that can then be used by those programming without developing countries. The runaway lead in computer needing to take account of the machine on which the technology enjoyed by the United States and Europe is program is running. no longer as great as it was. The graph below indicates penetration — that is, the percentage of the popula‑ The availability of memory is a major factor in the tion in each of the regions that has access to ICT. ubiquity of computer devices. As has been indicated, 12 % Middle East and Africa 10 % Growth in Period Q407 - Q108 Latin America 8% Eastern Europe 6% Western Europe South East Asia 4% Asia-Pacific North America 2% 0% 0% 5% 10 % 15 % 20 % 25 % 30 % Population Penetration 17
- 21. 10 | RECOMMENDATIONS STATE OF THE ART: SCIENCE, REGULATION AND POLICIES | PART A: Ethics of information and communication technologies 80 78,3 60 60,1 58,3 40 36,2 31,7 20 23,8 11,4 0 Africa Asia Middle East Latin America/ Europe Oceania/ North America carib Australia The situation had also changed markedly in charac‑ One of the most important issues that had to be ad‑ ter. Whereas initially personal computers had been dressed before this whole system could take off was stand‑alone devices, having little contact with the speed. If the speed of transmission of information had outside world, they had become machines with a great remained at the speed at which typing is possible, none deal of ‘intelligence’ but, more significantly, they were of the changes to our lives that we have witnessed now connected to the outside world and to each other. could have happened. Computers which contained The major parameters were no longer the speed and the critical elements of conditional response — ‘do memory size associated with the machine, but rather x if y’ — and larger memory, could carry out numerical its connectivity and ability to interact. calculation and, in general, many symbol‑manipulation tasks. Computer technology has undergone profound 1.1.4 Internet changes in every decade since the 1940s, in terms of both the hardware and the programs which make the Towards the end of the last century mechanisms (pro‑ system usable (and ‘user- friendly’). tocols) were developed for machine‑to‑machine inter‑ action. In 1982 the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) was Computers deal with at least three streams: the set of standardised and the concept of a world‑wide network instructions that identify what must be done with any of fully interconnected TCP/IP networks called the In‑ data presented to the system; the data that is present‑ ternet was introduced. The Internet was commercial‑ ed; and the instructions that identify how to interact ised in 1995. with other computers or humans. Internet Users in the World Distribution by World Regions - 2011 13.0% 10.3% Asia 44.0% 5.7% 3.3% Europe 22.7% 22.7% 1.0% North America 13.0% Latin America/Caribb 10.3% Africa 5.78% Middle East 3.3% 44.0% Middle East 1.0% Source: Internet world stats - www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm Basis: 2,095,006,005 Internet users on March 31, 2011 Copyright© 2011, Miniwatts Marketing Group 18
- 22. PART A: | STATE OF THE ART: SCIENCE, REGULATION AND POLICIES RECOMMENDATIONS | 10 1.1.5 Age of Software It is estimated that in 1993 the Internet carried only 1 % of the information flowing through two‑way telecom‑ The mid 1990s saw a large increase in the use of the munication. By 2000 this figure had grown to 51 %, Internet and its impact on our lives. The develop‑ and by 2007 more than 97 % of all telecommunicated ment of computer operating systems that provided information was carried over the Internet. an easy‑to‑use interface, such as MSDOS (developed by Microsoft) followed by graphical user interfaces The graphical user interface had a major influence on enabled the general public to use computers in ways the accessibility of the computer by the general public. that initially had not been available. Word‑processing It is generally understood that it provides some form packages have had an enormous impact on commu‑ of graphical display of what there is to do, along with nication, making simple cross‑cultural communication a pointing device enabling the user to point to and possible, for example. Once WYSIWYG43 interfaces be‑ choose a particular operation to be performed. came available, word‑processing software was in use everywhere. Companies like Microsoft provided the The availability of large amounts of memory and means to kick‑start a revolution in the way people com‑ the development of algorithms that enable effective municate. E‑mail had begun in the early 1980s and may searching and cross‑correlating large amounts of data have led to the development of the Internet. have changed our world completely. It is estimated that there are 2 billion people using the Internet to‑ The World Wide Web is now part of our culture. It was day, which is approximately one third of the popula‑ developed by Tim Berners Lee in 1989 at CERN as a ‘Hy‑ tion.44 The use of portable mobile devices has further pertext project’ called ‘WorldWideWeb’ as a ‘web’ of increased the magnitude of this phenomenon.45 Over ‘hypertext documents’. It involved a simple system for 2 billion people worldwide will own at least one smart‑ hypertext documents written in English, where angular phone by 201546 and in the EU the number of mobile brackets ( and ) separated the text itself from the phone subscribers was around 650 million in 2010. instructions to the computer as to the manner in which the text was to be displayed. Initially the web related 1.2 The Current Use of the Internet to the text that was to be sent from one computer to another. ‘Content is king’ was a popular slogan. The The way the Internet is used today is very different from simplicity of the hypertext mark‑up language meant what was originally designed. The first form of the In‑ that the system was accessible even over slow Internet ternet was called Web 1.0 and consisted of static pages. lines. The system has changed slightly. The latest ver‑ The consumer was merely a receiver and user of content sions of the language (HTML5 for example) allow for dictated and created by someone else, the producer. much more in the way of web applications than those The producer normally had the technical know‑how as which were initially developed. a programmer and software developer. The second and current state (dating from 2010) is referred to as Web 2.0. Web pages used to be simple, with a single page defin‑ ing both the information and instructions to the brows‑ The distinction between the producer and consumer er (displaying the information in a single file). When of content has now disappeared. Thanks to new ap‑ Amazon’s Chief Executive Officer, Bezos, introduced plications, any user can create content on the Internet their new e‑book readers in December 2011, he noted that most modern web pages, such as Amazon’s own or that of CNN, are sophisticated creations, with multiple 44 Figure quoted by William Echikson, Google, during the photos, animations, and complex scripts and mark‑up round table organised for this Opinion. code. The CNN home page, for instance, is built by the 45 A mobile device is a small, hand‑held computing device, browser from about 53 static images, 39 dynamic im‑ typically having a display screen with touch input and/or ages, three Flash files, 30 JavaScript files from seven a miniature keyboard and weighing less than 0.91 kg. Early different domains, 29 HTML files and seven CSS (Cas‑ pocket sized ones were joined in the late 2000s by larger but otherwise similar tablet computers. As in a personal digital cading Style Sheet) files.’ (28 September 2011). assistant (PDA), the input and output are often combined into a touch‑screen interface. In telecommunications, 4G is the fourth generation of cellular wireless standards. It is a successor to the 3G and 2G families of standards. 46 h t t p : // w w w. p a r k s a s s o c i a t e s . c o m / b l o g /a r t i c l e / What you see is what you get. 43 parks‑pr2011-smartphones. 19
- 23. 10 | RECOMMENDATIONS STATE OF THE ART: SCIENCE, REGULATION AND POLICIES | PART A: Ethics of information and communication technologies without needing to know any programming languages. large amounts of personal data from disparate sources ‘The Internet provides people with the ability to leap to be organised and analysed, thereby facilitating the borders, to disregard convention and to engage in discovery of previously unknown relationships among unprecedented debate on everything from movies the data. A variety of methods, such as probability, infor‑ to monarchy. Blogs, social networks and online video mation and graph theory as well as artificial intelligence, platforms are now widely available for everyone with database techniques and classification algorithms, are access to the Internet’.47 Nonetheless, there are marked employed to discover interesting patterns in the data.51 differences in the speed of access, depending on the part of the world where it is being used. This may Data mining may be of real significance when databas‑ prevent people living in developing countries from es collected from many sources are analysed together accessing information or using computer systems as to provide information that is not contained in the in‑ effectively as people living in North America or Western dividual databases. Linking shopping data collected Europe. Netcraft’s May 2011 survey reported that there through store cards with bank data and/or health data, were approximately 325 million websites online com‑ for example, provides insights into an individual’s hab‑ pared to 623 websites on New Year’s Day 1994.48 Re‑ its which may not have been immediately obvious. searchers at the University of California Berkeley have estimated that around 5 exabytes of data were created 1.2.2 Cloud Computing during 2002 across all storage forms (print, film, mag‑ netic, optical). Now, in 2011 — less than a decade later Cloud computing provides computation, software, data — International Data Cooperation (IDC) estimates that access, and storage services that do not require the more than 5 exabytes49 are recorded online every day. end‑user to know the physical location and configuration of the system that delivers the services. Cloud comput‑ 1.2.1 Data mining ing providers deliver applications via the Internet that are accessed from web browsers and from desktop and Data mining is the process of discovering new pat‑ mobile apps, while the business software and data are terns from multiple, large data sets involving methods stored on servers at a remote location.52 Cloud comput‑ at the intersection of artificial intelligence, machine ing is founded on the broad concept of infrastructure learning, statistics and database systems. The goal of convergence and shared services. Most cloud‑comput‑ data mining is to extract knowledge from a data set in ing infrastructure consists of services delivered through a structure which humans can understand. It involves shared data‑centres and appearing as a single point of database and data management, data pre‑processing, access for consumers’ computing needs. model and inference considerations, ‘interestingness metrics’, complexity considerations, post‑processing of found structure, visualisation and online updating. The dramatic growth of powerful computing and commu‑ nication technologies enables vast amounts of personal information to be collected, stored and used more eas‑ ily and effectively than ever before. Such information is generated, knowingly or unknowingly, by individuals going about their daily activities: withdrawing money from a cash machine, website browsing and online pur‑ chasing, using loyalty cards or even making a mobile telephone call.50 Techniques such as data mining enable ibid. 47 Fayyad UM. IEEE Expert 1996;11(5):20-25. 51 48 ibid. 52 In some cases, applications are stored locally and deliv- 49 an exabyte is 218 bytes or, 152 921 504 606 846 976 bytes. ered via screen‑sharing technology, while the computing 50 Information and Privac y Commissioner, Ontario. resources are consolidated at a remote data centre loca- Data Mining: Staking a Claim on your Privacy 1998 tion; in other cases, entire business applications have been http://www.ipc.on.ca/images/resources/datamine.pdf, coded using web‑based technologies such as AJAX where accessed 10 January 2012. the program and data are stored remotely. 20
- 24. PART A: | STATE OF THE ART: SCIENCE, REGULATION AND POLICIES RECOMMENDATIONS | 10 Cloud computing has developed since the 1960s and network becomes more powerful when intelligence since the availability of a significant bandwidth per‑ can be embedded in things and processing power can mitting rapid transfer of data between computers in be distributed more widely in the network. the 1990s. From a user point of view, cloud computing means that users can access their files, data, programs The Internet of things (IoT) is usually identified as having and other services via the Internet that are hosted by started in 1999 when the Auto‑ID Centre was established other service providers. Control and responsibility for at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). what is stored in the cloud may, however, rest either with the cloud provider or the user, and the physical Interacting with other machines has become at least as location of the data may result in problems relating to important as interacting with people or other comput‑ jurisdiction. ers. ‘The Internet of things is about interacting with the objects around us, including static non‑intelligent ob‑ 1.2.3 Internet of Things jects, and augmenting such interactions with context as provided by geo‑location, time etc. Even non‑powered The Internet of things (IoT) is an integral part of Future devices can be brought into the Internet of things via Internet, encompassing existing and evolving Internet a handset or a smartphone serving as a gateway to the and network developments. It could be defined as a dy‑ Internet. In the case of machine‑to‑machine commu‑ namic global network infrastructure with self‑configur‑ nication (M2M), this involves communicating with ma‑ ing capabilities based on standard and interoperable chines such as energy‑meters or sensors or even your communication protocols where physical and virtual refrigerator via IP over wireless or wire.’55 The devices do ‘things’ have identities, physical attributes, and virtual not even have to be intelligent or powered. Near‑field personalities, use intelligent interfaces, and are seam‑ communication (NFC) is based on very short‑range ra‑ lessly integrated into the information network. In the dio communication technology and NFC‑enabled hand‑ IoT, ‘smart things/objects’ are expected to become sets are being introduced into the market. active participants in business, information and social processes. There they are enabled to interact and com‑ RFID (radio‑frequency identification systems) tags are municate among themselves and with the environment simple. They are able to cause a response in the form by exchanging data and information ‘sensed’ about the of a unique number from a (possibly) non‑powered environment, while reacting autonomously to events in tag which, via computers, can then be associated with the ‘real/physical world’ and influencing it by running an individual or an individual object to which the tag processes that trigger actions and create services with is attached. The reader can be several metres away or without direct human intervention. Services will be from the tag and not necessarily in line of sight. Tags able to interact with these ‘smart things/objects’ using are now being used everywhere, from the identifica‑ standard interfaces that will provide the necessary link tion and sorting of luggage at airports to charging via the Internet, to query and change their state and to for toll roads or for biometric surveillance for security retrieve any information associated with them, taking purpose. RFID data can be read through the human security and privacy issues into account. body, clothing and non‑metallic materials. RFID tags used with entry systems allow access to specific build‑ According to the European Commission, the Internet of ings and allow data concerning the tagged persons or things means: ‘Things having identities and virtual per‑ objects to be recorded when passing a reader device. sonalities operating in smart spaces using intelligent The Internet of things is considered to be an innovative interfaces to connect and communicate within social, ICT sector. It may be used in the home environment, environmental, and user contexts.’.53 One important as‑ or even in smart health monitoring devices, but there pect of future Internet is that the Internet will extend are implications in that it can (and is) used to track in‑ outside traditional computer devices so that any ob‑ dividuals’ movements. jects in the environment can be connected to it.54 The http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/policy/rfid/ 53 through networks. Sensor technologies are used to detect documents/iotprague2009.pdf. changes in the physical environment of things, which fur- ther benefits data collection. 54 Data about things is collected and processed with very small computers (mostly Radio Frequency Identifier Devices – http://weblog.cenriqueortiz.com/Internetof things/ 55 RFID- tags) that are connected to more powerful computers 2010/08/02/m2 m‑vs‑Internet‑of‑things/. 21
- 25. 10 | RECOMMENDATIONS STATE OF THE ART: SCIENCE, REGULATION AND POLICIES | PART A: Ethics of information and communication technologies 1.2.4 Social Networks networking sites began to flourish with the emergence of SixDegrees.com in 1997, followed by Makeoutclub A social networking service is an online service, platform, in 2000 and Friendster in 2002, soon becoming part of or site that focuses on building social networks or social the Internet mainstream. Friendster was followed by My relations among people with shared interests or activi‑ Space and LinkedIn a year later, as well as Bebo. ties. Most social network services are web based and provide means for users to interact over the Internet, The main social networking services are those which such as through e‑mail and instant messaging. Online contain category places (such as former school year or community services are sometimes considered as a so‑ classmates), means to connect with friends (usually with cial network, albeit in a broader sense. A social network self‑description pages) and a recommendation system service usually means an individual‑centred service, linked to trust. Popular methods now combine many of whereas online community services are group‑centred. these features: Facebook and Twitter are used extensive‑ In the late 1990s, user profiles became a central feature ly worldwide; Nexopia (mostly in Canada); Bebo, VKon‑ of social networking sites, allowing users to compile takte, Hi5, Hyves (mostly in The Netherlands), Draugiem. lists of ‘friends’ and search for other users with similar lv (mostly in Latvia), StudiVZ (mostly in Germany), iWiW interests. By the end of the 1990s new social networking (mostly in Hungary), Tuenti (mostly in Spain), Nasza‑Kla‑ methods had been developed and many sites began sa (mostly in Poland), Decayenne, Tagged, XING, Badoo to develop more advanced features for users to find and Skyrock in parts of Europe; Orkut and Hi5 in South and manage friends. 56 This newer generation of social America and Central America; and Mixi, Multiply, Or‑ kut, Wretch, renren and Cyworld in Asia and the Pacific Islands. LinkedIn and Orkut are very popular in India. 56 Efforts to support social networks via computer‑mediated communication were made in many early online services, The use of social networks is massive; the magnitude including Usenet, ARPANET, LISTSERV and bulletin board ser- of this phenomenon is clearly illustrated by the 2011 vices (BBS). Many prototypical features of social networking data relating to Facebook. With over 500 million users, sites were also present in online services such as America Facebook is now used by 1 in every 13 people on earth. Online, Prodigy, and CompuServe. Early social networking on the World Wide Web began in the form of generalised Over 250 million of them (over 50 %) log in every day. online communities such as Theglobe.com (1995), Geocities Over 700 billion minutes a month are spent on Face‑ (1994) and Tripod.com (1995). book, 20 million applications are installed per day and 22
- 26. PART A: | STATE OF THE ART: SCIENCE, REGULATION AND POLICIES RECOMMENDATIONS | 10 over 250 million people interact with Facebook from better and automatic interchange. In many respects, outside the official website on a monthly basis, across information has never been so free. There are more 2 million websites. Over 200 million people access Fa‑ ways to spread more ideas to more people than at any cebook via their mobile phone; 48 % of young people moment in history. And even in authoritarian countries, say they now get their news through Facebook. In the information networks are helping people discover new space of just 20 minutes, over 1 million links are shared facts and making governments more accountable.58 on Facebook, 2 million friend requests are accepted and almost 3 million messages are sent.57 Perhaps the most important change is that informa‑ tion on the Internet is readily searchable. ‘In fact, the 1.3 The Future Internet potential of search and retrieval of information has long been a driving factor in digital publishing, as, indeed, The Future Internet (sometimes referred to as Web it has been a major rationale for the Internet itself. We 3.0) is a term describing all the research and develop‑ have come to take search and retrieval of information ment activities concerning the Internet. A concept that for granted, and publishers may overlook this very im‑ distinguishes FI from the current Internet is Semantic portant aspect of digital titles. While it may be merely Web. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) defines an occasional convenience to see when last a particular Semantic Web as a Web of data. The original Internet character had appeared in the course of reading, say, was designed as a web of documents but the amount a murder mystery, for many types of publishing, the of information in the networks has grown so much that significant improvement in the speed and accuracy of better ways of retrieving and combining it are needed. finding particular information is a big deal.’59 The information can be integrated from various different sources and types of data and the type of the relation‑ Cognitive networks will also contribute to making ships between the pieces of data are defined to enable a more ‘intelligent’ Internet. They perceive current Parameters 1. Smooth trip 2. Going Green 3. Commercial Big 4. Power to the people of evolution Brother Internet Based on current architectural Real-time, data driven, mesh, Vertically integrated Ad hoc/mesh, data/user infrastructure principles cloud services driven Technological Mobility based No change Sensors Distributed network Streaming requires NGN or Distributed control Online developments in archit. Principles control ‘clean slate Walled gardens, Reputation, Viral adoption Interoperability specialized nets Generalized wiki Security, Security from competing Sensitive to privacy, data Strong Security, either real Privacy and identity more Privacy and private efforts Tradeoffs with protection or apparent Power to data important than security Control anonymity collectors Economic As varied as possible. Work Natural resources Entertainment Driven by Distributed, user generated models process evolution. Govern‑ consumption. May need profits from industry, content Innovation from the bottom ment and business support. incentives. and network providers Social aspects Social inequality Globalization key No social drive Main social drive Policy Data protection Moderate IPR Transparency Strong IPR protection No IPR protection Open Energy, Ecvironment standards Interconnection Standards Some tension between open Competing closed standards Open or Open source Multi-cultural support and industrial standards may prevail Open standards standards Filter/search technologies key acceprable Need global standards Network Important but not strongly Important but not key Ignored, just a burden Key element to enforce Neutrality enforced 58 Hilary Clinton, 2010 Gilbane Group (October 2010) ‘A Blueprint for Book 59 57 http://www.digitalbuzzblog.com/facebook‑statistics‑ Publishing Transformation: Seven Essential Processes to stats‑facts-2011/. Re‑Invent Publishing’ 23
- 27. 10 | RECOMMENDATIONS STATE OF THE ART: SCIENCE, REGULATION AND POLICIES | PART A: Ethics of information and communication technologies network conditions, and based on that they are able Smartphone use accounts for 65% of all mobile cellular to plan, decide and act. Cognitive processes belong to traffic worldwide 64, despite smartphone penetration ‘machine learning’. They use different mechanisms to running at just 13%, according to Informa Telecoms remember previous interactions with the network and Media65. The number of mobile phone world sub‑ adapt future decisions according to that knowledge. scribers has doubled in the past five years66. This figure The preceding figure shows future uses of Internet. is expected to rise by 10% to 5.6 billion in 2011. The growth in developing and emerging countries is espe‑ 1.4 Mobile Devices cially strong. According to the most recent data from the UN agency International Telecommunication Union A mobile device is a small, hand‑held computing device, (ITU)67, more than half the homes in these countries, typically having a display screen with touch input and/or even in rural areas, have a mobile phone connection. a miniature keyboard and less than 0.91 kg. Early pocket Landlines are rarely found or not at all. sized ones were joined in the late 2000s by larger but otherwise similar tablet computers. As in a personal digi‑ In the EU the number of mobile phone subscribers is tal assistant (PDA), the input and output are often com‑ expected to rise to around 650 million by the end of bined into a touch‑screen interface60. Enterprise digital 2010. This is a growth of almost 3 per cent compared assistants can further extend the available functionality to the previous year. Nearly a third of these now use for the business user by offering integrated data capture UMTS. Germany has the most mobile phone con‑ devices like barcode, RFID and smart card readers. 38% tracts in the EU: around 111 million by the end of 2010. of Internet users worldwide had a smartphone in the second quarter of 2011, according to the results of Insites Consulting ‘Social Media around the World 2011’ global The UK had the fastest year‑over‑year growth of the six mar- study about the usage of social media around the globe, kets, increasing about 63% from 21% to 34.3% and taking third place. The US came in fourth with a 27% adoption rate, with 9,000 respondents in 35 countries. Internet usage up about 61% from 16.8% the prior year and in fourth place via mobile is quickly becoming as important as Internet ahead of Germany and France. usage via PC among those who own smartphones, ac‑ 64 The US has higher percentages of smartphone users in the cording to research from Google and the Mobile Market‑ 18-to-24 bracket (16.7% compared to 14.5%) and 25-to-34 ing Association (MMA)61 conducted during the first half bracket (27.2% compared to 23.6% percent). Meanwhile, in of 2011 in several countries around the world. EU5, those 55 and older represent 18.1% of the smartphone market, compared to 12.6% in the US. In December 2010, near- Over 2 billion people worldwide will own at least one ly 47% of mobile subscribers in the US were mobile media users (browsed the mobile web, accessed applications, down- smartphone by 2015, with unit sales growing over loaded content or accessed the mobile Internet via SMS), up 175% from 2010, according to Parks Associates’ fore‑ about 17% from the previous year, according to other report casts62. Parks Associates indicates that smartphone data. comScore says the growth in mobile media usage is shipments jumped 70% in 2010, with approximately largely attributable to the growth in smartphone adoption, 500 million users. (Parks Associates, May 2011). Smart‑ 3G/4G device ownership and the increasing ubiquity of un- limited data plans, all of which facilitate the consumption of phone adoption grew considerably in the US and EU mobile media. (Marketing Charts, February 2011) markets63 during 2010. 65 http://blogs.informatandm.com/1397/press‑release‑smart- phones‑account‑for‑almost-65-of‑mobile‑traffic‑worldwide/ 60 In telecommunications, 4G is the fourth generation of cellular 66 The use of mobile communications is increasing far more in wireless standards. It is a successor to the 3G and 2G families Asia and South America than in Europe and North America. of standards. The 4G system was originally envisioned by the In China, the number of mobile phone subscribers has risen Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). In 4G by almost 13 percent this year to around 844 million. This systems mobility is provided by the mobile IP protocol, part figure is expected to grow by one‑tenth within the next of IP version 6, while in earlier cellular generations it was only year to 930 million. In India, the number of subscriptions provided by physical layer and datalink layer protocols. will go up by 30 per cent to 680 million. In Brazil, there will be 193 million connections by the end of the year; a growth 61 http://mmaglobal.com/Mobile%20web%20and%20app%20 of 11 percent. Japan is technically very advanced: 96 per- FINAL%2030June2011.pdf cent of all mobile communications users already use UMTS. 62 http://www.parksassociates.com/blog/article/parks‑ (eito.com, August 2010). pr2011-smartphones http://www.itu.int/ITU‑D/icteye/Reporting/ShowRe- 67 63 Spain has the highest rate of smartphone adoption of all portFrame.aspx?ReportName=/WTI/CellularSubscriber six markets, 37.6%, up about 38% from 27.3% in December sPublicReportFormat=HTML4.0RP_intYear=2010RP_ 2009. Spain surpassed 2009 leader Italy in November 2010. intLanguageID=1RP_bitLiveData=False 24
- 28. PART A: | STATE OF THE ART: SCIENCE, REGULATION AND POLICIES RECOMMENDATIONS | 10 Germany is followed by Italy (87 million), Great Britain international bodies to promote Internet governance (81 million), France (62 million) and Spain (57 million). provisions has grown. This chapter aims to provide By comparison: There are an anticipated 220 million in some factual information on the main initiatives pro‑ Russia and 287 million in the USA. moted internationally. The threshold of 5 billion mobile phone subscribers will 2.1.1 The United Nations Internet be exceeded this year for the first time. By the end of Governance Forum the year, the 4.5 billion figure will have increased by 12 per cent to 5.1 billion68. The Internet Governance Forum (IGF) was established by the United Nations World Summit on the Informa‑ 2. Regulatory Frameworks tion Society 69 (WSIS) as a non‑binding multi‑stake‑ holder platform. Since then, it has become the leading and Policy Frameworks global multi‑stakeholder forum on public policy issues 2.1 Internet Governance: International Bodies related to Internet governance. ‘Internet governance is the development and applica‑ It is convened by the United Nations Secretary‑General tion by governments, the private sector and civil socie‑ and has no executive powers. It brings together all the ty, in their respective roles, of shared principles, norms, stakeholders (NGOs, Industry and Government) to dis‑ rules, decision‑making procedures, and programmes cuss issues around ICT. Its UN mandate gives it con‑ that shape the evolution and use of the Internet.’ This vening power and the authority to serve as a neutral working definition was taken up in the Tunis Agenda space for all actors on an equal footing. As a space for for the Information Society, at the United Nations World dialogue it can identify issues to be addressed by the Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) in 2005. In international community and shape decisions that will the last decades the number of initiatives taken by be taken in other fora. The IGF is useful in shaping the No established Surveillance society Fragmented common norms for identities and hard- network behaviour to-manage online Monopoly reputation ‘gatekeepers’ No anonymity GOVERNMENT Socio-economic divides Vulnerable become CONSUMER High costs for access content more so based on network use Exclusivity of Inorganic and less service provision Censorship Lack of centralized generative network control Information overload Unsecured User fear, networks mistrust Infringements to privacy Harmful content Service Excessive Widespread Limited access overload, commercial anonymity Stagnation in Lack of confusion interference innovation portability Complexity of use Market failure Diluted intellectual Heterogeneous and complex user Undesirable property rights Insufficient returns on investment demands characteristics of a future INDUSTRY internet from Low resources usage the 3 main user perspectives 68 http://www.parksassociates.com/bento/shop/samples/ parks‑Smartphones.pdf http://www.intgovforum.org/cms/. 69 25
- 29. 10 | RECOMMENDATIONS STATE OF THE ART: SCIENCE, REGULATION AND POLICIES | PART A: Ethics of information and communication technologies international agenda and in preparing the ground for some background to the issues discussed at the ses‑ negotiations and decision‑making in other institutions. sions of the High‑Level Meeting, including broadband access, the role of broadband in developing the Inter‑ 2.1.2 UNESCO: Code of Conduct net economy, the balance of policy goals to strengthen for the Information Society growth and policy‑making principles for an open Inter‑ net. In December 2011 the OECD published a report on In 2000 the United Nations Education, Scientific and data protection and trans‑border data flow.75 Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) initiated a global de‑ bate on ethics in ICT aimed at stimulating reflection 2.1.4 Council of Europe and debate on ethical, legal and societal aspects of the Information Society. It brings together partici‑ The Council of Europe’s expert group on critical Internet pants from the largest possible number of countries resources and cross‑border traffic presented its proposal representing the widest range of educational, scientific, for ‘12 principles of Internet governance’ at the 2010 cultural and social environments. The objectives of this summit of the Internet Governance Forum in Lithuania. initiative were to facilitate broader and fairer access to A draft Treaty enshrining the principles of net neutrality information, by elaborating common principles that and protecting the Internet from political interference could guide the Member States in the formulation was discussed by the Internet Governance Forum but of rules governing the application of ‘fair use’ within not adopted. According to the drat Treaty ‘Net neutrality’ the framework of their national legislation while, pro‑ means that the commercial interests of telecommunica‑ tecting human dignity in the digital age.70 European tions companies and Internet service providers should regional meetings on the ethical dimensions of the in‑ not affect consumers’ access to the Web. For example, any formation society have been organised by the French action taken for competitive gain, such as blocking access Commission for UNESCO71 in cooperation with UNESCO to Skype with a view to selling another Internet telephony and the Council of Europe. In October 2011 a code of service, runs counter to the principles of net neutrality. conduct for the information society (non legally bind‑ ing) was discussed at the UNESCO General Assembly72. The proposal was drawn up by the Council of Europe, which has 47 member states and aims to promote hu‑ 2.1.3 Organisation for Economic man rights, the rule of law and democracy in Europe. Cooperation and Development This draft Internet treaty has been likened to the Space Treaty76, agreed in 1967, according to which space ex‑ The mission of the Organisation for Economic Coopera‑ ploration should be carried out for the benefit of all tion and Development (OECD) is to promote policies nations and guarantee ‘free access to all areas of celes‑ that will improve the economic and social well‑being tial bodies’. ‘The fundamental functions and the core of people around the world. The OECD’s work on In‑ principles of the Internet must be preserved in all layers ternet governance spans several themes, including the of the Internet architecture with a view to guaranteeing information economy, information security and priva‑ the interoperability of networks in terms of infrastruc‑ cy, broadband and telecom, and e‑government.73 At ture, services and contents’. a High Level Meeting74 entitled ‘The Internet Economy: Generating Innovation and Growth’ in June 2011, the 2.1.5 Internet Corporation for Assigned OECD developed an Issues Paper (June 2011) outlining Names and Numbers (ICANN) ‘ICANN77 was formed in 1998. It is a not‑for‑profit pub‑ 70 http://webworld.unesco.org/infoethics2000/objectives.html. lic‑benefit corporation with participants from all over 71 Commission nationale française pour l’UNESCO the world dedicated to keeping the Internet secure, 72 http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002126/212696f.pdf. 73 The OECD has developed a privacy statement generator, 75 http://www.oecd‑ilibrary.org/science‑and‑technology/ building on the OECD guidelines for the protection of pri- regulation‑of‑transborder‑data‑flows‑under‑data‑protec- vacy. They regularly publish policy guidelines on Internet tion‑and‑privacy‑law_5kg0s2fk315f‑en. economy issues and reviews of good governance in informa- tion society. Additionally, the OECD releases regular statistical 76 Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the updates on the future of the Internet economy (June 2011). Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies. See http://www.oecd.org/site/0,3407,en_21571361_ 74 47081080_1_1_1_1_1,00.html 77 See http://www.icann.org/en/about/ 26
- 30. PART A: | STATE OF THE ART: SCIENCE, REGULATION AND POLICIES RECOMMENDATIONS | 10 stable and interoperable. It promotes competition and In 2011, Europe faced many challenges to its economic develops policy on the Internet’s unique identifiers.’ and social progress including an ageing population It holds periodic public meetings for the purpose of and growing global competition. With a view to ad‑ encouraging global participation in its processes. The dressing those challenges, in March 2010 the European United States has been the supervisor of the organisa‑ Commission launched the Europe 2020 strategy, which tion’s policy decisions since its formation including dis‑ sets out a vision for achieving high levels of employ‑ pute resolution over domain‑name ownership or the ment, a low carbon economy, productivity and social introduction of top‑level domains. In November 2005, cohesion. Seven flagship initiatives were foreseen to an agreement was struck between the EU and the US implement the strategy. The first, which was adopt‑ to leave the supervision of domain names and other ed by the Commission in May 2010, was the ‘Digital technical resources unchanged. On 2 October 2009, the Agenda for Europe’82 (DAE). It defines the key role that United States announced it would end its unilateral su‑ ICT must play if Europe is to succeed in its ambitions pervision powers over ICANN,78 which remains the body for 2020. Below is a summary of the key policies of the responsible for managing Internet addresses worldwide. five‑year plan: 2.2 European Union Policy Regarding ICT • create a new single market to remove barriers to cross‑border trade and licensing, simplify copyright 2.2.1 The Digital Agenda for Europe (DAE). clearance, complete the Single European Payment Area and boost the allocation of spectrum to new According to data prepared by the Global Institute and services such as mobile applications; McKinsey’s Technology, Media and Telecommunications Practices79 as part of a knowledge partnership with the • improve ICT standard‑setting and interoper‑ e‑G8 Forum organised by the G20 French Presidency80 ability by reviewing the European Interoperability in 2011, Internet‑related consumption and expenditure Framework; is now bigger than agriculture or energy. On average, the Internet contributes 3.4 per cent to GDP in the 13 coun‑ • improve trust and security by tackling cybercrime tries covered by the research.81 Most of the economic and sexual exploitation and reviewing the data pro‑ value created by the Internet falls outside the technology tection framework to protect consumer rights; sector, with 75 % of the benefits captured by compa‑ nies in more traditional industries. The Internet is also • increase access to fast Internet and aid the roll‑out a catalyst for job creation. Among 4 800 small and medi‑ of fixed and wireless networks; um‑sized enterprises surveyed, the Internet created 2.6 jobs for each job lost to technology‑related efficiencies. • raise the level of digital literacy by promoting e‑skills initiatives and inclusive digital services. 78 http://www.euractiv.com/fr/node/188352. • smart use of technology and exploitation of infor‑ 79 http://www.mckinsey.com/Insights/MGI/Research/ mation to address major societal challenges such Technology_and_Innovation/Internet_matters. as climate change and the ageing population. 80 http://www.mckinsey.com/Insights/MGI/Research/ Technology_and_Innovation/Internet_matters. This strategy addresses the plethora of ICT applications The United States is the largest player in the global Inter- 81 so far identified in the EU, including: net supply ecosystem, capturing more than 30 per cent of global Internet revenues and more than 40 per cent of 2.2.2 E‑Government net income. It is also the country with the most balanced structure within the global ecosystem among the 13 coun- Europe’s E‑Government has developed significantly in tries studied, garnering relatively equal contributions from hardware, software and services, and telecommunications. recent years and is now seen by millions of citizens as India and China are rapidly strengthening their position in a tangible reality. The impact of e‑Government is be‑ the global Internet ecosystem with growth rates of more ing felt by citizens and companies well beyond gov‑ than 20 per cent. France, Canada, and Germany have an op- ernment services, with tools such as electronic identity portunity to leverage their strong Internet usage to increase their presence in the supply ecosystem. Other Asian coun- tries are rapidly accelerating their influence on the Internet economy at faster rates than Japan. Brazil, Russia and Italy http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/digital‑agenda/ 82 are in the early stages of Internet supply (ibid). index_en.htm. 27
- 31. 10 | RECOMMENDATIONS STATE OF THE ART: SCIENCE, REGULATION AND POLICIES | PART A: Ethics of information and communication technologies helping citizens and businesses in everyday activities 2.2.3 E‑Commerce across society. ICT systems have become central to gov‑ ernment processes for delivering services. E‑commerce (electronic commerce) means the buying and selling of any goods or services on the Internet, The roadmap focuses on a number of priorities, such ranging from flight tickets to garden furniture, news‑ as: 1) making e‑Government inclusive, so that ‘no citi‑ paper subscriptions, ‘apps’ (smart phone applications) zen is left behind’; 2) genuine efficiency and effective‑ or music. ness in e‑Government (to improve the transparency and accountability of government services, increase The Internet in general and e‑commerce in particular, user satisfaction, and lighten the administrative bur‑ have enormous potential for boosting growth and den on businesses and citizens); 3) making high‑impact creating jobs. In some G8 countries the Internet has services for citizens and businesses more widely avail‑ accounted for 20 % of economic growth and 25 % of able, together with electronic procurement services job growth in the last five years. 83 The Internet only for businesses, services for mobile citizens, including accounts for less than 3 % of the EU economy (gross better job searching across Europe, or social security domestic product) and only 3.4 % of all products and services (for example pension records and electronic services are sold over the Internet at the present time. benefit applications). E‑Government will be critical in enabling service providers to take advantage of mar‑ It has been suggested that the development of ket opportunities outside their home country, under high‑speed networks today is having the same impact the EU’s Services Directive; 4) putting in place key ena‑ as the development of electricity and transportation blers to lay the foundations for e‑Government systems networks had a century ago. Services are converging to work together, and building the connections be‑ and moving from the physical into the digital world, tween ICT systems in different public organisations universally accessible on any device, be it a smart‑ and countries. phone, tablet, personal computer, digital radio or Percentage of adults in selected EU countries who have made purchases on the Internet in the last 3 months, by country85 80 % 2007 2010 (f ) 2013 (f ) 70 % 60 % 50 % 40 % 30 % 20 % 10 % 0% Netherlands Sweden Finland Germany Luxembourg Austria France Ireland Belgium Spain Italy Portugal Greece EU 15 Denmark UK 83 http://www.mckinsey.com/Insights/MGI/Research/ Technology_and_Innovation/Internet_matters. 28
- 32. PART A: | STATE OF THE ART: SCIENCE, REGULATION AND POLICIES RECOMMENDATIONS | 10 high‑definition television. In parallel, the use of ICT is and prices on the Internet and improved consumer opening up an Internet‑based commerce which cov‑ protection; 90 and a more extensive availability of ers many business sectors. 84 Key factors involved in high‑speed Internet and improved communication this phenomenon are: e‑commerce, e‑invoicing and infrastructure for more citizens91. e‑signatures. According to Eurostat, on average, 57 % of EU citizens ordered goods for parcel delivery using The Commission is focusing on broad aspects of e‑com‑ the Internet in 2010.85 merce which are inevitably linked to the application of the e‑commerce directive, such as online payment sys‑ The e‑commerce Directive,86 which regulates a broad tems and the efficiency of cross‑border delivery services. range of Internet activities in the EU, is to be reviewed The Commission agrees with online service providers to provide businesses and consumers with greater legal that the current framework of the e‑commerce direc‑ certainty in a borderless online marketplace. Towards tive and the principle of the limited liability of Internet the end of 2010 the Commission concluded a public intermediaries in particular, have proven to be of value. consultation on the future of electronic commerce in the internal market and the implementation of the Di‑ ‘Electronic communication and commerce necessi‑ rective on electronic commerce.87 tate “electronic signatures” and related services allow‑ ing data authentication; divergent rules with respect On 11 January 2012 the European Commission adopted to legal recognition of electronic signatures and the a communication on e‑commerce to address a num‑ accreditation of certification‑service providers in the ber of issues related to the optimisation of the EU sin‑ Member States may create a significant barrier to the gle market for growth and jobs88. The plans propose use of electronic communications and electronic com‑ a number of measures including: better access to dif‑ merce; on the other hand, a clear Community frame‑ ferent kinds of online services for consumers across the work regarding the conditions applying to electronic EU;89 greater transparency with respect to companies signatures will strengthen confidence in, and general acceptance of, the new technologies.’92 84 Only one of the nine ICT applications companies on the Financial Times Global 500 list is European; only four of the network (CPC) in order to ensure the correct application of top 54 websites visited across Europe are of European origin. the e‑commerce Directive and of the Directives protecting consumers online; 2) quickly implement the European strat- 85 E‑commerce across Europe Progress and prospects egy for intellectual property rights, in particular by presenting October 2008 http://www.eaca.be/_upload/documents/ a legislative initiative on private copying (2013) and a review publications/E‑commerce%20across%20Europe.pdf. of the Directive on copyright in the information society (2012); 86 http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/e‑commerce/docs/ 3) report on the outcome of the consultation on the online study/ecd/%20final%20report_070907.pdf. distribution of audiovisual works (mid-2012); and (4) ensure that the new rules on selective distribution are rigorously applied. 87 The e‑commerce Directive (2000/31/EC) contains rules that facilitate the offer of online services in the EU and ensure, 90 The Commission will also: 1) boost the capacity of the in the interests of consumer protection, that these services Consumer Protection Cooperation (CPC) Network, which meet certain standards. The e‑commerce Directive, for in- consists of national authorities enforcing consumer legisla- stance, determines that online service providers need only tion and equipping it with instruments able to ensure the comply with rules from the country in which they are estab- implementation of relevant legislation at European level; lished. The Directive also obliges service providers to place 2) adopt a ‘European Consumer Agenda’ in 2012, including their contact details on their websites, and ensures that ad- digital issues, which proposes measures to guarantee an ap- vertisements can easily be identified as such. It also sets out propriate level of information and customer care online; and a ‘safe harbour’ in the form of a liability exemption for online 3) ensure the adequate protection of patients purchasing intermediary companies if they comply with certain condi- medicines online through the application of the directive tions In the second half of 2010, the Commission consulted on falsified medicines. This will include contributing to the stakeholders on the functioning of the Directive. Despite the creation of ‘trust marks’ to allow the identification of legal numerous technological and business developments over distance‑selling websites, monitoring the development of the 10 years since its adoption, stakeholders consider that falsified medicines and examining the potential specific risks the Directive still offers a sound and balanced framework for linked to the online sale of medicines. the development of e‑commerce. http://eur‑lex.europa.eu/ The Commission will, inter alia, adopt an overall strategy on 91 LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32000L0031:en:NOT. cloud computing (2012). 88 http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/index_en.htm. 92 Directive 1999/93/EC of the European Parliament and of the 89 The Commission will: 1) extend the Internal Market Informa- Council of 13 December 1999 on a Community framework tion System (IMI) and the Consumer Protection Cooperation for electronic signatures; recital 4. 29
- 33. 10 | RECOMMENDATIONS STATE OF THE ART: SCIENCE, REGULATION AND POLICIES | PART A: Ethics of information and communication technologies 2.2.4 Corporate Social Responsibility The Commission has noted that while progress is con‑ tinuing to be made in embedding CSR in the ICT domain, In October 2011, the European Commission adopted only 15 of the 27 EU Member States have national policy a new strategy on corporate social responsibility frameworks to promote CSR. A report on the implemen‑ (CSR)93. It describes how enterprises can benefit from tation of this action agenda will be published in time for CSR while contributing to society as a whole by making a review meeting scheduled for mid 2014. All CSR meas‑ every effort to meet their social responsibilities. In the ures previously described also apply to the ICT sector. Commission’s view, enterprises should have in place a process to integrate social, environmental, ethical 2.2.5 Interoperability and Standards and human rights concerns into their business opera‑ tions and core strategy in close cooperation with their Interoperability is the ability of computers or digital stakeholders. Important features of the CSR definition94 systems to exchange and use information with one are: 1) recognition of the importance of core business another.96 If, for example, rival telephone networks strategy; 2) development of the concept of ‘creating used completely different protocols it would not nec‑ shared value’; 3) explicit recognition of human rights essarily be possible to connect to others on a different and ethical considerations in addition to social, envi‑ network. ‘Interoperability means working together - ronmental and consumer considerations. collaboration of systems, services and people. When people work together, they need to communicate and The action agenda put forward for the new CSR policy make agreements. They need to agree on the tasks they for the period 2011-2014 covers 8 areas: 1) enhancing will perform and how they will exchange results. If their the visibility of CSR and disseminating good practices; nationality is different, they also need to agree on the 2) improving and tracking levels of trust in business; language in which they will communicate. Moreover, 3) improving self- and co‑regulation processes; 4) en‑ they need to overcome cultural and legal differences.’97 hancing market reward for CSR; 5) improving company The European Commission recently announced the disclosure of social and environmental information; adoption of the European Interoperability Framework, 6) further integrating CSR into education, training and which has been closely monitored by big ICT firms and research; 7) emphasising the importance of national public administrations to find out what kind of software and sub‑national CSR policies and (8) better aligning licences they should have.98 European and global approaches to CSR.95 2.2.6 Very Fast Internet http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/sustainable‑business/ 93 The Internet is facing problems as a result of the enor‑ corporate‑social‑responsibility/index_en.htm. mous growth in content and traffic on the network. 94 This is the first time in 10 years that the Commission has Moreover, phenomena such as e‑commerce and Inter‑ changed its definition of CSR. Its previous definition was: ‘a net banking are struggling with security issues, because concept whereby companies integrate social and environ- mental concerns in their business operations and in their interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis.’ The new definition is consistent with internationally recognised and develop human rights guidance for a limited number of CSR principles and guidelines, such as the OECD Guidelines industrial sectors and for small businesses. for Multinational Enterprises, the ISO 26000 Guidance Stand- 96 Lack of interoperability of Microsoft software and servers, ard on Social Responsibility and the United Nations Guiding for instance, was at the centre of an antitrust case brought Principles on Business and Human Rights. It should provide by former EU Commissioner Mario Monti in 2004 when he greater clarity for enterprises, and contribute to greater was head of the Commission’s competition department. global consistency in expectations for business, regardless Last June the European Commission launched an antitrust of where they operate. investigation into IBM’s mainframe business after two smaller 95 The Commission highlights the OECD Guidelines for Multina- companies complained that they could not use the compa- tional Enterprises, the 10 principles of the UN Global Compact, ny’s operating system without buying costly IBM hardware. the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, the http://ec.europa.eu/idabc/en/document/2319/5938.html 97 ILO Tri‑partite Declaration of Principles on Multinational Enter- prises and Social Policy, and the ISO 26000 Guidance Standard 98 — Fair Reasonable and Non‑Discriminatory (FRAND) or on Social Responsibility. The Commission aims to monitor the royalty‑free. Commission initiatives in the area stem from commitments of large European enterprises to take account a 2009 White Paper ‘Modernising ICT Standardisation in the of internationally recognised guidelines and principles. It will EU — The Way Forward’. The European Parliament has also also present a report on EU priorities for the implementation published a non‑legislative report on the future of European of the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, standardisation. 30
- 34. PART A: | STATE OF THE ART: SCIENCE, REGULATION AND POLICIES RECOMMENDATIONS | 10 they were not considered in the design of the original April 2009, the Commission launched the European network architecture. Although, the European Union has Consumer Summit, inviting leading industry players to seen connection speeds double in recent years, it still has participate in a consultation on consumer protection a steep hill to climb before it hits the targets set out in its and privacy in relation to online advertising in Europe.104 Digital Agenda. The Commission is working on a number of initiatives to reach the Digital Agenda targets.99 On 1 December 2011, The European Commission joined forces with major technology firms including Apple, Fa‑ 2.2.7 E‑Skills cebook and Google and agreed to improve the protec‑ tion of children online.105 The coalition, which includes The EU’s ‘New Skills for New Jobs’ initiative was 28 companies,106 will develop an age‑based online rat‑ launched in December 2008.100 Its premise is that in ings system and aims to strengthen privacy settings. It order to provide job opportunities for all and create also plans by the end of next year to make it easier to a more competitive and sustainable economy, Europe report inappropriate content. Other measures include needs a highly‑skilled workforce able to meet current improving parental control and enhancing coopera‑ and future challenges. In November 2010, the com‑ tion among law enforcement and hotline authorities missioner published a set of proposals known as the to remove online material showing sexual abuse. The ‘Agenda for New Skills and Jobs’.101 EU produced specific guidelines on child pornography in December 2003 (Decision 2004/68/JHA)107. 2.2.8 E‑Advertising 2.2.9 Cybercrime The EU consumer policy strategy 2007-2013 states that ‘the technological revolution brought about by the In‑ In the Council of Europe’s Cybercrime Treaty (EST no. ternet is paving the way for innovative ways to advertise 185),108 cybercrime is used as an umbrella term to refer goods and services’. However, it concedes that the same to an array of criminal activity including offences against revolution also presents challenges to the self‑reg‑ computer data and systems, computer‑related offences, ulation of advertising. Advertisers have preferred content offences, and copyright offences. Other com‑ a self‑regulatory approach to their work. A report from mentators have suggested that the definition is broader the European Advertising Standards Alliance (EASA) and includes activities such as child pornography and 102 outlines how advertisers regulate themselves.103 In cyber‑bullying.109 Common cyber criminal activity in‑ volves stealing sensitive information such as credit card details, online login credentials, browsing his‑ 99 See the Broadband Package published in September 2010. tory and email addresses. This information can then be The package also includes a five‑year programme to pro- sold in a vibrant underground economy where credit mote efficient radio spectrum use, encourages public and card details can be bought from $0.07 to $ 100, with private investment in networks and proposes the inclusion of broadband in the EU’s Universal Service requirements to increase its take‑up. The Commission’s Radio Spectrum Policy Programme (RSPP) is currently under scrutiny at the what kind of online content falls under the agreed adver- European Parliament and in the Member States. tising codes. Nevertheless, EU lawmakers and consumer groups continue to question whether these rules are robust 100 http://www.euractiv.com/innovation/eu‑launches‑ and transparent enough to address consumer protection new‑skills‑new‑jobs‑initiative/article-178158. issues that arise in the online sphere. . 101 http://eur‑lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri= 104 http://ec.europa.eu/consumers/events/euro_cons_summit/ CELEX:52010DC0682:EN:NOT. index_en.htm. 102 The EASA represents Europe’s advertising industry by bringing 105 http://www.euractiv.com/infosociety/eu‑tech‑firms‑join‑ together national self‑regulatory organisations, or SROs, at Eu- forces‑protect‑children‑Internet‑news-509381. ropean level. National SROs, which exist in 22 of the 27 Mem- ber States, differ slightly from country to country, mainly as 106 Other companies in the coalition include Apple, BSkyB, BT, a result of legal and cultural differences between EU Member Deutsche Telekom AG, Nintendo, Nokia and Orange. States, but all have the same goal of making sure that advertis- 107 http://eur‑lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri= ing standards remain within an acceptable boundary. CELEX:32004F0068:EN:HTML. 103 As advertisers migrate to the Web, advertising standards 108 Convention on Cybercrime Budapest, 23.XI.2001 http://conven‑ have attracted attention. In 2008 negotiations between ad- tions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/html/185.htm. vertising agencies, associations and national self‑regulatory organisations produced a Digital Marketing Communica- 109 Gabriole Zeviar‑Geese, The State of Law on Cyberjurisdiction tions Best Practice guidebook which is intended to define and Cybercrime on the Internet, 1 Gonz. J. Int’l L. (1997-98). 31
- 35. 10 | RECOMMENDATIONS STATE OF THE ART: SCIENCE, REGULATION AND POLICIES | PART A: Ethics of information and communication technologies discounts offered for buying in bulk. It has been esti‑ with developing collaborative approaches to a wide mated that 69 % of adults with an online presence have range of cyber‑security and cyber‑crime issues. been a victim of cybercrime during their lifetime, which equates to one million victims every day. The cost of In 2010, the European Commission also presented global cybercrime has been estimated at $ 114 billion a proposal for a Directive on attacks against informa‑ annually; rising to $ 388 billion when financial losses and tion systems and repealing Council Framework Decision time lost are included.110 In the UK alone, cybercrime 2005/222/JHA. 117 The Directive seeks to strengthen and costs the economy £ 27 billion a year with nearly half of modernise the already existing rules of the Framework the £ 21 billion cost to business being made up of intel‑ Decision adopted in 2005, by including provisions to lectual property theft.111 Worryingly, the trends for cy‑ deal with the emergence of large‑scale simultaneous bercrime are moving in the wrong direction; the average attacks against information systems and the increased daily volume of web‑based attacks increased by 93 % frequency of botnets. The Directive also provides for between 2009 and 2010.112 It is unsurprising then that criminal prosecution and more severe criminal sanc‑ the EU Internal Security Strategy lists cybercrime as one tions for perpetrators of cyber attacks. of the main security challenges facing Member States.113 The EGE will be addressing all these topics in its forth‑ Europol has pointed to the Internet as a facilitator for coming Opinion on ethics and surveillance and security organised crime.114 The EU’s first significant response to technologies to be adopted in 2013. cybercrime has been the establishment of computer emergency response teams (CERSTS) in every coun‑ 2.2.10 Digital Divide try.115 The EU initiative on Critical Information Infrastruc‑ ture Protection (CIIP) aims to strengthen the security Under Pillar 6 of the Digital Agenda (Enhancing digital and resilience of vital ICT infrastructure by stimulat‑ literacy, skills and inclusion), the Commission proposes ing and supporting the development of a high level a series of measures to promote the take‑up of digital of preparedness, security and resilience capabilities at technologies by potentially disadvantaged groups, such both national and European levels. The Commission as the elderly, the less‑literate and those on a low‑in‑ set out a CIIP action plan in its Communication on Criti‑ come. Improving access for people with a disability is cal information Infrastructure Protection (COM (2009) another of the policy measures set by the Digital Agen‑ 149). The EU adopted the CIIP action plan on 31 March da. An additional part of the e‑inclusion agenda is tack‑ 2011. The plan also aims to forge international agree‑ ling the issues of an ageing population, with the help ments on cyber‑security. The EU‑US Working Group on of ICT: a better quality of life for the elderly, reduced Cyber‑security and Cyber‑crime, established during the cost of care, and business opportunities in the ‘silver EU‑US Summit of November 2010,116 is an important economy’. Under Pillar 7 (ICT‑enabled benefits for EU step in this direction. This Working Group, is tasked society) the Commission will reinforce the Ambient As‑ sisted Living (AAL) Joint Programme to allow older peo‑ ple and persons with disabilities to live independently. 110 Symantec Internet Security Threat Report, Volume 16 April 2011. 2.2.11 Net Neutrality 111 http://www.baesystemsdetica.com/uploads/resources/ THE_COST_OF_CYBER_CRIME_SUMMARY_FINAL_14_ As part of the 2009 EU telecoms reform package,118 the February_2011.pdf. Commission committed itself to scrutinising closely the 112 op cit 2. open and neutral nature of the Internet and to report‑ 113 The EU Internal Security Strategy in Action: Five steps towards ing on the state of play to the European Parliament and a more secure Europe, Brussels, 22.11.2010 COM(2010) 673 fi- the Council of Ministers. nal http://ec.europa.eu/commission_20102014/malmstrom/ archive/internal_security_strategy_in_action_en.pdf. 117 Proposal for a DIRECTIVE OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT 114 http://www.scribd.com/doc/55886813/Europol‑Organised‑ AND OF THE COUNCIL on attacks against information sys- crime‑threat‑assessment-2011. tems and repealing Council Framework Decision 2005/222/ 115 The President of the European Commission has asked the JHA, Brussels, 30.9.2010 COM(2010) 517 final2005/222/JHA EGE to issue an Opinion on the ethics of security and surveil- http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/standardsetting/t‑cy/Propos- lance technologies. It is expected to be completed in 2013. al%20directive_com2010_517.pdf. 116 http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference 118 http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference =MEMO/11/246. =MEMO/09/568. 32
- 36. PART A: | STATE OF THE ART: SCIENCE, REGULATION AND POLICIES RECOMMENDATIONS | 10 The consultation covers a number of issues such as: implementation of a broad range of e‑Health applica‑ whether Internet providers should be allowed to adopt tions, such as electronic health records, health informa‑ certain traffic management practices, prioritising one tion websites, e‑prescribing, home health monitoring kind of Internet traffic over another; whether such traf‑ and tele‑health, has the potential to enhance qual‑ fic management practices may create problems and ity of care and empower patients to make informed have unfair effects on users; whether the level of com‑ healthcare decisions. On a daily basis, healthcare pro‑ petition between different Internet service providers fessionals strive to reduce risks and improve outcomes and the transparency requirements of the new telecom for their patients. Health information has a key role to framework may be sufficient to avoid potential prob‑ play in healthcare planning decisions — where to lo‑ lems by allowing consumer choice; and whether the EU cate a new service, whether or not to introduce a new needs to act further to ensure fairness in the Internet national screening programme and decisions on best market, or whether industry should take the lead. value for money in health and social care provision. Re‑ ductions in health budgets and competition for limited 2.2.12 Internet of Things resources require enhanced efficacy and efficiency of health services.122 For meeting all of these challenges, The Internet of things (IoT) is an integrated part of the adequate information and knowledge are required and Future Internet. The Commission has published a stra‑ e‑Health applications offer the prospect of acquiring tegic research roadmap119 which states that the vision of information which is accurate, reliable and timely. Future Internet based on standard communication pro‑ tocols considers the merging of computer networks, the The European Commission has supported EU research Internet of things (IoT), Internet of people (IoP), Internet in the field of e‑Health for over two decades and during of energy (IoE), Internet of media (IoM), and Internet of that time it has provided € 1 billion in funding to over services (IoS), into a common global IT platform of seam‑ 450 projects.123 Since 2004, the Commission has been less networks and networked ‘smart things/objects’. developing targeted policy initiatives aimed at encour‑ aging the widespread adoption of e‑Health technolo‑ 2.2.13 E‑Health gies throughout Europe. These targeted e‑Health ini‑ tiatives began with the publication of Communication European healthcare establishments are facing sub‑ COM(2004) 356, i.e. the e‑Health Action Plan 2004-2010 stantial challenges over the next decade, such as sig‑ (eHAP).124 The aim of the eHAP was to facilitate the EU nificant demographic changes and reduced human in achieving the full potential of e‑Health systems and resources. E‑Health offers the rich potential of sup‑ services within a European e‑Health Area. An Action plementing traditional delivery of services and chan‑ Plan for e‑Health was published by the Commission nels of communication to provide enhanced access in 2007, which overlapped and coincided with many to information, streamlined organisational processes aspects of the eHAP, with a view to assisting in pro‑ and improved quality, value and patient satisfaction. gressing the eHAP.125 A public consultation on a new e‑Health is popularly defined as ‘health services and information delivered through the Internet and related technologies’.120 The concept of e‑Health is part of the docs/policy/interoperability_report_final092006-cover.pdf, accessed January 11th 2012. wider umbrella term ‘connected health’. Connected health relates to a model of healthcare delivery based 122 Ashly D. Black AD, Car J, Pagliari C et al. PloS Med 2011; on the use of technology to provide health care re‑ 8(1):e1000387. motely. The areas of e‑Health and connected health, 123 European Commission (2011). Digital Agenda: Kroes and therefore, encompass a diverse range of information Dalli welcome Council Presidency e‑Health Declaration on and communication technologies (ICT) employed in delivering better health care. Available at: http://europa.eu/ rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=MEMO/11/287ty the health field.121 The development, adoption and pe=HTML, accessed January 11th 2012. 124 European Commission (2004). Communication COM(2004) 356 e‑Health – making healthcare better for European citizens: 119 http://www.Internet‑of‑things‑research.eu/pdf/IoT_Clus- An action plan for a European e‑Health Area. Available at: ter_Strategic_Research_Agenda_2011.pdf. http://eur‑lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CO 120 Eysenbach G. What is Health?. Journal of Medical Internet M:2004:0356:FIN:EN:PDF, accessed on 11 January 2012. Research 2001;3(2):e20. 125 European Commission (2007). Action Plan for e‑Health, 121 Connected Health and Quality for European Citizens 2006 Commission Staff Working Document, SEC(2007) 1729. http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/activities/health/ Available at: ht tp://eur‑lex.europa.eu/LexUriSer v/ 33
- 37. 10 | RECOMMENDATIONS STATE OF THE ART: SCIENCE, REGULATION AND POLICIES | PART A: Ethics of information and communication technologies e‑Health Action Plan for 2012-2020 ran from March to hosted on someone else’s hardware. A recent study May 2011 and it is envisaged that the new e‑Health confirmed that there seems to be a convergence of Action Plan will be adopted in the fourth quarter of views — among data protection authorities, business 2012.126 In 2006 the Commission launched ‘ICT for associations and consumer organisations — that risks Health and i2010’ as part of the i2010 policy framework, to privacy and the protection of personal data associ‑ which was a new strategy aimed at transforming the ated with online activity are on the increase.130 European healthcare landscape by moving towards preventative and patient‑centred health systems.127 At the same time, ways of collecting personal data have This would provide greater continuity of care through become increasingly elaborate and less easy to detect. the deployment of interoperable e‑Health services For example, the use of sophisticated tools allows eco‑ throughout Europe. e‑Health also represents an im‑ nomic operators to target individuals better, thanks to portant aspect of the Digital Agenda for Europe and the monitoring of their behaviour. Moreover, the grow‑ is incorporated into a number of actions under Pillar 7 ing use of procedures allowing automatic data collec‑ ICT for Social Challenges, where the potential of ICT is tion, such as electronic transport ticketing, road‑toll used to revolutionise health services and deliver better collecting or the use of geo‑location devices, makes it public services, i.e. through its strategy for ‘sustainable easier to determine the location of individuals simply healthcare and ICT‑based support for dignified and in‑ because a mobile device is used. Public authorities also dependent living’.128 use an increasing amount of personal data for various purposes, such as tracing individuals in the event of an 2.3 Current EU Regulatory Frameworks for outbreak of a communicable disease, preventing and Personal Data Protection fighting terrorism and crime more effectively, adminis‑ tering social security schemes, for taxation purposes, or The Council of Europe Convention for the protection as part of their e‑government applications.131 of individuals with regard to automatic processing of personal data of 1981 (Convention 108) can be con‑ All this inevitably raises the question whether the exist‑ sidered as the first European legal framework for the ing personal data protection legislation can still cope fundamental right to protection of personal data. The with these challenges fully and effectively. To address principles of Convention 108 were refined in Directive this question, the European Commission launched a re‑ 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council view of the current legal framework with a high level of 24.10.1995 on the protection of individuals with re‑ conference in May 2009 followed by a public consul‑ gard to the processing of personal data and on the free tation until the end of 2009. The findings confirmed movement of such data,129 which forms the cornerstone that the core principles of the Directive are still valid of data protection law within the EU. Social networking and that its technologically neutral character should sites (SNS) and ‘cloud computing’ could also pose chal‑ be preserved. lenges to data protection, as they may involve a loss of individuals’ control over their potentially sensitive On 4 November 2010, the Commission adopted a com‑ information when they store their data with programs munication entitled ‘A comprehensive approach to personal data protection in the European Union’.132 This communication was sent to the European Data LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:52007SC1729:EN:HTML, accessed Protection Supervisor (EDPS) for consultation. The on 11 January 2012. EDPS identified the four main drivers which determine 126 For more information see: http://ec.europa.eu/informa- tion_society/activities/health/ehealth_ap_consultation/ 130 Communication from the Commission to the European index_en.htm, accessed on 11 January 2012. Parliament, the Council, the Economic and Social Commit- European Commission (2006). ICT for Health and i2010. 127 tee and the Committee of the Regions, ‘A comprehensive Transforming the European healthcare landscape. Available approach on personal data protection in the European at: http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/activities/ Union’, 4 November 2010, Com (2010) 609 final, 2. health/docs/publications/ictforhealth‑and‑i2010-final.pdf, 131 Com (2010) 609 final, 2-3. accessed January 11th 2012. 132 Communication from the Commission to the European 128 Digital Agenda For Europe 2010-2020 http://ec.europa.eu/in- Parliament, the Council, the Economic and Social Commit- formation_society/digital‑agenda/index_en.htm, accessed tee and the Committee of the Regions, ‘A comprehensive on 11 January 2012. approach on personal data protection in the European 129 OJ L 281, 23.11.1995, p. 31. Union’, 4 November 2010, COM (2010) 609 final, 2. 34
- 38. PART A: | STATE OF THE ART: SCIENCE, REGULATION AND POLICIES RECOMMENDATIONS | 10 the environment in which the review process of the Data Protection in the EU has a strong internal market Directive should take place. The first driver is techno‑ dimension. As a result, the Directive’s harmonisation of logical development;133 the second is globalisation134 national data protection laws is not limited to minimal and the third is the Lisbon Treaty. In fact under the harmonisation but amounts to harmonisation that is Lisbon Treaty, data protection has gained significant generally complete.138 At the same time, the Directive importance. The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the gives the Member States room for manoeuvre in cer‑ European Union has become binding and Article 8 of tain areas, authorising them to maintain or introduce the Charter recognises an autonomous right to the specific rules for specific situations. This, together with protection of personal data.135 The same right is laid the fact that the Directive ‘has sometimes been incor‑ down in Article 16 of the Treaty on the Functioning of rectly implemented by Member States’,139 has led to the European Union (TFEU),136 which introduced a new divergences among the national laws implementing legal basis for data protection applicable to all personal the Directive, which run counter to one of its main data processing in the private and in the public sector, objectives, that of ensuring the free flow of personal including processing in the areas of police and judicial data within the internal market. This applies to a large cooperation and common foreign and security policy. number of sectors and contexts, for instance when pro‑ The fourth and final driver identified by EDPS is repre‑ cessing personal data in the employment context or sented by parallel developments taking place in the for public health purposes. Moreover, the divergence context of international organisations. There are cur‑ in the way the Directive is implemented by the Mem‑ rently various debates focusing on the modernisation ber States creates legal uncertainty, not only for data of the current legal instruments for data protection.137 controllers but also for data subjects, with the risk of distorting the equivalent level of protection that the Directive is supposed to achieve and ensure. The Com‑ mission’s reports on the implementation of the Data 133 Today’s technology is not the same as when the Directive Protection Directive 95/46/EC140 concluded in 2003141 was conceived and adopted. Technological phenomena and in 2007142 that the Directive did not succeed in such as cloud computing, behavioural advertising, social achieving its internal market policy objective fully, or networks, road toll collecting and geo‑location devices pro- in removing differences in the level of data protection foundly changed the way in which data are processed and actually afforded in the Member States. Enforcement pose enormous challenges for data protection. A review of was also identified as an area where improvement European data protection rules will have to address these challenges effectively. was needed. To address the question whether exist‑ ing EU data protection legislation can still cope fully 134 The progressive abolition of trade barriers has given busi- nesses an increasingly worldwide dimension. Cross‑border and effectively with the challenges, the Commission data processing and international transfers have increased tremendously in recent years. Furthermore, data process- ing is now ubiquitous due to information and communi- 138 Communication from the Commission to the European cation technologies: Internet and cloud computing have Parliament, the Council, the Economic and Social Commit- allowed delocalised processing of large quantities of data tee and the Committee of the Regions, ‘A comprehensive on a worldwide scale. approach on personal data protection in the European 135 Article 8.1 Charter: ‘Everyone has the right to the protection Union’, 4 November 2010, COM (2010) 609 final, 10. of personal data concerning him or her’. As the protection of 139 Communication from the Commission to the European the individual with regard to the processing of personal data Parliament, the Council, the Economic and Social Commit- is in no way restricted to data concerning the private sphere tee and the Committee of the Regions, ‘A comprehensive of the individual, the right to personal data protection and approach on personal data protection in the European the right to privacy do not coincide. See on this, Colette Union’, 4 November 2010, COM (2010) 609 final,10. Cuijpers, ‘A private law approach to privacy: mandatory law obliged?’, Scripted, volume 4, Issue 4, September 2007, 312. 140 Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24.10.1995 on the protection of individuals with 136 Article 16 TFEU: ‘ Everyone has the right to the protection of regard to the processing of personal data and on the free personal data concerning them’. movement of such data (OJ L 281, 23.11.1995, p. 31). 137 It is important to mention in this respect the current reflec- Report from the Commission — First Report on the 141 tions in relation to the future revision of Convention 108 of implementation of the Data Protection Directive (95/46/ the Council of Europe and of the OECD Privacy Guidelines. EC), 15.5.2003, COM(2003) 265final. Another important development concerns the adoption of international standards on the protection of personal data 142 Communication on the follow‑up of the work programme and privacy, which might possibly lead to the adoption of for a better implementation of the Data Protection Directive, a binding global instrument on data protection. 7.3.2007, COM(2007) 87final. 35
- 39. 10 | RECOMMENDATIONS STATE OF THE ART: SCIENCE, REGULATION AND POLICIES | PART A: Ethics of information and communication technologies has launched a review of the current legal framework On January 25, 2012, the Commission has adopted on data protection. An assessment of the current regu‑ a revision of the data protection EU law147 to be now latory framework (implementation of Directive 95/46, adopted in co‑decision by the European Parliament including the analysis of Member States’ legislation and the Council. Changes introduced in the adopted transposing the Directive into national law, on the basis Commission proposal include: of studies,143 opinions of the Article 29 Working Party,144 and a survey launched by the Commission in relation to • A reinforced ‘right to be forgotten’: people will be certain aspects of the Directive, to which 22 Member able to delete their data if there are no legitimate States responded) is also expected to be published in reasons for retaining it. 2012. In its resolution of 6 July 2011 the European Par‑ liament approved a report that was in favour of the • Wherever consent is required for data to be pro‑ Commission’s approach to reforming the data protec‑ cessed, it will have to be given explicitly, rather than tion framework.145 The Council of the European Union assumed, as is sometimes the case now. adopted conclusions on 24 February 2011 in which it broadly supported the Commission’s intention to re‑ • There will be increased responsibility and account‑ form the data protection framework and agreed to ability for those processing personal data. many elements of the Commission’s approach. Like‑ wise, the European Economic and Social Committee • People will be able to refer cases where their data supported an appropriate revision of the Data Protec‑ has been breached or rules on data protection tion Directive and the Commission’s general intention violated to the data protection authority in their of ensuring a more consistent application of EU data country, even when their data is processed by an protection rules across all Member States.146 organisation based outside the EU. • EU rules will apply even if personal data is pro‑ Comparative study on different approaches to new 143 cessed abroad by companies that are active in the privacy challenges, (http://ec.europa.eu/justice/poli- EU market. cies/privacy/docs/studies/new_privacy_challenges/ final_report_en.pdf); European Agency on Fundamental Rights, Data Protection in the European Union: the role 2.4 Gaps or Deficits in Regulations of National Data Protection Authorities — Strengthen- and Policies ing the fundamental rights architecture in the EU II, 2010, available at http://fra.europa.eu/fraWebsite/attachments/ The previous sections describing the history, current Data‑protection_en.pdf; Study on the economic benefits of privacy enhancing technologies, London Economics, state of the art and foreseeable future regarding ICT on July 2010 (http://ec.europa.eu/justice/policies/privacy/docs/ the one hand, and governance and regulatory frame‑ studies/final_report_pets_16_07_10_en.pdf); works on the other hand, have shown that there are Study for an impact assessment for the future legal frame- a number of ICT areas, both well‑known and new, that work for personal data protection by GHK Consulting Ltd., involve challenges for individuals and societies. In the February 2011, launched by the Commission to support next part of the Opinion a number of ethical concerns the IA process; case law on the circumstances in which IP addresses are considered personal data, by time.lex CVBA, will be described both in general terms and with respect October 2010; Allocation and Use of IP Addresses, by Vigilio to a number of different topics where ICT is especially Consult, 2010; Privacy and Trust in the Ubiquitous Infor- relevant. The debate on ethics and governance of ICT is mation Society, by Fraunhofer ISI et al., March 2009; Legal complex and needs to address a wide range of consid‑ Analysis of a Single Market for the Information Society: New erations, values and principles, such as: autonomy; iden‑ rules for a new age?, by DLA piper, 2009. tity; privacy and trust; responsibility; justice and solidarity. 144 Working Party on the Protection of Individuals with regard to the Processing of Personal Data, established by Article Part B of this Opinion elaborates on these ethical con‑ 29 of the Directive; the opinions of the Working Party are accessible under: http://ec.europa.eu/justice/policies/ siderations. Gaps will be identified where the group has privacy/workinggroup/wpdocs/2011_en.htm. identified a need for further action in the form of public 145 EP resolution of 6 July 2011 on a comprehensive ap- communication, research, education, technological so‑ proach on personal data protection in the European Union lutions or regulatory measures. (2011/2025(INI), http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/get- Doc.do?type=TAreference=P7-TA-2011-0323language= ENring=A7-2011-0244 (rapporteur: MEP Axel Voss (EPP/DE). 147 http://ec.europa.eu/justice/newsroom/data‑protection/ 146 CESE 999/2011. news/120125_en.htm 36
- 40. PART B: | EGE OPINION RECOMMENDATIONS | 10 PART B: EGE OPINION 3. Ethical Aspects of social relationships bridging time, place and space. The metaphor of the ‘global village’ romanticized the Information and Communication Technologies have new ‘space’ as a ‘space without borders’, and even not only dramatically changed personal behaviour, more so, as a common sphere where individuals share life styles and interpersonal relationships, but also their private lives, build up new networks, and create the perception and the notion of society itself and the a new understanding of the social sphere in transcend‑ information that may be collected about individuals ing the conceptual separation of the public and the with or without their consent. Technological changes private. But, there are nice dreams nonetheless. The also affects routine aspects of modern societies such digital era and the digital ways of self‑expression and e‑administration, e‑commerce, e‑health, e‑education, communication raise new questions and a reconsid‑ telework and e‑voting, telephone communication, po‑ eration of many ‘traditional’ ways of protecting individ‑ litical activities, consumers’ rights, private (intellectual) ual rights while maintaining the freedom and security property, democracy etc.. of societies and individuals. In order to provide an analysis of the ethical concerns, Online games, social networks, blogs and new mar‑ the EGE has drawn on the ethical framework of the Eu‑ ketplaces have become crucial factors in determining ropean Union, as stated in the Lisbon Treaty and the an individual’s identity or identities (and avatars) They European Charter of Fundamental Rights.148 The EGE change the way everyone, including children and ado‑ has grouped the ‘ethical concerns’ regarding ICT under lescents develop their identity and maintain relation‑ the four headings of: ships, and often the younger generation educates the older generation about the ways use of the Internet 1. a person’s identification using ICT, and the develop‑ may combine very different skills to ‘design’ one’s iden‑ ment and/or continuous re‑interpretation of one’s tity rather than just ‘to have’ it. personal identity, in the media made available by ICT; 2. the changes of the social sphere, particularly con‑ ‘Wrzuciła zdjęcia na Facebooka cerning social relations, culture, education, environ‑ i wyleciała z pracy’ ment, and e‑governance; A female student – Joanna - worked at a day care 3. the new possibilities of political participation and center for handicapped children as an assistant practices of citizenship using ICT; to a teacher. Somebody has discovered her pho‑ tographs on Facebook (one of them showed her 4. the sphere of e‑commerce. with bare shoulders, other in bathing suits) and reported to a director, who gave Joanna an order The following chapters will address the specific implica‑ to remove the photos. Joanna insisted that there tions of different uses of ICT. They will also refer to some is nothing wrong with the photos but promised to EU legislation and policy actions while not pretending block access to them. She consulted with a lecturer to address all the possible legal or policy issues. in professional ethics who was of the opinion that the photos did not pose any problem. She blocked 3.1 Challenges to the Concept of Identity access leaving the note: ‘best regards to a whistle‑ blower who forced me to block my photos’. Eventu‑ 3.1.1 Introduction ally, she got fired from her job. A director for public media from a company dealing with the presen‑ Since the introduction of digital communication, ‘the’ tation of institutions on the web warned against Internet has been associated with the dream of limit‑ leaving the texts on social portals. The employers less communication, creativity, new forms and formats check whether the portals do not contain materials adversely influencing a company’s image which can result in a termination of employment. The principles are quoted at the beginning of the Recom- 148 mendation Part. 37
- 41. 10 | RECOMMENDATIONS EGE OPINION | PART B: Ethics of information and communication technologies 3.1.2 The Digital Identity her identity as a person (philosophy distinguishes be‑ tween identity of the same — idem — and identity of Scholars from the fields of developmental biology, the self — ipse).151 psychology, sociology and philosophy have begun to look into the ways that identities are shaped and Individuals welcome ICT because they expect or ex‑ changed in the era of digital self‑expression and com‑ perience new ways to realise their freedom, and they munication.149 The changes, these scholars claim, will share their social identity with others. The informal be radical, modifying many ‘traditional’ concepts that social forms of communication – over time and over have structured our way of giving the world we live space: certainly enhance traditional ways of expression in, and our own lives, meaning. One concept that has and communication. attracted attention is the so‑called digital identity.150 Mostly, the digital identity approach addresses ques‑ tions of authentic identification, i.e. the identification ‘Writing simultaneously online gives me an added of a person in the Internet, and the challenge of trust: sense of interactivity and a feeling of proximity. For example, in digital interactions the partners need I go as far as sacrificing my early morning sleep to ensure that their signatures are valid and belong to get up and go online with friends in Greece to those who use them; not only must credit card or who are seven hours ahead. My mornings are bank account uses be secured but the whole process dedicated to writing online and sending emails of online shopping, for example, has to rely upon while drinking my coffee. Early mornings have the trust that we provide what is ours, and that the become the favourite part of my day and early recipient handles our ‘identity’ and any information classes seem to disrupt my daily interactive ritual.’ provided with care. (Stacey) In addition to commercial transactions, social net‑ works demand an ‘authentic’ name of their users. Hence, the digital traces left during one’s actions ‘I think I actually need to use the Internet on a daily require trust, care, and respect for the other’s pri‑ basis in order to maintain all of my relationships vacy, property or even dignityon both sides. These with people that are currently established. If requirements adhere implicitly or explicitly to moral I don’t “instant message” or e-mail my girlfriend values and norms that up to the present have not been on a daily basis, she will get worried about me be‑ spelled out sufficiently. While the digital identity with cause that is our main method of communication.’ respect to commerce is now being regulated, the (Matt) broader question of identity‑as‑identification, as is the case with ‘faked identities’ in networks, games etc., needs to be further addressed — and not necessarily Furthermore, many people use ICT to explore new only from a legal point of view. ways of creative imagination, using different kinds of expression, such as visual tools and graphics, films, or 3.1.3 The Concept of Personal Identity social games. If the human being is to be conceived in the Digital Era as ‘homo ludens’, the ‘playing animal’, exploring him‑ self or herself in creativity, ICT offer many opportuni‑ While literature on the ‘digital identity’ is growing, new‑ ties in that respect.152 However, individuals, especially er research has shown that it is not enough to analyse children and adolescents, are exposed to so many op‑ identity questions in terms of those matters that mostly tions that they need to be educated in a ‘reflective’ concern the identification of a person rather than his or and responsible use of ICT including the use of text messaging and ‘twitter’. One new problem created by Cf. for an overview K. Rannenberg, Royer, D., Deuker, A., ed. 149 The future of identity in the information society. Challenges and opportunities (Berlin: Springer, 2009). For an overview, cf. Paul Ricoeur, Oneself as another (Chicago: 151 University of Chicago Press, 1992). This term embraces the different ways a person manages 150 himself or herself in the world wide web, i.e. with respect 152 More and more companies are creating new virtual games to digital signatures, accounts, traces, etc. Cf. among others in order to train their employees on specific points, in Phillip J. Windley Digital identity, 2005. . putting them in professional situations. 38
- 42. PART B: | EGE OPINION RECOMMENDATIONS | 10 ICT from a psychological perspective is, for example, The fluid self: The effect on the concept of personal cyber‑addiction.153 identity has been described in the context of social studies that examine the de‑centred self, together with This first area of ethical concern that needs to be ad‑ a certain tendency of the ‘fluidity’ of modern social re‑ dressed in further research is what we call the change lations.154 The digital self, too, can be described in this in the personal and social identity. Being shaped and line of thought. Its relevance for ethical reflection lies in shaping one’s identity in the digital era means, for its impact on the traditional concepts of ‘authenticity’ example, that a person’s self‑perception is likely to and ‘autonomy’: fluid or hybrid identities may threaten change when identity markers such as age, gender, the consistency and continuity that has been consid‑ ethnicity, language and culture do not constrain indi‑ ered to be crucial for the concept of a practical identity, viduals in creating their social identity. When engag‑ which ultimately relies upon a self that may not only ing in social relationships on the web, individuals can identify with his or her actions but is also identified by choose and actually create new identities, from the use others. Hence, the new possibilities for shaping one’s of pseudonyms to the invention of whole characters in own identity, constrained only by the features and rules online communities. Offline and online identities may of the programs one uses, make social relationships po‑ vary radically, although both aspects are integrated in tentially insecure; ethical concepts such as trust, truth‑ one self‑concept. While the new narrative construction fulness or reliability may lose their function to create of identity may well be experienced as liberation from spheres of belonging — while at the same time enforc‑ social ascription, it changes the very nature of our per‑ ing short‑term relationships that can easily be replaced. sonal identities, and as such it needs to be addressed. In face‑to‑face relations, the ‘creative’ construction of identity is constrained by social perceptions that enable ‘We should not forget that interactive media are the persons involved to compare actions and statements based on a computer, which is not a human being. with what they see and hear, or the knowledge they all We can write e-mails to friends, buy online without share. The cyber‑identity may be completely disconnect‑ entering a store, chat with unknown people, maybe ed from such ’embodied’ interactions, and even in cases fall in love with unknown people all without moving people where engage ‘authentically’ in social networks, from our chair. We can even forget about the outer the lack of a shared location or space outside the web world, the real one. All this, though, is very different changes the way in which this new form of authenticity is from a real chat with a friend, a day of shopping, and spelled out. This not only raises the question of how the a first date. This is, as far as I am concerned, the big‑ web‑identity can be integrated in one’s overall identity gest risk about the spread of interactive media: losing concept, but the ‘fluidity’ may also threaten the tradi‑ contact with the world around us. We must not for‑ tional understanding of autonomy as sovereignty. One get that a computer will never be able to replace per‑ consequence of the erosion of ‘fixed identities’ is that ac‑ sonal relationships. After all, we all need to interact countability for one’s actions has to be newly spelled out. with real people and places. The emotion that derives from facing such masterpieces as La Gioconda could Identity and ICT devices: On a different level, ICT blur never be replaced by the most detailed virtual tour the distinction between the concept of an embodied of the Louvre. In the same way, a real hug or smile self — a self that has a body and at the same time is will always transmit emotions that are impossible to embodied — when several body parts are replaced feel through an apathetic computer screen.’ (Sophia) by computer‑controlled devices, and the concept of inter‑personal interaction, when, for example, robots are designed to care for human beings, as,for exam‑ A recent study analyzes the fine line between adolescents’ 153 ple, with care for persons suffering from dementia, or self‑assurance and self‑exploration via ICT, and addiction. It de- persons with disabilities. Though there are many good fines Internet‑addiction in the following way: ‘In terms of time, an Internet addiction is commonly defined (Beard Wolf, 2001; reasons to introduce these devices as complementary Young, 1998) as use of the Internet for at least 38 h each week. ways to attend to people’s needs, the emotional re‑ In the current study, based on participants’ self reports about sponses create new interactions and new forms of at‑ their daily use of the Internet, it seems that 6% of these adoles- tachment that need to be scrutinised. cents meet that criterion. This rate fits evaluations made among other samples of adolescents world‑wide (Cao, Su, Liu, Gad, 2007). Cf. Israelashvili, M., et al., Adolescents’ over‑use of the cy- ber world – Internet addiction or identity exploration?, Journal Cf. for the concept of identity as ‘fluid’ or ‘liquid’: Zygmunt 154 of Adolescence (2011), doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.07.015 Baumann: Liquid Life. Cambridge: Polity Press 2005. 39
- 43. 10 | RECOMMENDATIONS EGE OPINION | PART B: Ethics of information and communication technologies Ambient Assisted Living and the Elderly Wireless technology can be extended to wear‑ able devices to monitor people 24h a day both Europe is facing a significant social and economic inside and outside the house. Items of jewellery challenge, brought about by an unprecedented such as bracelets and watches worn by Alzheimer demographic change. Projections by EUROSTAT patients can be GPS-enabled and can identify the estimate that by 2060, 30% of all EU citizens will location of the individual if they get disoriented be over 65 and the number of people over 80 will and wander off. The bracelet/watch automati‑ more than double from 5% to 12% over the same cally detects any departure from a security zone, period . While gains in life expectancy are to be which is pre-determined by the patient’s family generally welcomed, such gains have important im‑ or caregiver. More recently, wireless technologies plications for health and long-term care systems in are allowing doctors and carers to continuously Europe. As a result of our ageing population, it has monitor the health status of the elderly person. For been projected that healthcare spending will rise example the smart shirt is a wearable T-shirt which by between 1% to 2% of the GDP in most Member consists of integrated wireless sensor nodes de‑ States in the period 2008-2060; an increase of ap‑ signed to collect physiological data such as heart proximately 25% of current spending levels. In ad‑ rate, electrocardiogram results, respiration and dition to the increased costs of caring for our older temperature. This information can then be trans‑ family members, there is the added complication mitted wireless to a base station along with the of fewer carers available. By 2060, there will be two geo-location of the wearer which can be accessed persons aged 15 to 64 for every person aged 65 or by health care providers. more, compared with four persons to one in 2010. Thus, many Governments have become active in Alerts can be generated in response to signs of supporting innovative ICT solutions to assist in the clinical deterioration thereby allowing for early delivery of high-quality cost effective health and intervention. Robotics has been recognised as a social care provisions. For example, the European technology of potentially key importance in help‑ Union has an action plan on ICT and Ageing, which ing the growing elderly population with day-to- aims to support active ageing. The emergence of day tasks as well as communications with family new types of mobile and embedded computing de‑ members. Robots which can aid in feeding, dress‑ vices, developments in wireless technologies and ing, bathing and reminding older people to take smart sensors, provide the tools to develop innova‑ their medication are already in use. Beyond the tive applications to assist older people to maintain service robot, new developments in the field of or improve their quality of life and to facilitate their human-robot interaction are aimed at alleviating desire to live independently in their own homes . loneliness, and assisting in cognitive function. The Smart homes address the promotion of independ‑ National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science ent living by using assistive technologies for higher and Technology in Japan have developed ‘Paro’, quality of daily life, which aims to maintain a high a robotic baby seal which stimulates behaviour of degree of autonomy and dignity of the older per‑ a real pet and is used to provide companionship son. Smart homes are typically equipped with a for those with dementia. Interaction with a ro‑ large amount of networked sensors which collect botic dog resulted in cognitive gains, specifically lifestyle pattern data, which are analysed regularly increased communication in older subjects with and the patterns recorded thereby building up a dementia. Information and communication tech‑ picture of the user’s everyday activities. If a devia‑ nologies are also being utilised to encourage social tion from the normal pattern is detected e.g. not interaction in older populations who may have re‑ getting out of bed, an alert is issued to the user and duced mobility and fewer opportunities for social in the case of no response, the alarm is raised via an contact. In 2007, 41.2% of women and 19.5% of automatic telephone message. Sensors can also be men aged over 65 were recorded as living alone in linked through an intelligent network to cut-off de‑ the EU, thus videoconferencing and 3D calls using vices which can enhance safety of the occupant(s) hologram technology will become increasing im‑ e.g. if excessive heat is detected in the kitchen, the portant in supporting older people in maintaining stove is automatically switched off. their social links with family and friends, thereby reducing a sense of isolation and exclusion. 40
- 44. PART B: | EGE OPINION RECOMMENDATIONS | 10 considered ‘embodied’ in the way described above, The potential gains in autonomy and independ‑ but also as identity over time. In the ‘digital identity’ ence for older people, which can be harnessed concept, this concerns questions of identification. But through ICT is not without its’ challenges. Despite in the broader perspective, the whole concept of iden‑ significant decreases in the cost of computing over tity‑over‑time may change considerably: On the one the last 20 years, introductory costs of technolo‑ hand, time becomes an unreliable source of identifica‑ gies described above are relatively high. This raises tion: statements, images or entries in social networks the issue of e-inclusion and whether it is possible may well be taken as quasi‑present representations of to ensure accessibility to all user groups. In addi‑ a person’s self‑image, while they may in fact be only tion, research has shown that older people are a fragment of the past that a person would not con‑ reluctant to adopt technical solutions facilitating sider important for his or her contemporary way of independent living. This is related to a number of thinking or living. The distinction between synchronic issues, including the complexity of using the tech‑ communication and diachronic narrative is, therefore, nology, the cost, the lack of perceived usefulness easily blurred when entries or profiles are stored for and the stigmatisation of not being considered ca‑ a potentially very long time, and can be used by others pable of caring for oneself. Heretofore, work in the outside of their original context. ambient assisted living area has been largely con‑ cerned with technical feasibility; there is however Facebook now allows its members to store a life story a growing recognition that a more user-centred and hence structure their entries in a diachronic model is now required. manner. Memory and forgetting are complementary concepts for personal identity: without some forget‑ Ethical questions relating to privacy and dignity ting and the necessary selection process in giving also need to be addressed. While continuous meaning to one’s identity, the creation of an identity monitoring of homes and human activity can of‑ of the self (ipse) becomes more and more depend‑ fer a safer environment for older people, many are ent on the socially ascribed ‘markers’ of identification wary of constant surveillance and the lack of control (idem). As has been stated with respect to the legal over data collected. Solutions proved to overcome initiative of the ‘right to be forgotten’, however, the web these concerns include collecting and processing seems to ‘never forget’.155 The ethical question with re‑ data on a local level, with the data being shared spect to identity concepts, then, is how it affects one’s only if an emergency situation is detected, at which self‑relation and social relations alike over time — there point the information could be released to health‑ are signs that the impossibility of ‘deleting’ a part of care workers and/or carers. The situation is more one’s life story from the collective memory of the web complex in the care of older people with cogni‑ may create an unforgiving culture, either with respect tive impairments who may not be in a position to to employment or social forms of shaming, or with re‑ participate in the decision making process around spect to surveillance policies.156 privacy settings. Technical solutions should not violate an older person’s dignity and it is critical that ICT serves to augment, rather than replace, human interac‑ tion. Concerns have been expressed that depend‑ Cf. Viktor Mayer‑Schönberger, Delete: the virtue of forgetting 155 in the digital age (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009). ence on assisted living technologies could further The group acknowledges that the term the ‘right to be for- serve to isolate older people, eroding their social gotten’ is used to call attention to this difficulty of the traces connectedness. In the field of robotics there have a person leaves without being able to delete them. Neverthe- been warnings that the presence of robots in the less, the term as such seems unfortunate as it easily alludes home could risk leaving the elderly in the care of to the forgetting of a person, which is contra to its intention. machines without sufficient human contact. These 156 As an example, Mayer‑Schönberger tells the story of a wom- essential questions will be considered in the con‑ an who was denied immigration to the US because it could text of the EU Ambient Assisted Living Joint Pro‑ be proved that she had taken drugs in her adolescent years. Adults by now regularly warn their adolescent children gramme which runs from 2008-2013. about the images they post on facebook, because future employers scan the Internet for purposes of informal profil- ing. The unforgetting memory of the Internet thus can easily Identity and time: Traditionally, identity is not only be ‘unforgiving’. 41
- 45. 10 | RECOMMENDATIONS EGE OPINION | PART B: Ethics of information and communication technologies relation and interaction between individuals who know Identity theft is one of the most prominent forms of each other, share interests and shape personal respon‑ cybercrime. Techniques such as phishing and pharm‑ sibilities, is radically re‑interpreted.157 ing are used, luring users to fake websites which look legitimate, and where users are asked to enter their personal information. This could include e-mail ad‑ The British Medical Association alerts to the ethi‑ dresses, username, passwords, credit card details and cal-professional problems coming from the use to other information criminals can use to ‘steal’ another TWITTER. person’s identity. This information can then be used online to open bank accounts, apply for loans and And FACEBOOK advising medical doctors on the buy goods. Due to the insidious nature of the crime, risks of having patients and ‘’friends’’ in Facebook victims may not become aware of the fact they have and Twitter mainly informal commentaries, ex‑ been targeted until the impact becomes severe. In change of patient’s photos, discussion regarding 2010, Albert Gonzales, the ringleader of a group of their professional work especially with sensitive data. hackers, was sentenced to 20 years in a US court for the theft of 130 million credit and debit card details from US retailers, used for fraudulent transactions Furthermore, ICT may easily ‘mainstream’ social pat‑ resulting in $200 million in losses. terns, beginning with the languages used to communi‑ cate, through to cultural patterns such as gender roles As public awareness about the dangers of identity (even though these may be actualised by persons of theft increases, so too does the sophistication of the another sex), and social norms of various kinds. Ethi‑ phishing techniques employed. There have been re‑ cally speaking, the Internet creates the space not only ports of cyber criminals exploiting the goodwill of for creative social relations but also for new collective people in response to natural disasters. Following identities that are gained or maintained by re‑introduc‑ the earthquake in Haiti in 2010, emails purporting to ing forms of inclusion and exclusion. Disrespect and be from charities directed donors to fake websites discrimination of ‘other’ groups would then be an ex‑ where donations made using credit cards were de‑ treme and blameworthy form of ‘identity politics’ that posited in accounts controlled by criminal entities. potentially threatens any collective identity.158 Here criminal practices like explicit discrimination or ‘hate speech’ must certainly be addressed by international 3.1.4 Individual Identity and Social Identity in ICT. cooperative legal regulations but regulation will not prevent practices of social stigmatisation. The second area the EGE considers as requiring further examination is the impact of ICT on the relation between 3.1.5 The Concept of Moral Identity in ICT Domains individual identities and social communities and group identities. While scholars easily agree that individuals The third area the EGE wishes to highlight with respect develop values and convictions in relation to others, to individual identity concepts is the concept of moral Internet platforms and social networks may also rein‑ identity. Moral identity entails the interpretation of ac‑ force group identities. When people can — and will — countability for a person’s actions on the one hand, and choose between different sources of information, and the integration of moral values in one’s identity. For the when companies profile their consumer habits, the two European Union, this means that the European values practices combined easily enforce a selective perception need to be communicated to the citizens, and interpret‑ of the ‘world’ as it is presented in the Internet. As a result, ed in view of ICT, as in a first step suggested in this EGE the individual’s social horizon is actually narrowed. Opinion. For example, what should count as a responsi‑ ble use of personal data from the perspective of the indi‑ Another example of an ethically important change vidual is not easily determined on the one hand, when in the relation between the individual and the social sphere is the way in which social networks shape the concept of friendship and community — when one can Aristotle addressed friendship as mutual care between equals; 157 easily have hundreds of ‘friends’ in a social network as such it has been conceptualised frequently throughout with whom one barely shares more than a loose sense the history of moral philosophy and moral theology. of belonging to the same Internet community, one of 158 This is not specific to ICT communities and group identities; the most important moral institutions, the personal however, ICT evoke new forms of such identities. 42
- 46. PART B: | EGE OPINION RECOMMENDATIONS | 10 on the other hand, companies continuously expand the means to profile citizens and use multiple initially an opportunity to harass and intimidate each other. unlinked databases for this purpose (cf. Part One of this While bullying is not a new phenomenon, the ways in Opinion, Data mining), and countries are not transparent which it happens are changing. Several definitions of about their surveillance practices.159 Many people make cyberbullying can be found in the literature, Patchin data available for what is thought to be one purpose and Hinduja define cyberbullying as ‘wilful and re‑ ignoring or not realizing that they have implicitly or even peated harm inflicted through the use of computers, explicitly agreed to specific marketing strategies that are cell phones and other electronic devices’. Essentially, used for completely different purposes. cyberbullying involves sending threatening messag‑ es (by text or e-mail), posting derogatory comments, Moral identity, however, involves more than protecting or circulating false rumours on social networking one’s own rights with respect to others or the state; sites. Cyberbullies can use a variety of online settings it also concerns the responsibility for a ‘decent’ civil to physically threaten or intimidate their peers. Cy‑ cyberspace. Bullying of individuals in social networks berbullying differs from traditional bulyying in that will not disappear through legal regulation; individuals it can take place outside of school and on a 24hour, need to step forward and protect others against bul‑ seven day a week basis due to the accessibility of the lying, but they also need to know how to act in such internet and mobile phones. This kind of bullying can cases. Since in principle everyone is vulnerable to dis‑ reach a wider audience and has a permanence not respect, the EGE emphasizes that the Internet is not an normally associated with traditional bullying (posts ethically neutral sphere but a sphere of social interac‑ on social media site can be difficult if not impossible tion that necessarily creates values and norms, so that to remove). Cyberbullying also offers the perpetrator much effort must be put in communicating the Euro‑ anonymity which engenders a confidence to commit pean values and normative principles of action, from hurtful acts. Easily maintaining anonymity in cyber‑ the respect of dignity and rights, to non‑discrimination space has been found to be one of the triggers of and particular protection of vulnerability. cyberbullying. Without any direct contact with vic‑ tims or any feedback, cyberbullies may have difficulty appreciating the magnitude of harm their actions are Cyberbullying causing, and have fewer opportunities for empathy or to express remorse. The ease of access to powerful communication tools such as social networking sites, email and internet Recent research has attempted to establish the prev‑ enabled smart phones are allowing young people alence of cyberbullying amongst children and teen‑ to connect with each other and engage with society agers and findings suggest that approximately 10- in ways previously unimaginable. Parents report that 35% of students have been victims of cyberbullying. 75% of 6-17 year olds in the 27 EU member states Ina recent UK study, 18.4% of young people between use the internet, and 63% of children own a mobile 10 and 19 reported that they have been bullied by phone. This increases to 94% in the 15-17 year old perpetrators using the internet or mobile phone. The group. Sixty percent of 9-16 year old internet users EU kids online study which interviewed 25.000 Euro‑ in Europe go online on a daily basis, spending an pean children across 25 countries documented that average of 88 minutes online that increases to 118 6% of 9-16 year olds have been bullied online. While minutes on 15-16 year olds. Thus, engaging in social there is disagreement about whether one or other media constitutes a routine activity for our children sex is more likely to be involved in cyberbullying, and and research has shown that there are many positive the age of cyberbullying, there is a significant over‑ benefits including enhanced communication and lap between being a victim and being perpetrator. technical skills. At the same time, we are witnessing A common finding in studies is that the majority of how the anonymous, instant and far-reaching com‑ victims do not tell and adult about the difficulties munication capabilities have afforded young people they are experiencing. This has been attributed to the fact that many parents are not as digitally savvy as their children and there is a fear amongst young people that in response to such reports, parents will As the group has stated in the beginning of this Opinion, 159 withdraw their internet/phone privileges. Cyberbul‑ the EGE does not address questions of security but will turn lying is an issue of which many parents are aware to this in a later Opinion. 43
- 47. 10 | RECOMMENDATIONS EGE OPINION | PART B: Ethics of information and communication technologies 3.2 Privacy as a Fundamental Right and concerned about. According to the 2008 Flash Eurobarometer survey, 54% of European parents are In the 1950s, Hannah Arendt was one of the first schol‑ worried that their children could be bullied online, ars to observe the political importance of privacy.160 with 61% reporting that they stay close by in order to Arendt’s defence of the importance of the private monitor their child’s usage of the internet. sphere warns about dangers arising from the erosion of the private, a situation which some consider as deriv‑ Victims of cyberbullying exhibit signs of emotional ing from the use of ICT as communication tools. distress, low self esteem, depression and anxiety. These children complain of headaches and stomach Ethically speaking, respect for freedom of the one per‑ aches more frequently than children who are not son raises not only the question of violation of rights of cyberbullied. another person but also the possibility of violating the person’s own dignity. For example, if individuals decide Victims report being frightened to attend school, to share their own private and intimate moments with leading to concerns that school absences will inevi‑ the web community (think of recording and putting tably lead to a detrimental effect on academic per‑ on the web explicit sexual images), can we say that formance, which could have life-long consequences. their actions are ethically wrong because others may In extreme situations, cyberbullying can contribute consider them detrimental to human beings’ dignity? to cyberbullicide, a recently coined term to refer to The advocates of freedom of expression would argue suicides influenced directly or indirectly by this form for the broadest possible notion of freedom of expres‑ of bullying. There have been several high profile sion and autonomy, but they would have to contend cases reported in the media of young people tak‑ with, for example, free circulation of extreme porno ing their own lives, in part because of harassment graphy (sadomasochism, sex brutality, etc.) by consent‑ and mistreatment mediated through the internet. ing adults.161 The opponents of this radical liberal ex‑ Cyberbullies themselves have also been shown to pression of individuals’ autonomy would, on the other have low self-esteem, are anxious, have difficulty in hand, face arguments on censorship, on the ethical making friends; all risk factors for suicide. justification for the limitation of individuals’ freedom, and the scope or limit of respect of ethical pluralism. Efforts aimed at counteracting cyberbullying range from legislation to awareness campaigns. Twenty-five When individuals decide to share data that concern their states in the US have enacted specific cyberbullying own private sphere, their decision affects not only their legislation, with seven states classifying cyberbully‑ own freedom but has implications, too, for all other us‑ ing as a crime. This approach has been criticised by ers. As the example of online sex and/or pornography some commentators, as it is clear that many cyber‑ easily shows, a very ‘liberal’ interpretation of digital free‑ bullies are suffering emotional distress themselves dom may change the concept of sexuality, may shape and labelling them as criminals is unlikely to be social practices concerning sexuality, the body, gender helpful and may impact on their future educational norms, or the concept of beauty. The opportunities that progress. Education of young people, their teachers technologies, especially in connection with the Internet, and parents is though to be crucial in the prevention provide, may easily result in the erosion of privacy and, of cyberbullying. An important first step is to enable over time, also change the notion of social norms or the young people to explore their attitudes to what con‑ overall concept of the public sphere. Even though strik‑ stitutes appropriate and inappropriate content to ing a balance between different rights, and the balancing share. Education can enforce social norms about how of rights and social goods, is very difficult, linking the young people engage with their peers in cyberspace ‘individual’ rights to the impact on the community of i.e. in a respectful manner. Our children also need to be advised about categories for reporting incidents of cyberbullying and how to safely use the internet. 160 Hannah Arendt, 1958, The Human Condition, University of To this end, the European Commission launched the Chicago Press. Safer Internet programme 2009-2013, with the aim of 161 Different is the debate on the ethics dimension of privacy empowering young people online by providing them protection for individuals not consenting to the sharing of with the information, skills and tools to deal with risks their own data. But in this last case, the absence of individuals’ they may encounter in this virtual world. consent rises questions related to subjects’ right to self‑de- termination and autonomy and then are ethically sensitive. 44
- 48. PART B: | EGE OPINION RECOMMENDATIONS | 10 Internet users is an important step in assessing Internet their permission. 74% of Europeans think that disclos‑ governance. In this specific context, liberal versus more ing personal data is increasingly part of modern life, restrictive governance models are being proposed in the but at the same time, 72% of Internet users are worried global debate over the ethics of Internet and the rights/ that they give away too much personal data, according values of individuals as citizens of the cyber‑community. to the Eurobarometer survey. They feel they are not in complete control of their data. This erodes their trust Privacy has been conceived as an ‘exclusion’ device — in online and other services and holds back the growth as a tool to fend off the ‘unwanted gaze’. However, by of the digital economy in general. analysing the definitions of privacy it is clear that priva‑ cy has changed over time by giving shape ultimately to In the context of ICT development there is, therefore, a right that is increasingly geared towards enabling the a widespread public perception of significant ethical free construction of one’s personality — the autono‑ risks and legal uncertainty associated notably with on‑ mous building up of one’s identity, and the projection line activity.164 This is why it is time to build a stronger of fundamental democratic principles into the private and more coherent data protection framework in the sphere. A societal and academic debate has been taking EU, backed by strong enforcement that will allow the place for some years now on the notion of privacy.162 digital economy to develop across the internal market, put individuals in control of their own data and rein‑ Some argue that privacy is a means of controlling infor‑ force legal and practical certainty for economic opera‑ mation that should commonly be shared since in the web tors and public authorities.165 2.0 e‑privacy cannot properly be defended. This view, called ‘post‑privacy‑movement’, also advocates that ac‑ 3.2.2 Safety of Personal Data tively giving up privacy would determine the flourish‑ ing of a personal and social virtue163 based on people’s Increasingly, individuals upload their own personal freedom to introduce and share whatever data on their data to the Internet166 (social networks, cloud com‑ own lives they desire, including sexual behaviour/pref‑ puting services, etc.). However, the European Directive erences. Also according to this view, such an approach on the protection of personal data does not apply to should encourage people to cultivate more tolerance to‑ the individual who uploads data for ‘purely personal’ wards attitudes and behaviour of others. The opposite purposes or ‘in the course of a household activity’ (the view states that the assumption that in the web 2.0 era it so‑called ‘household exemption’).167 Arguably it does is difficult to guarantee privacy is not a sufficient reason not apply either to the organisation that provides the to abandon the necessary protection of individuals’ pri‑ service, i.e. hosts and makes available the information vacy. It states that a private sphere is a source where one uploaded by the individual (unless the service pro‑ is not required to immediately meet public expectations cesses data for its own purposes) insofar as the ser‑ and conventional lifestyles. The two positions character‑ vice provider may not be deemed to be a controller. ise the debate on both Internet governance and issues The result is a situation of lack of safeguards that may related to personal integrity and social communication. need to be addressed, particularly given the increase in the number of such situations. In this context, who‑ 3.2.1 Concerns Regarding the Current EU Legal ever offers services to a private individual should be Protection of Personal Data required to provide certain safeguards regarding the security and, as appropriate, the confidentiality of the According to a recent Eurobarometer (IP/11/742), 70% of Europeans are concerned that their personal data may be misused. They are worried that companies may be passing on their data to other companies without 164 Special Eurobarometer (EB) 359, Data Protection and Electronic Identity in the EU (2011): http://ec.europa.eu/ public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_359_en.pdf. 162 Cf. the Flash Eurobarometer 241 on ‘Information Society as 165 Draft for a Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parlia- seen by the EU citizens’ (2008) and SPECIAL Eurobarometer ment and of the Council on the protection of individuals 359 ‘Attitudes on Data Protection and Electronic Identity in with regard to the processing of personal data and on the the European Union’ (2011). free movement of such data, Version 56 (29/11/2011), 3. 163 Other codes of conduct strictly distinguish between using 166 The Future of Privacy, p. 15-16. public data (and making them public where this is deemed to be necessary) and, at the same time, protecting private 167 Article 29 Data Protection Working Party, Opinion 5/2009 data; cf. http://www.ccc.de/hackerethics. on online social networking,5. 45
- 49. 10 | RECOMMENDATIONS EGE OPINION | PART B: Ethics of information and communication technologies information uploaded, regardless of whether their cli‑ concerned. Consideration could be given to broaden‑ ent is a data controller.168 ing the situations where express consent is required, cur‑ rently limited to sensitive personal data.173 However, it 3.2.3 Profiling and Data Mining is doubtful whether the legal framework should require explicit consent as a general rule for all types of pro‑ A consequence of the broad and flexible concept of ‘per‑ cessing operations, including those currently covered sonal data’ is that there are numerous cases where it is by Article 7 of the Directive.174 The controller should not always clear whether individuals enjoy data protec‑ have the burden of proving that the data subject has tion rights and whether data controllers should comply given consent to the processing operation.175 with the obligations imposed by the Directive. There are situations which involve the processing of specific infor‑ 3.2.5 Giving and Withdrawing Consent mation which would require additional measures under EU law e.g. key‑coded data, location data, ‘data mining’.169 It would provide more legal certainty if the data pro‑ ‘Profiles’, when they are attributed to a data subject, even tection legislative framework were to contain an ex‑ make it possible to generate new personal data which press clause entitling an individual to withdraw their are not those which the data subject has communicated consent.176 The same requirements including unam‑ to the controller. This future development of ‘new data’ biguous consent apply both offline and online. As the (through data mining and profiling) should be taken into risk of ambiguous consent is likely to be greater in the account when revising the Directive.170 online world, this calls for specific attention. Unam‑ biguous consent does not fit well with procedures to 3.2.4 Sensitive Data obtain consent based on inaction or silence on the part of individuals: a party’s silence or inaction has inher‑ The processing of sensitive data, i.e. ‘personal data re‑ ent ambiguity. As a consequence of the requirement vealing racial or ethnic origin, political opinions, reli‑ for consent to be unambiguous, data controllers are gious or philosophical beliefs, trade‑union member‑ de facto encouraged to have in place procedures and ship, and data concerning health or sex life’, is currently mechanisms that leave no doubt that consent has been already prohibited as a general rule, with limited excep‑ given, either on the basis of an express action carried tions under certain conditions and safeguards (Article 8 out by the individual or by being clearly inferred from of the Directive) However, in the light of technological an action carried out by an individual. As a matter of and other societal developments, there is a need to good practice data controllers should consider putting reconsider the existing provisions on sensitive data, in place relevant measures and procedures to show to examine whether other categories of data should that consent has been given. The more complicated the be added and to further clarify the conditions for their environment in which they operate, the more measures processing. This concerns, for example, genetic data will be necessary to ensure that consent is verifiable. This and biometric data,171 which are currently not explic‑ information should be put at the disposal of the data itly mentioned as a sensitive category of data.172 In or‑ protection authority upon request.177 der to guarantee lawfulness, personal data should be processed on the basis of the consent of the person 173 Opinion of the European Data Protection Supervisor on the Communication from the Commission to the European Par- 168 The Future of Privacy,18. liament, the Council, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions — ‘A comprehensive 169 Com (2010) 609 final, 5. approach on personal data protection in the European 170 Opinion of the Committee on industry, research and en- Union’ Official Journal C 181, 22/06/2011 p. 1 – 23 § 82. ergy for the Committee on Civil liberties, Justice and Home Article 29 Data Protection Working Party, Opinion 15/2011 174 Affairs on a comprehensive approach on personal data pro- on the definition of consent, p. 37. tection in the European Union, 11 May 2011, §7, Report of the European Parliament on a comprehensive approach on 175 Draft for a Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parlia- personal data protection in the European Union, European ment and of the Council on the protection of individuals Parliament, 22 June 2011 (rapporteur: Axel Voss). with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, Version 56 (29/11/2011), 22 §30. European Parliament resolution of 6 July 2011 on a com- 171 prehensive approach on personal data protection in the 176 Article 29 Data Protection Working Party, Opinion 15/2011 European Union, § 22. on the definition of consent, 37. 172 Com (2010) 609 final, 9. 177 Article 29 Data Protection Working Party, Opinion 15/2011 46
- 50. PART B: | EGE OPINION RECOMMENDATIONS | 10 In the online environment explicit consent may be given they want to access, rectify or delete their data. Basic by using electronic or digital signatures. However, it elements of transparency are the requirements that can also be given through clickable buttons depending the information must be easily accessible and easy to on the context, sending confirmatory emails, clicking understand, and that clear and plain language is used. on icons, etc. Consent does not have to be recordable This is particularly relevant in the online environment, to be valid. However, it is in the interest of the data where quite often privacy notices are unclear, difficult controller to retain evidence. Obviously, the strength to access, non‑transparent and not always in full com‑ of the evidence provided by a specific mechanism may pliance with existing rules. Where the data provider is vary, supplying more or less evidence of the consent. based in a country other than that of the user, jurisdic‑ Consent that has been obtained through a clickable tional differences may have a profound impact on the button with the identity of the individual supported way the data are handled. A case in point is online be‑ by an email address only will have much less eviden‑ havioural advertising, where both the proliferation of tiary value than a similar process, for example with actors involved in the provision of behavioural adver‑ recordable consent mechanisms. The need for strong tising and the technological complexity of the practice evidence will also depend on the type of data collected make it difficult for an individual to know and under‑ and the purpose followed: an electronic signature will stand if personal data are being collected, by whom, not be needed to consent to receiving commercial of‑ and for what purpose.180 fers, but may be necessary to consent to the processing of certain types of financial data online.178 3.2.6.1 Mandatory Breach Notification Consent does not provide a valid ground where the It is also important for individuals to be informed as individual has no genuine and free choice and is subse‑ quickly as possible when their data are accidentally quently not able to refuse or withdraw consent without or unlawfully destroyed, lost, altered, accessed by or detriment, especially when there is a clear misbalance disclosed to unauthorised persons. The recent revision between the data subject and the controller, e.g. in the of the e‑Privacy Directive introduced a mandatory per‑ employment sector. In this case, processing needs an‑ sonal data breach notification covering, however, only other legitimate basis, laid down by law.179 the telecommunications sector. Given that risks of data breaches also exist elsewhere (e.g. the financial sector), 3.2.6 Transparency the obligation to notify personal data breaches should be extended to other sectors. A consistent and coher‑ Transparency is a fundamental condition for enabling ent approach on this matter will have to be ensured individuals to exercise control over their own data and even when the organisation breaching the confiden‑ to ensure effective protection of personal data. It is tiality is not based within the EU.181 therefore essential that individuals should be well and clearly informed, in a transparent way, by data control‑ 3.2.6.2 Managing One’s Own Data lers about how and by whom their data are collected and processed, for what reasons, for how long, how it Individuals should always be able to access, rectify, de‑ will be shared with others and what their rights are if lete or block their data, unless there are legitimate rea‑ sons, provided by law, for preventing this. These rights already exist in the current legal framework. However, on the definition of consent, p. 23-25; See also Recom- the way in which these rights can be exercised is not mendation (2010) 13 of the Committee of Ministers of the harmonised. Moreover, this has become particularly Council of Europe to the member states on the protection challenging in the online environment, where data of individuals with regard to automatic profiling of personal are often retained without the person concerned be‑ data in the context of profiling (23 november 2010), Section ing informed and/or having given his or her consent. 3.6: ‘ When consent is required it is incumbent on the con- troller to prove that the data subject has agreed to profiling The example of online social networking is particularly on an informed basis, as set out in Section 4’. 178 Article 29 Data Protection Working Party, Opinion 15/2011 on the definition of consent, p. 26. 180 Com (2010) 609 final, 6. 179 Draft for a Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parlia- Com (2010) 609 final, 6-7; Article 29 Data Protection Work- 181 ment and of the Council on the protection of individuals with ing Party, Working Document 01/2011 on the current EU regard to the processing of personal data and on the free personal data breach framework and recommendations for movement of such data, Version 56 (29/11/2011), 22 §§29-30. future policy developments. 47
- 51. 10 | RECOMMENDATIONS EGE OPINION | PART B: Ethics of information and communication technologies relevant here, as it presents significant challenges to safeguards and rights in relation to the processing of the individual’s effective control over his/her personal personal data. Children tend to underestimate risks data. The European Commission has received various linked to using the Internet and minimise the conse‑ queries from individuals who have not always been quences of their behaviour.186 The lack of general rules able to retrieve personal data from online service on this in the existing legal framework leads to a frag‑ providers, such as their pictures, and who have there‑ mented approach and does not recognise the need fore been impeded in exercising their rights of access, for specific protection of children in specific circum‑ rectification, deletion or blocking. Such rights should stances, because of their vulnerability, and because therefore be made more explicit, clarified and, where it causes legal uncertainty, particularly as regards the necessary, strengthened.182 The modalities for actual way children’s consent is obtained. Harmonising the exercise of the rights of access, rectification, erasure or conditions for allowing children and minors to exercise blocking of data have been improved (e.g. by introduc‑ their rights at EU level, especially with regard to the age ing deadlines for responding to individuals’ requests, threshold, would certainly bring additional guarantees. by allowing the exercise of rights by electronic means It should also cover the requirement to use online age or by providing that right of access should be ensured verification mechanisms.187,188 free of charge as a principle). In the context of providing information to children, spe‑ 3.2.7 Right to Data Deletion cial emphasis should be put on giving layered notices based on the use of simple, concise and educational Any person should have a so‑called ‘right to be language that can be easily understood. A shorter no‑ forgotten’,183 which means that the data subject should tice should contain the basic information to be provid‑ have the right to ensure that their personal data will ed when collecting personal data either directly from be deleted and no longer processed, where they have the data subject or from a third party (Articles 10 and withdrawn their consent for processing or where they 11 of the Directive). This should be accompanied by object to the processing of personal data concerning a more detailed notice, perhaps via a hyperlink, where them. To tighten this up in the online environment, all the relevant details are provided.189 the right to deletion should also be extended in such a way that any publicly available copies or replica‑ The interests of vulnerable adults would be better tions in websites and search engines should also be protected through additional provisions, specifically deleted by the controller who made the information addressing the collection and further processing of public.184 The European Commission has also proposed their data. These provisions could cover the circum‑ complementing the rights of data subjects by ensur‑ stances in which the consent of a representative or an ing ‘data portability’, i.e. providing the explicit right for authority is required, together with, or in place of, the an individual to withdraw his/her own data (e.g. his/ consent of an incapable individual, and could extend her photos or a list of friends) from an application or to circumstances where it should not be possible to service so that the withdrawn data can be transferred use consent as a basis for legitimising the processing to another application or service, as far as technically of personal data. feasible, without hindrance from the data controllers.185 3.2.8 Special Protection for Minors 186 Com (2010) 609 final, 6. In the online context, children deserve specific protec‑ tion, as they may be less aware of risks, consequences, 187 There are different mechanisms and different thresholds. For example, age verification, rather than being subject to one single rule, could be based on a sliding scale approach whereby the mechanism to be used would depend on the circumstances, such as the type of processing (the purpos- Com (2010) 609 final, 7. 182 es), whether particularly risky, type of data collected, data 183 The EGE prefers to use the expression ‚right to data deletion‘. usages,(whether the data are intended for disclosure), etc. 184 Draft for a Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parlia- 188 Article 29 Data Protection Working Party, Opinion 15/2011 ment and of the Council on the protection of individuals on the definition of consent, p. 28. with regard to the processing of personal data and on the 189 Article 29 Working Party, Opinion 2/2009 on the protec- free movement of such data, Version 56 (29/11/2011), 25 § 47. tion of children’s personal data (General Guidelines and the 185 Com (2010) 609 final, 8. special case of schools), 11 February 2009, p. 10. 48
- 52. PART B: | EGE OPINION RECOMMENDATIONS | 10 Additional criteria should apply when the controller is established outside the EU/EEA with a view to ensuring Digital Divide Best Practice that a sufficient connection exists with the EU territory and to avoid EU territory being used to conduct illegal A diverse range of initiatives have been undertak‑ data processing activities by controllers established in en in different countries with a view to closing the third countries. More harmonisation in regard to the digital divide that exists between different sectors obligation of controllers established in third countries of society, e.g. due to issues relating to age, socio- to appoint a representative in the EU with the objec‑ economic status, geographic location and disabil‑ tive of giving more effectiveness to the role of the rep‑ ity. Some of these initiatives have proven successful resentative is recommended. In particular, the extent in helping to minimise the digital divide. to which data subjects should be able to effectively exercise their rights against the representative should South Korea has emerged as one of the foremost be clarified.190 countries in alleviating problems associated with the digital divide, with the Digital Opportunity In‑ 4. Sphere of Social Implications, dex, which measures the degree of balance within the information society, ranking it first among Or‑ Culture, Education and ganisation for Economic Co-operation and Devel‑ Environmental Protection opment (OECD) countries for the last three years. South Korea took an assertive, highly focused 4.1 Social Inclusion in the Age of ICT and ultimately very successful approach to deal with the digital divide issue. This began in the late Rapid developments in, and the ubiquitous diffusion 1990s with the establishment of a specific body of, ICT increasingly means that to utilise many everyday dedicated to this task, namely the Korean Agency services, one has to have access to ICT and the requisite for Digital Opportunity and Promotion (KADO). skills and motivation to use the technology in order to The KADO’s role was to provide easy and afford‑ fully participate in today’s society. Digital inclusion is able access to ICT services (e.g. IT education, the fast becoming a prerequisite for social inclusion. Thus, Internet and email) to individuals with disabilities, it is a matter of concern that despite the great strides the elderly, low-income families and to those in ru‑ made in creating the information society, there remains ral communities. Since its inception the KADO has a ‘digital divide’ where due to age, gender, geographi‑ provided these services to over 10 million Koreans. cal location or socioeconomic status, there is unequal In addition to establishing the KADO, the govern‑ access to and use of ICT. ment also introduced specific legislation [i.e. the Digital Divide Act (2001)] and has produced two A large proportion of Internet users are young comprehensive ‘Master Plans’ to bridge the digi‑ people,191 who are often not fully aware of the impli‑ tal divide in 2001 and 2005 respectively. Given the cations that may arise from their use of ICT. The com‑ success of its initiatives at a national level, South mercial nature of social networks and the complexity Korea has changed focus to provide more support of privacy protection, the difficulty of erasing data (in‑ to global informatisation and bridging the digital cluding pictures and videos or participation in blogs) divide internationally, particularly within develop‑ or the possible uncontrolled diffusion of data originally ing countries. As part of this change the KADO has addressed to another cyber‑user and then spread in been merged with the National Information Society cyber‑space, are all examples of possible risks confront‑ Agency (NIA). The NIA now runs a number of initia‑ ing Internet users. tives, such as the IT and Policy Assistance Program and Korea IT Volunteers, with other countries to provide expertise, experience, training, technical assistance and best practice as part of national IT developments in these partner countries. 190 Article 29 Data Protection Working Party, Opinion 8/2010 on The One Laptop per Child project, which began in applicable law, 31-32. 2007 aims to provide the opportunity and resourc‑ Economist Intelligence Unit. Closing Europe’s digital divide. 191 es to children to help facilitate their ‘self-empow‑ October 2008. http://graphics.eiu.com/upload/Intel_ ered’ education in low-income countries. To date Digital_Divide.pdf. accessed on 2 December 2011. 49
- 53. 10 | RECOMMENDATIONS EGE OPINION | PART B: Ethics of information and communication technologies the laptops have been supplied to over 2.5 million The IA Centre provides industry-relevant ICT train‑ children and teachers in 42 countries, predomi‑ ing and IT-related apprenticeships as well as an as‑ nantly through government-led programmes. The sistive technology loan library, with a view to im‑ success of this programme relates to the specific proving both the independence and employability design and utility of the laptops themselves (i.e. XO of those with disabilities. laptops), particularly given the practical issues as‑ sociated with ICT services in developing countries, What these projects serve to illustrate is the impor‑ such as unreliable or nonexistent electricity sup‑ tance in having both access as well as the knowledge, plies and poor Internet connectivity. For example skills and supportive organisational and societal the XO laptops are inexpensive, powerful, robust, structures in order to achieve digital inclusion for all. solar-chargeable, low-power and can interconnect wirelessly to create local networks. In addition, the laptops also utilise free and open source software. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU),192 In an effort to improve IT literacy in older people, the United Nations’ agency for ICT, publishes compre‑ ‘The Log On, Learn Programme’, a collaborative hensive ICT statistics from 152 countries on an annual Irish project involving Intel, Microsoft and An Post basis. In its 2011 report it notes that in all countries (Ireland’s national postal service), began in 2008. from which data are available and without exception, The project involves a secondary level students act‑ Internet usage is higher amongst individuals with ing as mentors (‘buddy’) to an older person from a secondary or tertiary educational qualification than their local community and teaching him/her basic those with a lower level of education.193 In Europe only IT skills (e.g. how to use a computer, word process‑ 10 % of people over the age of 64 use the Internet, as ing and Internet applications). The students benefit compared to 73 % of those between 16 and 24 years.194 through the development of their research, mar‑ While age itself is not a barrier to using digital technol‑ keting and teaching skills as well as through the ogies, older people tend to face other obstacles such interpersonal interactions, which foster intergen‑ as cost, skills, disability access and attitude, as well as erational solidarity. To date more than 165 schools lack of awareness and understanding.195,196 have enrolled, providing this one-to-one mentoring to over 3000 individuals. However, it is envisaged On the basis of these considerations the definition of that with further roll out the programme has the policies which optimise market and socio‑economic capacity to train up to 30000 individuals. indicators inputs should not neglect, inter alia, the need to guarantee alternative access to services by people In Australia a digital divide has been identified be‑ who, owing to socio‑cultural (or simply for individual tween rural and metropolitan areas. One initiate choice) factors, prefer conventional non‑digital tools to that attempts to address the digital divide in rural make their purchases or access their rights as members Victoria is the access@schools programme. This programme provides people in remote and rural areas with free or affordable access to the Internet and ICT facilities through local schools outside of school hours. The programme was originally 192 http://www.itu.int/en/about/Pages/overview.aspx, accessed launched in 2001 and provided ICT access to 12000 on 1 December 2011. citizens through 145 schools. In light of the success ITU. Measuring the Information Society 2011 http://www. 193 of this pilot project further funding was provided itu.int/ITU‑D/ict/publications/idi/2011/Material/MIS_2011_ through the Commonwealth Government to ex‑ without_annex_5.pdf, accessed on 1 December 2011. pand the programme. 194 Economist Intelligence Unit. Closing Europe’s digital divide. October 2008. http://graphics.eiu.com/upload/Intel_Digital In an effort to create a digitally-inclusive society, _Divide.pdf. accessed on 2 December 2011. the Society for the Physically Disabled in Singapore, 195 E‑communications household survey by the European Com- established the Infocomm Accessibility (IA) Centre mission (2011). http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ as an innovative training facility for individuals with ebs/ebs_362_en.pdf, accessed on 2 December 2011. physical, sensory and developmental disabilities. 196 Peacock SE, Kunemund H. European Journal of Ageing 2007; 4:191-200. 50
- 54. PART B: | EGE OPINION RECOMMENDATIONS | 10 of a community (particularly regarding political partici‑ cultural expression, social interaction and political par‑ pation or health‑related services197). ticipation, but from the perspective of governments it is imperative that the rights of those who wish to The list of possible digital gaps includes several vul‑ not take part in the ICT revolution must be respected. nerable groups: older generations having grown up in While these citizens’ rights are certainly not to be in‑ a pre‑Internet era; less educated people; marginalised terpreted as trumping innovation and progress in ICT, groups within the European Union; and, from a global a responsible implementation means that their needs viewpoint, less (digitally covered) countries or regions are as good as possible accommodated. As a conse‑ in the EU and elsewhere in the developed and the de‑ quence of not choosing to incorporate ICT into their veloping world. All gaps can be described with regard daily lives, it is likely that individuals will increasingly to the capacity of using ICT in everyday life, but also see their choices limited in the digital age. Therefore, it with regard to having fewer educational or financial is important that in areas where society places obliga‑ resources to compete with those who up to now suc‑ tions on such individuals e.g. submitting tax returns, cessfully have used ICT to pursue their political, com‑ mechanisms unrelated to ICT are in place to help all mercial, scientific or other goals. citizens to meet their obligations. 4.2 E‑Government 4.3 Education The UN E‑Government Survey of 2010 begins with the In the domain of education, e‑learning‑tools need to following statement: ‘E‑government is a powerful tool be carefully assessed in the way they transform Euro‑ for human development and essential to the achieve‑ pean traditional face‑to‑face‑communication between ment of the internationally agreed development goals teachers and students. The style of learning and com‑ including the Millennium Development Goals. Many municating information seems to be changing through countries are experiencing its transformative power in the influence of ICT, especially web‑based information revitalizing public administration, overhauling public and educational tools. Searching rather than reading management, fostering inclusive leadership and mov‑ becomes the method of choice for building up literacy ing civil service towards higher efficiency, transparency skills. Educational regimes and institutions will have to and accountability. They recognize e‑government as improve access to information on the one hand and, a way of realizing the vision of a global information so‑ on the other hand, build a literate identity for individu‑ ciety. In contrast, countries slow to embrace e‑govern‑ als but also for communities and for organisations. It ment tend to remain mired in the typical institutional seems clear that we are facing profound transforma‑ pathologies of supply‑driven services and procedures, tions in our patterns of processing information and remoteness between government and citizen, and shaping our educational infrastructure. opaque decision‑making processes. 4.3.1 Culture Society experiences rapid, continuous and incessant change. The drive to invent, reinvent and discard al‑ ICT is a domain where every culture may express it‑ most continuously is a unique human pursuit in an ef‑ self, in its peculiarity. In a globalised world, every cul‑ fort to deliver progress and prosperity for humankind. ture may communicate through ICT with any other, in E‑government is aimed at facilitating this change with‑ a very rapid way; everyone has the chance to take part, out ‘leaving anyone behind’ who wishes to participate actively, in multicultural life. The free flow of informa‑ in public social and/or political affairs. ICT are certainly tion gives an opportunity for increasing intercultural welcome on all the different levels of individual and dialogue, and boosts individuals’ chances of sharing trans‑cultural knowledge and broadening their own outlook beyond cultural boundaries. ICT may enable Some have advocated that e‑health, tele‑medicine and 197 the protection of minority languages and cultures e‑care may offer better opportunities of contact between where efforts are made for those within the cultures medical or care staff members and patients, especially in to interact with one another. On the other hand ICT regions where adequate health care cannot be provided, may tend to make cultures more uniform, assimilating e.g. in rural regions. Nevertheless, some have also advocated the differences (e.g. using one language, English) and that intensified application of ICT in medicine and health care is problematic towards the patient‑doctor relation- aligning the standard of communication in all countries ship, the online pharmacy and risks of misuse of drugs, the of the world, with the risk of affecting cultural diversity. e‑driven informed consent procedures, e‑prescriptions, etc. 51
- 55. 10 | RECOMMENDATIONS EGE OPINION | PART B: Ethics of information and communication technologies 4.4 E‑Health containing health information should develop quality criteria including the basis of the information, the au‑ The growth of new health information technology op‑ thors, funding arrangements, and how any personal portunities brings a responsibility to design interoper‑ data will be used, and that ideally such websites should able, easy to use, engaging, and accessible e‑Health seek accreditation from recognised schemes. applications that communicate the right information needed to guide health care and health promotion for The distribution of the benefits and risks of e‑Health diverse audiences. Moreover, the wider deployment must be carefully considered. It is well established that of e‑Health raises certain ethical and regulatory con‑ those with lower educational and income levels have cerns. One of the fundamental challenges lies in ensur‑ worse health. If more healthcare services are shifted to ing that patient data remain confidential and secure in new media, we could leave behind those with limited order to build trust and confidence in e‑Health systems. health literacy or access to technology. Ensuring that Appropriate measures should be put in place that can new technologies empower people, rather than exac‑ be reasonably expected to safeguard the security and erbate health inequalities, needs to be at the forefront integrity of personal medical information. of the exciting developments in this area. Heretofore the clinical encounter between doctor and 4.5 E‑environment patient has been physical and concerns have been ex‑ pressed that the move to a virtual environment could The influence of the use of ICT on the environment is com‑ undermine the doctor‑patient relationship, especially plex and may have positive and negative consequences. amongst older populations. Other commentators have ICT may provide tools for the protection of environment: pointed to the positive collaborative aspects of this sort monitoring environmental issues, managing urban envi‑ of interaction, with patients developing a greater sense ronment systems, communicating environmental knowl‑ of responsibility, accountability and knowledge allow‑ edge, disseminating information to the public, stimulat‑ ing them to participate in medical decision‑making.198 ing active participation of citizens, enabling efficient use There are however variations in patient preferences and of resources, reducing the consumption of energy and many patients are happy to defer to their doctors’ deci‑ essential natural resources (reducing the consumption of sions.199 The relationship between doctor and patient is paper through electronic and paperless communication), embedded in values of commitment, trust, privacy, con‑ bettering the use of natural resources. Examples include fidentiality and responsibility, and it is vital that e‑Health using technologies to improve practices in agriculture should facilitate the realisation of these principles. including minimisation of chemical usage, monitoring air and water pollution, prediction of environmental There is an enormous amount of medical information changes permitting action to be taken to protect where to be found on the Internet. This information, however, appropriate and improving the efficiency of the energy, tends not to be screened, edited or assessed for ac‑ transportation, and goods and services sectors. At the curacy and can be inexact or even misleading. It can same time, the sustainability of these technologies must be difficult for patients to judge the quality of the in‑ be managed to avoid unintended consequences such as formation presented on the many websites that offer increased consumption of scarce resources and a very health information and advice, and patients can also large increase in energy usage and environmental dam‑ experience difficulties in putting the information into age from electronic waste (e‑pollution). the context of their specific clinical situation. Both the Italian National Bioethics Committee200 and the Nuf‑ Although ICT require energy resources, they may offer field Council201 have recommended that all websites many ecological opportunities. ICT may have positive and negative consequences on the environment and on environmental sustainability. The positive impact of ICT 198 Wald HS, Dube CE and Anthony DC. Patient Education and is generally considered very high, so that it may balance Counseling 2007;68:218-224. some negative aspects. ICT may improve environmental 199 Levinson W, Kao A, Kuby A et al. Journal General Internal Medicine 2005;20:531-535. 200 http://www.governo.it/bioetica/eng/pdf/ethics_health_ Medical%20profiling%20and%20online%20 medicine and_new_information_tecnologies_20060421.pdf, %20 %20the%20ethics%20of%20’personalised%20health- accessed on 19 January 2012. care’%20in%20a%20consumer%20age%20(Web%20ver- 201 http://www.nuffieldbioethics.org/sites/default/files/ sion%20-%20reduced).pdf, accessed on 11 January 2012. 52
- 56. PART B: | EGE OPINION RECOMMENDATIONS | 10 performances and may offer tools for the protection of structures will play a potentially significant role in the environment in many different ways: determining whether there is a successful global response to the challenge of environmental issues. • Direct effects, which arise from the design, produc‑ tion, distribution, maintenance and disposal of ICT At the same time, ICTs may have a negative impact on goods and services by the ICT industry202. the environment: consumption of energy, not fully recy‑ clable apparatus’ and technology (toxic e‑waste pollu‑ • Indirect effects, which arise from the application and tion). Electronic waste has become a major issue of digi‑ use of ICTs in society, in government and public insti‑ tal ethics. It deals with the ICT devices (hardware waste tutions, in research and scientific communities. ICTs and recycling of old computers) that already today have may offer promising solutions for enhancing our devastating consequences on the environment. capacity to give warning of, predict and track envi‑ ronmental changes and disasters, developing appro‑ priate management that are able to minimize risks Intelligent Transportation Systems and maximize adaptation strategies. Of course we can not predict, but enhance the ability to anticipate Information and Communication Technologies change designing the future ecological scenario, in (ICT) are in the early stages of transforming trans‑ order to be in a better position to adapt to it203. portation systems. Intelligent Transportation Sys‑ tems (ITS) are generally regarded as the integrated • Systemic effects, which arise from changes in social application of computer, sensor, electronics and and organizational structures enabling the availa‑ communication technologies to deliver a safer, bility, accessibility, application and use of ICT goods more efficient and more sustainable transport sys‑ and services. In this aspect ICTs may contribute to tem. ITS can empower commuters, road network reducing pollution and the consumption of ener‑ providers, and actual devices, such as traffic lights gy204. In this sense, the choices of organizations and with actionable information, thereby facilitating communities about how to use ICTs to change their better informed decisions which can help save lives, time and money. Future developments in this area are likely to focus on thing-to-thing, vehicle- to-person, vehicle-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-infra‑ 202 The so called ‘green ICTs’ are technologies which are ethi- cally designed in order to constantly facilitate the control structure communications, the so-called ‘internet of energy consumption: i.e. smart ICT applications, sensor of things’. The basic concept involves the perva‑ networks and applications in smart power grids, smart build- sive use of Radio Frequency Identification Devices ings/housing, intelligent transportation systems and smart (RFID) tags, sensors, actuators, and mobile vehicles, industrial processes make significant contributions to more which through unique addressing systems, are able efficient resource use and reduce greenhouse gas emissions and other pollutants. In particular, ‘intelligent transport sys- to communicate with each other and cooperate in tems’ may render transport more efficient, fast and cheap; reaching common goals. Networking of previously ‘telework’ may be a solution for traffic and fuel pollution. offline objects, like cars and roads may represent Green digital intelligence may monitor, control, adjust, man- the next big stage in the evolution of ICT. age new green industry sectors that are ecologically friendly. 203 Examples of such technological transformation are: planning The growth of ICT has already resulted in novel ap‑ strategies in order to monitor environmental issues on a glob- plications in the surface transport sector including al scale (to address environmental degradation and climate improved road safety, traffic management systems, change; to combat and slow down global warming, reducing CO2 emissions and accelerating green growth; to predict disas- the provision of information to and from vehicles ter or damages) or on a local scale (to manage urban environ- (e.g. navigational aids) and seamless financial ment systems, monitoring energy distribution, air and water transactions (e.g. tolls). Key enabling technologies pollution; to improve practices in agriculture and forestry). include global positioning systems (GPS) which 204 i.e. ‘Paper Consumption Reduction’, reducing the consump- receive signals from several satellites to calculate tion of paper through electronic and paperless communica- position, wireless networks, radiowave and infrared tion; ‘Dematerialization’, controlling and limiting the printing beacons, as well as dedicated short range commu‑ of documents by exchanging information electronically; nications (DSRC) specifically designed for automo‑ ‘Wireless Network Energy Savings’, controlling the consump- tion of the energy of mobiles, constantly monitoring the tive use allowing two-way wireless communication level of temperature in order to guarantee the functioning between vehicles and roads. of mobiles without energy waste. 53
- 57. 10 | RECOMMENDATIONS EGE OPINION | PART B: Ethics of information and communication technologies Despite the fact that the number of road fatalities in Good traffic management can also reduce conges‑ the European Union (EU) has almost halved in the last tion on our roads, It is estimated that 10% of the EU decade, there were still 34.500 people killed in Euro‑ road network is affected by congestion, at a yearly pean roads in 2009. Quite apart from the devastating cost of 0.9-1.5% EU GDP. A number of ITS applications human toll, the cost of such tragedies in 2009 was es‑ such as traffic light optimisation, ramp metering and timated to be €130 billion. Intelligent Transportation congestion charging can contribute to enhancing Systems provide the tolls to make transformational the operational performance of road networks. If improvements in safety and can assist in realising the traffic lights are coordinated in an intelligent way, EU goal of halving overall road fatalities by 2020. Most based on dynamic information collected from the developments in transportation safety in the last 50 road infrastructure and the vehicles which use it, a years were designed to minimise injury to passen‑ road network can be used with optimal capacity- gers in the event of a collision e.g. seatbelts, airbags. during quiet times as well as in peak times with com‑ ITS has shifted the focus from collision protection to peting traffic demands. A number of European citi‑ prevention. Advanced emergency braking systems zens have introduced congestion pricing schemes; (AEBS), lane departure warning systems (LDW) and charging for entry into urban centres at peak times. intelligent speed adaptation are already available in In 2007, Stockholm introduced congestion charg‑ a limited number of cars. In the case of AEBS, which ing using RFID tags installed in cars which commu‑ triggers full on braking when it calculates there is an nicated with receivers at the entry points into the acute risk of a rear end collision and the driver has city and triggered automatic payments. Within three failed to react, the European Commission has set years, there was a 50% reduction in traffic wait time, 1 November 2013 as the date for when AEBS becomes CO2 emissions in the inner city were cut by 14-18% mandatory for new type trucks over 3.5 tonnes and and 60.000 additional passengers were using public passenger vehicles with more than nine seats. transport on a daily basis. ITS helps reduce the envi‑ ronmental impact of road travel by optimising trips, More recent developments have focused on the educing accidents and congestion as well as enhanc‑ design of intelligent vehicles which have location, ing vehicle and driver performance. Optimal route acceleration, orientation and proximity sensors all planning will reduce the number of kilometres driv‑ transmitting and gathering data to and from nearby en, and better control systems for the car will make cars and road infrastructure. Networked vehicles the ride more energy efficient. Vehicles equipped could communicate real time data about driving with eco-driving features can provide feedback to conditions ahead and have the potential to reduce motorists on how to drive at the most fuel-efficient collisions through advisories and warnings. Vehicle speed across a number of different road conditions. operators could be alerted to an accident ahead, Moreover, by providing people with real-time in‑ poor road conditions such as black ice and advice formation on departure and arrival times, thereby on remedial actions to be taken could be provided. reducing travel uncertainty, public transport can be Vehicles could automatically take evasive actions in made more attractive to travellers. The widespread the case of the driver not responding to a warning deployment of such ITS applications should aid in and vehicles could even refuse dangerous instruc‑ meeting the EU goal to reduce greenhouse gas emis‑ tions from the driving e.g. speeding on wet roads. sions to 20% below 2008 levels. The intelligent car initiative, one of the flagship pro‑ jects of the EU i2010 programme similarly aims to har‑ The importance of ITS in delivering improvements ness there new developments in ICT to improve road in transport efficiency, safety and sustainability has safety. While the advent of wholly autonomous cars been recognised by the European Commission in is some years away, in 2011 Google began test driv‑ its 2008 ‘Action Plan for the Deployment of Intelli‑ ing its self driving car on public roads. To date, the gent Transport System in Europe’. The Action Plan seven autonomous test cars have driven over 190.000 was followed by the adoption of Directive 2010/40/ miles on busy city streets, motorways and mountain‑ EU aimed at providing a framework for the coordi‑ ous roads with only occasional human intervention. nated implementation of ITS across the EU. There Unlike human motorists, autonomous cars will not are however a number of challenges involved in de‑ suffer from distraction, fatigue or intoxication and veloping and deploying ITS. In order to realise the as such offer the possibility of safer transportation. full potential of ITS to the transportation network, 54
- 58. PART B: | EGE OPINION RECOMMENDATIONS | 10 political pluralism and democratic debate across the it must operate at scale, both nationally and across world.206 borders. The current lack of technical standards in this area make it difficult to ensure interoperability The Internet provides a new input into the political do‑ however, the European Commission has undertaken main and it is possible that the Internet enables a new to develop specifications to overcome this obstacle kind of ‘digital citizenship’ with specific rights207: the as a priority action in Directive 2010/40/EU/ Further‑ right to connection; the right to net neutrality (which more, data collected by ITS applications can effec‑ excludes the content control powers and duties of tively track movements by vehicles and individuals network operators); the right to freedom of expression through the transport system. While this informa‑ with the subsequent exclusion of forms of censorship; tion is helpful from a transport planning perspective, the right of access to web content. This new dimen‑ there are legitimate concerns regarding the protec‑ sion should not be seen as a category that replaces the tion of such personal information. Article 13 of the traditional forms of citizenship but as an expansion of Directive 2010/40/EU provides an undertaking to the concept of citizenship, understood as a set of rights refer this issue, as appropriate to the European Data and powers belonging to every person, wherever they Protection Supervisor and request an opinion of the may be in the world. Working Party on the Protection of Individuals with regard to the Processing of Personal Data. Another impact these technologies have on shaping the political culture is the claim of transparency. Civil socie‑ ties groups, the community of hackers, and up‑and‑com‑ 4.6 Political Dimension ing political parties focusing on web activities are strong‑ ly in favour of ensuring that political decision‑making Blogs, social networks and online video platforms are processes become more transparent than they have now widely available for everyone with access to the traditionally been. Established political parties, national Internet. The opportunities provided by technology are and international authorities (not least at the EU level) are rightly considered of key importance for facilitating po‑ challenged to cope with the emerging claim for transpar‑ litical participation, thereby strengthening democracy. ency if they are willing to meet expectations to build and sustain trust in the results and procedures of their The participatory dimension of ICT and especially of work. It is also claimed that the blog‑culture and social web 2.0 based programming allows more participa‑ networks bring about more participation and therefore tory democracy in political decisions.205 In terms of an more diversity in a media‑driven world. individual’s blogging or grassroots communications, more and more people, ranging from single individu‑ The use of ICT may also impact on the collective history als to discordant communities, are able to spread their of groups. Many welcome the fact that ICT present multi‑ opinion and to look for companions sharing their views. ple opportunities to literally ‘(re-)write’ history in a more The non‑hierarchical approach of web 2.0 based com‑ ‘democratic’ way, as could recently be observed in the munications also fosters the opportunity for more and role of social media in the Arab Spring revolutions. ICT more people to find information beyond political or may indeed enable citizens to take a broad participatory mainstream channels. ICT can therefore amplify po‑ and plural approach to the documentation of historical litical participation of individuals and encourage the events. ICT in this way certainly can play an important diffusion of ‘non conventional’ ideas that contribute to role in political participation, empowering people to present their ‘own’ views and testimonies instead of having to rely only upon sources often considered as 205 The Internet can also provide tools to help overcome access barriers. Take the example of Egypt. After the Internet was 206 Clearly risks of diffusion of detrimental ideological positions shut down and Egyptians could not be heard outside their exist, such as ideologies conducing to racism, violence, eth- borders, a small team of Googlers working with people from nic discrimination, etc. Here, a similar ethical analysis on how Twitter and SayNow, a voice and text company acquired by to balance freedom of speech with the right to be protected Google just a week earlier, worked over a weekend to give against discrimination of other violations of rights is nec- people a new tool enabling them to leave voice messages essary as was the case in the above‑stated conflict in the that are posted on Twitter. The tool is called ‘Speak2Tweet’ general social sphere. and it fits with our mission of lowering barriers to access to information and making communication tools easy to use 207 S. Rodota’, hearing to EGE, http://ec.europa.eu/bepa/ and more widely available. european‑group‑ethics/docs/pdf/s‑rodota‑pres.pdf 55
- 59. 10 | RECOMMENDATIONS EGE OPINION | PART B: Ethics of information and communication technologies the ‘official’ history. The bottom‑up documentation of EU GDP) thanks to lower prices and wider choice. If of political actions must not, however, be conceived e‑commerce were to grow to 15 % of the total retail naively, especially not when new media are involved. sector and Single Market barriers were eliminated, total The ‘deliberate selective views’ of the representation consumer welfare gains would reach around € 204 bil‑ of facts involve not only professional journalism (as is lion, equivalent to 1.7 % of EU GDP. the case, for example, when war journalists may not re‑ port independently but are ‘embedded’ in an army) but But a better e‑commerce system in the EU would also also grass‑root movements whose reports can easily be respond to specific ethical concerns that may be identi‑ one‑sided; re‑designed photographs, for example, have fied by Internet users. For example, ‘Notice‑and‑action’ for a long time been a topic broadly discussed in media procedures refer to rules on removal or blocking of ac‑ theory and media ethics,208 and need to be continuously cess to illegal content by an online company, after it has closely examined in connection with ICT. received a request to do so. Internet users can submit a notification of illegal content that they have found 4.7 E‑Commerce displayed on the website of an online intermediary (such as a social network, an online vendor or a search According to the Communication adopted by the Com‑ engine). To avoid liability, the e‑commerce Directive mission in January 2012 (COM(2011) 941 and 942), the obliges the online intermediary to take action as soon EU Single Market for e‑commerce is still not functioning as it becomes aware of the illegal content. Such action as it should because there are significant differences in can take the form of takedown (removing content) or the rules, standards and practices applied to e‑com‑ blocking (disabling access to content). In responses to merce within individual Member States. As a result, the public consultation on e‑commerce, stakeholders companies find it difficult to provide online services complained that it is not clear how these procedures are or to sell goods across EU borders, and citizens miss meant to work. As a result, illegal content stays online out on the opportunity to purchase goods and services for too long, companies face legal uncertainty and the from websites based in other EU countries. rights of content providers (like individuals who upload content on the Internet) are not always respected.210 Some suggest that the first beneficiary of a better‑func‑ tioning Internal Market for e‑commerce would be Eu‑ The European Commission has also published a pro‑ ropean consumers who would benefit from a wider posal for a directive on consumer rights (EC/2011/83). range of goods and services and lower prices, thanks It addresses technology changes (like e‑commerce or in particular to online price and quality comparisons. online auctions) but it does not cover the specific case A better‑functioning Internal Market for e‑commerce of cloud computing where security failures may lead could also create jobs, and help people to look for jobs to harmful consequences for individuals, ranging from or work from home. It could bring environmental ben‑ undesired spam to identity theft. The recent revision efits because it could reduce the need for physical pro‑ of the e‑Privacy Directive introduced a mandatory duction methods (e.g. through more purchases of digi‑ tal music or online newspapers) and cut the frequency of certain journeys (e.g. more working from home or 210 As regards the e‑commerce Directive’s provisions on the provision of advice online). A study into e‑commerce liability of service providers, it should be noted that the Directive states that online service providers that are simply in goods209 showed that consumers can save about ‘transmitting’ content on the Internet (for instance compa- € 11.7 billion a year (an amount equivalent to 0.12 % nies that provide consumers with access to the Internet) cannot be held liable for illegal content that is uploaded by third parties. For example, an Internet access provider can- not be held liable for providing access to an illegal website. 208 Susan Sontag, Regarding the pain of others, 1st ed. (New Online service providers that ‘host’’ content on the Internet York: Farrar Straus and Giroux, 2003). Analysing 20th cen- (for instance websites on which you can view content that tury examples of photo documentaries, Sontag shows users themselves put online) cannot be held liable for illegal how documentary photographs are often manipulated in content uploaded onto their websites by others, as long as order to create public emotions of shame or compassion. they are not aware of it. However, as soon as they become Public perception is also directed when certain images are aware of this illegal content (for example via a notification), repeated over and over again, while other events are barely they are obliged to remove it or to block access to it im- covered. Here, the Internet certainly has a critical role. mediately. Governments may not impose a general obli- 209 Civic Consulting (2011). ‘Consumer market study on the func- gation on online service providers to monitor the content tioning of e‑commerce’. http://ec.europa. eu/consumers/con- that they transmit or host. http://ec.europa.eu/consumers/ sumer_research/market_ studies/e_commerce_study_en.htm. redress_cons/adr_policy_work_en.htm 56
- 60. PART B: | EGE OPINION RECOMMENDATIONS | 10 personal data breach notification, which covers, how‑ relating to activities and characteristics of individuals ever, only the electronic communications sector and are mined, they can reveal large amounts of previously not other uses of ICT. unknown personal information that the subject of the data never intended to be disclosed, even though the 4.7.1 Data Mining separate pieces of data may have each been gathered with their consent. This concern is exacerbated by the Financial and insurance companies have mined their fact that data subjects are often unaware that their data data for several years, in order to detect patterns of are being used in this way, thereby limiting their abil‑ fraudulent credit card use or in identifying behaviour ity to seek access to the data generated. 216 As it is not patterns of customers that pose risks to the industry211. possible to predict what kind of patterns or information Thus, data mining is not new, but is a technique that will be revealed, it is not possible to clearly specify the is being developed and deployed on an increasingly exact purpose for which the data are being used. Thus, large scale. The mining of data in individual data‑ it is unclear whether data mining is compatible with the bases in order to identify new information is simple; ‘use limitation’ and ‘purpose specification’ principles of cross‑correlation of the information in multiple data‑ Directive 95/46/EC. bases poses serious issues. The fundamental problem of privacy violation is fur‑ Commercial organisations have become active in us‑ ther amplified if data sets used in data mining are in‑ ing data mining in order to design effective sales cam‑ complete or incorrect, thereby rendering the process paigns, target marketing plans in an effort to match inaccurate. 217 Data are gathered from many different products with customers, and design new products to sources, not all of commensurate quality. As previously increase sales and profitability.212 Data mining is also be‑ mentioned, if data subjects are unaware that such data ing used by law enforcement agencies to investigate exist, they are denied the opportunity of correcting any criminal activities and in an effort to avert terrorist ac‑ inaccuracies. tions. The Office of the Director of National Intelligence in the United States of America published a report in 4.7.2 Internet of Things (IoT) 2010213 outlining the various data mining approaches being adopted and developed for the purpose of re‑ The Internet of things is a promising ICT sector (think of trieval and analysis of intelligence information. Data the smart meter, smart grid and electric cars). Potential mining promises considerable potential benefits, not uses of IoT include the home environment, smart city least in the area of clinical research where it is being and health monitor devices. The use of IoT changes radi‑ used to identify potential chemical compounds for clini‑ cally the relationship between humans and the inter‑ cal trials and in analysing the huge amount of research connected autonomous objects, giving to the last ones results obtained by molecular medicine, such as genetic autonomy towards the interaction with human beings. or genomic signatures.214 Outside of RD there are many This new use of technological mediums therefore opens potential applications from modelling of healthcare to a number of ethics questions related to autonomy (of pharmacovigilance, to understanding prescribing be‑ things and humans); Security (dual use; freedom, lib‑ haviour and aiding clinical decision‑making.215 erty); equity/ equality / justice / fairness (access; treat‑ ment; discrimination / discriminatory interfaces). Simi‑ Data mining practices that involve the use of personal larly the encoding of data concerning the human users data raise a number of privacy concerns. When data of IoT and their transmission to IoT control centralised systems open issues related to data profiling, confiden‑ tiality and autonomy, such as other uses of RFID. 211 Nonyelum Ogwueleka F. Journal of Engineering Science and Technology 2011; 6(3): 311 - 322 212 Chou PB, Grossman E, Gunopulos D et al. Proc Sixth ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining 2000:447-56. 216 Van Wel, L. and Royakkers, L. Ethics and InformationTechnol- 213 http://www.dni.gov/reports/2010_ODNI%20Data%20Mining ogy, 2004;6:129-140. %20Report.pdf, accessed on 10 January 2012. 217 Wahlstrom K and Roddick JF. Selected Papers from the sec- 214 Bensmail H, Haoudi A. J Biomed Biotechnol 2005;2005(2):63-34. ond Australian Institute Conference on Computer Ethics 215 Hampton T. JAMA 2011;306( 2): 144. 2000;1:22-27. 57
- 61. 10 | RECOMMENDATIONS EGE OPINION | PART B: Ethics of information and communication technologies 4.7.3 E‑advertising Advertising is a form of communication used to encour‑ age or persuade an audience (viewers, readers or listen‑ ers) to continue or take some new action. Most com‑ monly, the desired result is to drive consumer behavior with respect to a commercial offering, although political and ideological advertising is also common. Advertising messages are usually paid for by sponsors and viewed via various traditional media; including mass media such as newspaper, magazines, television commercial, radio advertisement, outdoor advertising or direct mail; or new media such as websites and text messages. Clearly the volume of Internet users has induced ICT to massive use this commercial tool for financing the ser‑ vices provide to their users. Although this mechanism does not open new ethical considerations on fair trade and business, some use of advertising may be ethically problematic in particular when concerned with porn, paedophilia, bestiality and divulgation of political views which contravene human rights and human dignity. 4.8 Conclusions ICT may well challenge centuries‑old concepts like time and the relation of oneself towards the past, the pre‑ sent, and the future: How do we situate ourselves in the present that transcends the physical space of percep‑ tion and ‘real‑life’ experience; the notion of space and the local background shaping one’s identity changes, too; the perception of oneself and others, and even the formation of group identities undergo radical changes compared to traditional identity concepts. This ‘digital turn’ of society raises multiple philosophical, social, po‑ litical, legal, ethical, and also psychological questions.218 To address them thoroughly is impossible in this Opin‑ ion. Therefore, the EGE emphasises that the political and legal regulations must be complemented by broader considerations, and points to several areas that raise ethical concerns and should be further examined, even though these may not translate into immediate politi‑ cal governance or legal regulation. The EGE therefore deems it necessary to make a number of recommenda‑ tions (set out in the next chapter) for responsible imple‑ mentation of the European Digital Agenda. 218 Cf. as a good example for a broader approach: Sherry Turkle, Life on the Screen: Identity in the Age of the Internet (New York: Simon Schuster, 1995); Jayle Gackenbach, ed. Psy- chology and the Internet: Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, and Transpersonal Implications (San Diego: 1998); Mark Smith, Kollock, Peter, ed. Communities in Cyberspace (London: Routledge, 1999). 58
- 62. PART C: | RECOMMENDATIONS RECOMMENDATIONS | 10 PART C: 5 RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 The Ethical Framework Article 2: The Union is founded on the values of of the Opinion respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human In March 2011, President Jose Manuel Barroso request‑ rights, including the rights of persons belonging ed the EGE to draft an Opinion on the ethical issues to minorities. These values are common to the arising from the rapid expansion of Information and Member States in a society in which pluralism, Communication Technologies, stating that the Opin‑ non‑discrimination, tolerance, justice, solidarity and ion could ‘offer a reference point to the Commission equality between women and men prevail. to promote responsible use of the Digital Agenda for Europe and facilitating the societal acceptance of such Article 3: 1. The Union’s aim is to promote peace, its an important policy item’. values and the well‑being of its peoples. (…) 3. The Union shall establish an internal market. It The EGE recognises the role Information and Communi‑ shall work for the sustainable development of Eu‑ cation Technologies play in European and global socie‑ rope based on balanced economic growth and ty and welcomes the European Commission’s efforts to price stability, a highly competitive social market implement the Digital Agenda for Europe in a responsi‑ economy, aiming at full employment and social ble and innovative way. The group also underlines the progress, and a high level of protection and im‑ efforts the European Union is making in designing its provement of the quality of the environment. It policy frames in accordance with the fundamental val‑ shall promote scientific and technological advance. ues of the European Union and underlines the need to It shall combat social exclusion and discrimination, build this process in a democratic and transparent way. and shall promote social justice and protection, ICT enables globalisation in ways not predicted when equality between women and men, solidarity be‑ globalisation was first discussed, and the impact of this tween generations and protection of the rights of new, global world must be considered through the lens the child. It shall promote economic, social and of the fundamental values of the European Union territorial cohesion, and solidarity among Member States. It shall respect its rich cultural and linguis‑ The EGE has chosen to focus mainly on Internet tech‑ tic diversity, and shall ensure that Europe’s cultural nologies, realising that it is impossible to address the heritage is safeguarded and enhanced. (…) vast range of issues that are encompassed within the 5. In its relations with the wider world, the Union scope of Information and Communication Technolo‑ shall uphold and promote its values and interests gies (ICT) as a whole. As a consequence, the security and contribute to the protection of its citizens. (…) issues arising from ICT will be examined by the EGE in a subsequent Opinion to be provided to the Commis‑ Promoting this framework of values, together with the sion, as requested by President Barroso, in 2013. The commitment to peace and the well‑being of the Un‑ EGE has also decided not to address issues related to ion’s peoples, is the main objective of the Union in all IPR and it is aware of the controversy related to the policies including the Digital Agenda and ICT Govern‑ on‑going and future negotiations of the Anti‑Counter‑ ance. For this Opinion, the group emphasises especially feiting Trade Agreement (ACTA). the importance of the following principles: The following EGE recommendations will therefore • Human dignity: The Charter of Fundamental be of a general nature and will include access to ICT, Rights of the European Union states that ‘Human identity, e‑commerce, privacy, data protection and dignity is inviolable. It must be respected and pro‑ a number of social questions linked to the use of ICT in tected’ (Article 1);219 the EU and globally. This Opinion is set within the context of the funda‑ mental rights and values stated in the Treaty on Eu‑ 219 ‘The dignity of the human person is not only a fundamental ropean Union as they form an ethical basis for the right in itself but constitutes the real basis of fundamental rights’ recommendations. (Declaration concerning the explanations relating to the Charter of Fundamental Rights). 59
- 63. 10 | RECOMMENDATIONS RECOMMENDATIONS | PART C: Ethics of information and communication technologies • Respect of freedom which secures, inter alia, the underlines that this approach should also be pro‑ right to uncensored communication and agency in moted internationally with specific attention for the digital era; less developed regions of the world. • Respect for democracy, citizenship and partici‑ • The EGE calls for educational programmes to en‑ pation which includes, inter alia, protection against able individuals to develop technical and /or digi‑ unjustified exclusion and protection against unlaw‑ tal literacy: tools to simplify the applications of ICT, ful discrimination; and increase digital literacy in the EU population, addressing especially the requirements of persons • Respect of privacy which secures, inter alia, with special needs: tools that educate people on the personal private sphere against unjustified how to use the Internet (e.g. from online banking interventions; to e‑reading). • Respect of autonomy and informed consent • The EGE calls for educational programmes to fos‑ which secures, inter alia, the right to information ter and raise awareness and responsibility con‑ and consent to the use of data or actions that are cerning ICT’s impact on one’s personal, social and based on the data‑processing; moral identity. • Justice which secures, inter alia, the equal access • The EGE welcomes actions on open access taken to ICT, and a fair sharing of its benefits; by the EU and encourages further actions in this area to be explored. • Solidarity among European citizens aims, inter alia, at the inclusion of everyone who wishes to 5.3 Recommendations Concerning Individu‑ participate in ICT, but also aims to secure the social al Identity inclusion of those who, for example, either cannot participate in online practices or wish to maintain Concepts of personal identity – i.e. the identification alternative social interactions. concerning the authenticity of a user who engages in the multiple activities that ICT makes possible, and the The EGE acknowledges the number of positive ac‑ individual identity that refers to the identity of a person, tions already undertaken by the European Union and including his or her values, goals, or self‑interpretation – its Institutions and makes a number of recommenda‑ take on new forms and change considerably in the ‘digi‑ tions to guarantee that the European Digital Agenda tal era’. In the previous part, the EGE has addressed sev‑ can contribute to the flourishing and prosperity of the eral ethical challenges that need further analysis and Union while respecting the values on which Europe is examination with respect to the question of identity, founded and that it continues to embrace. and the group recommends a number of actions: 5.2 Right of Access to ICT • The Group is of the view that in order to support the responsible use of ICT technologies envisaged by The European Charter of Fundamental Rights requires the European Digital Agenda, the EU should sup‑ that everyone has the opportunity to contribute to port the development of educational tools aimed shaping European Society, which of course includes use at creating and developing ‘social literacy’ amongst of ICT. The protection of the principle of equality there‑ users including supporting the personal responsi‑ fore is relevant in several domains of an individual’s life, bility that should be exercised. Programmes should such as education, work, commerce and health. The EGE aim to foster respect, tolerance and sensitivity welcomes actions by the EC in the ICT sector and invites when communicating digitally. the EU to actively participate and promote access to ICT in European societies, while safeguarding access to ba‑ • Due to the increasingly complex and multiple op‑ sic societal services by citizens unwilling to use ICT tools tions offered by the Internet, the EGE is of the view or unable to use them, by virtue of being incapacitated that additional safeguards should be in place for for technical, educational or socio‑economical reasons. children and adolescents, in order to ensure a safe environment in which to learn and play. Thus, the • The EGE recommends that the EU secure and pro‑ Group recommends that awareness raising ac‑ mote the right of access to the Internet. The EGE tivities for children, adolescents, their parents and 60
- 64. PART C: | RECOMMENDATIONS RECOMMENDATIONS | 10 teachers be incorporated in EU educational pro‑ Article 8 of the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights. Clar‑ grammes and policy actions. ity on key concepts can also favour the development of self‑regulatory initiatives to develop practical solutions • The EGE recommends that the EU provides means consistent with EU law (Com (2010) 609 final, 9). Privacy to foster responsibility amongst those using ICT, by design (privacy and data protection are embedded whether individual users or those providing ser‑ throughout the entire life cycle of technologies, from vices. This should address accountability, identifi‑ the early design stage to their deployment, use and ul‑ cation, and traceability for Internet identities. timate disposal) should be incorporated into informed consent procedures. • The EGE acknowledges the studies that demon‑ strate the psychological impact of ICT usage on The EGE welcomes and supports the proposed revi‑ personal development. The Group recommends sion of the EU data protection regulatory framework that the EU take steps to raise the awareness of adopted by the Commission in January 2012, the Group these changes by promoting and financing further underlined that during the inter‑institutional debate on research, particularly monitoring the impact of ICT the proposed regulatory frame the following recom‑ on the development and concepts of identity in mendations are taken into account: Horizon 2020. • The Group recommends that the characteristics 5.4 The Right to Privacy that qualify data as personal data be clarified, and Protection of Data and its relevance to different ICT uses (such as IP ad‑ dresses, unique RFID‑numbers, geo‑location data), For those who wish to embrace innovations in the ICT as well as the development of new data types. This arena, it is important that they be facilitated in that en‑ clarification should then be incorporated into the deavour, while retaining their right to autonomy and EU data protection regulatory frame. personal privacy. While the concept of privacy is some‑ what difficult to explain, many people retain a ‘sense • In the light of technological and other societal of privacy’, i.e. an understanding that certain aspects developments, there is a need to reconsider the of their life are no one’s business but their own. This existing provisions on sensitive data, to examine view is perpetuated through the frequent descriptions whether other categories of data should be added of the concept of privacy as an individual’s right to be and to further clarify the conditions for their pro‑ left alone or a barrier against intrusion from the out‑ cessing. This concerns, for example, genetic data side world. Privacy facilitates our understanding of our and biometric data. sense of self, i.e. the recognition that our thoughts and our actions are our own, which is essential for the attri‑ • Transparency is a fundamental condition for bution of moral responsibility. This enables an individu‑ enabling individuals to exercise control over their al to exercise some level of control over the information own data and to ensure effective protection of per‑ he/she makes available to particular parties, thereby sonal data. It is therefore essential that individuals preserving his/her autonomy and personal privacy. should be well and clearly informed, in a simple and transparent way, by data controllers about Individuals need sufficient control of their online data to how and by whom their data are collected and enable them to use the Internet responsibly. Clarifica‑ processed, for what reasons, for how long and tion concerning the conditions for the data subject’s what their rights are if they want to access, rectify consent220 should therefore be provided, in order to or delete their data. Basic elements of transparency always guarantee informed consent and ensure that are the requirements that the information must be the individual is fully aware that he or she is consent‑ easily accessible and easy to understand. ing to data processing and what it entails, in line with • In order for processing of personal data to be law‑ ful, personal data should be processed on the ba‑ 220 This is however complicated by the fact that, in some cases, sis of the explicit consent of the person concerned it is not even clear what would constitute freely given, spe- (including withdrawal provisions) or some other cific and informed consent to data processing, such as in the case of behavioural advertising, where Internet browser set- legitimate basis. tings are considered by some, but not by others, to deliver the user’s consent. 61
- 65. 10 | RECOMMENDATIONS RECOMMENDATIONS | PART C: Ethics of information and communication technologies • Consent should be given by any appropriate service provisions and then affects the community method enabling a freely given specific, informed of European citizens. Innovative forms of commerce, and unambiguous indication of the data subject’s administration and health may indeed provide bet‑ wishes, ensuring that individuals are fully aware ter quality and more sustainable services to citizens. that they give their consent including the ticking of This goal is certainly to be sustained and encouraged, a box when visiting an Internet website. Silence or but those who promote these policies must keep in inactivity should therefore not constitute consent. mind that they may affect the principle of participatory Any use/transmission of data for a different pur‑ justice and the access to services by individuals and pose than the one consented by the subject data groups who either have no access, cannot or do not (for example e‑commerce or police) should not be wish to use these services. allowed unless justified by appropriate legislation. Society experiences rapid, continuous and incessant • Consent may always be withdrawn without nega‑ change. The drive to invent, reinvent and discard al‑ tive consequences for the data subject. Data subjects most continuously is a unique human pursuit in an ef‑ should have the right to require that their personal fort to deliver progress and prosperity for humankind. data be erased and there will be no further process‑ The society we live in today is dominated by technol‑ ing of the data. In principle data previously analysed ogy and most of us accept that the ever‑changing de‑ must be deleted unless retention can be justified. velopments in technology have transformed, or have Informed consent procedures should clarify the the potential to transform, the way we live and relate to conditions when withdrawal is not feasible. The data one another. There are those however, who for a myri‑ controller must be sufficiently certain that the per‑ ad of reasons, actively choose not to participate in the son giving consent is actually the data subject and digital arena and as an expression of their personal au‑ instruments to certify consent on the use of data (for tonomy, this choice should be respected. Nonetheless, example with digital or electronic signatures) need to as a consequence of not choosing to incorporate ICT be established in ICT requiring subjects’ data. into their daily lives, it is likely that these individuals will increasingly see their choices being limited in the • Children and vulnerable adults deserve specific digital age. Notwithstanding that fact, it is important protection of their personal data, as they may be less is that such ‘digital recluses’ should not be excluded aware of risks, consequences, safeguards and their from accessing essential services or from meeting their rights in relation to the processing of personal data. societal obligations (e.g. voting, paying taxes) on the basis of their decision to eschew digital technologies. • The Group supports the idea underlying the so In the interests of inclusion and solidarity, this places called ‘right to be forgotten’, in the online environ‑ a responsibility on wider society to support the provi‑ ment the EGE recommends that the right to dele‑ sion of alternative means of meeting such obligations tion of personal data should be extended in such at least in the short to medium term. a way that any publicly available copies or replica‑ tions should be deleted. In order to guarantee the right of citizens to play an active role in European society while respecting their • The EGE recommends that the processing of per‑ choice of whichever available tools they use to do so, sonal data of subjects residing in the EU by a con‑ the EGE makes the following recommendations: troller not established in the EU/EEA is subjected to the EU normative frame on data protection. • The EGE recognises that disadvantaged and mar‑ ginalised groups may require different designs, 5.5 Social Aspects: Digital divide content and applications to suit their specific re‑ quirements. To this end, the EGE recommends 5.5.1 Digital Divide that measures centred around direct provision, subsidies and regulation be examined by the EU Implementing the principles of justice and non‑dis‑ to ensure that such groups are not excluded from crimination is a key factor to consider in promoting playing a full and active role in the digital society. the use of ICT in different societal domains, from e‑Government to e‑Health and from e‑Business to • The EGE recognises the efforts of the Commission e‑Services. This use of ICT acquires ethical sensitivity to bridge the digital divide, including collabora‑ when it completely substitutes conventional kinds of tion with international partners, and recommends 62
- 66. PART C: | RECOMMENDATIONS RECOMMENDATIONS | 10 that the EU adopts strategies, which go beyond of‑ of distorted information through the digital world for fering public access, and incorporate measures to political purposes. The EGE recommends the following: ensure that people can make effective use of the access. This includes providing people with the • The EGE acknowledges that the basic nature of In‑ skills and motivation to harness the potential of ICT ternet is the free and active participation of its users. through educational and mentoring programmes, The Group highlights the need for keeping the Net which engage the individual in a process of learn‑ a free and neutral space. This freedom must not ing, in a way which is meaningful and relevant to contravene the fundamental ethical values of the EU. them. • The Internet must remain a communication domain • The EGE recommends that in areas where society where freedom of expression is protected from places obligations on citizens or where access to censorship within the framework of the Charter of essential services are predicated on ICT use, mecha‑ Fundamental Rights. nisms unrelated to ICT be established in the short to medium term. • The EGE recognises the need to balance top‑down Internet governance by governmental agencies 5.5.2 Work‑Life Balance with bottom‑up participatory approaches by the Internet community. The EGE emphasises the need The EGE while recognising the potential benefits of‑ that when the EU, Member States and relevant fered by increased connectivity within the sphere of stakeholders deliberate, a transparent and par‑ work, wishes to highlight the risk of the always‑on ticipatory model is appropriately incorporated culture in working life, where ‘flexible working’ can in in the decision making process. This applies to all reality mean the flexibility to be working atypical and regulatory initiatives on ICT. long hours, which can impact negatively on family life. The use of ICT needs to be monitored and managed 5.7 Recommendations Concerning the effectively by both employee and employer. Sphere of Commerce • The EGE urges the EU to encourage and support 5.7.1 Commercial Transactions organisations to develop explicit policies to en‑ sure the optimal use of ICT while respecting the The EGE underlines the need to defend rights and inter‑ work‑life balance. Such policies should aim to fos‑ ests of European citizens. It therefore welcomes the ap‑ ter an organisational culture which does not create proach proposed by the European Commission on Cor‑ an expectation that employees should be ‘on‑call’ porate Social Responsibility, advocating that to meet during non‑work hours. This should also be consid‑ their responsibilities, enterprises should have in place ered in the corporate responsibility programmes a process to integrate social, environmental, ethical, hu‑ and labour regulations. man rights and consumer concerns into their business operations and core strategy in close collaboration with 5.6 Political participation their stakeholders (COM(2011) 681 final). The EGE also welcomes actions by the EU and international bodies The influence ICT may have in shaping the political to preserve net neutrality (as in COM2011) 222 final); domain raises concerns about citizens’ rights to free however, it underlines the need to apply the measures information, the ability of pressure or special interest on responsibility (from individuals to companies to so‑ groups to modify perceptions and the power of the ciety to governments) proposed in this Opinion. Tools State to censor data on the Internet. Due to the massive aiming to achieve these goals, from corporate social impact of ICT in modern society (as described in the first responsibility (COM2011) 681 final) to a code of conduct part of this Opinion) governments around the world are (actions by the Commission concerning responsible use seeking to interact with the online space with new tools: of cloud computing, Internet of things, recommenda‑ filtering and blocking, registration requirements, surveil‑ tion on responsible innovation - 2012, etc.) should be lance powers, intermediary liability, etc.). The structure encouraged and their implementation sustained. The of knowledge and communication tools, in all their uses, EGE therefore recommends: opens questions about the channelling of knowledge and information in the digital sphere to shape reality • The EGE acknowledges that a balance must be and public perception — including the possible spread found between commercial and non‑commercial 63
- 67. 10 | RECOMMENDATIONS RECOMMENDATIONS | PART C: Ethics of information and communication technologies uses of ICT. The EGE recommends that the Europe‑ • Individuals should be explicitly informed by an Commission: 1) Using its data protection legisla‑ businesses, State bodies or research bodies that tion, ensure that social media networks protect the their information may be mined for specific pur‑ data submitted by users in a responsible manner; poses. This will ensure that individuals can make in‑ 2) Educate users so as to ensure that they under‑ formed choices about the services they access and stand that most of the social media networks are use. Specific consent should always be sought when commercial organisations that need to use data for databases are correlated. The EGE calls for further commercial purposes in order to provide the ser‑ research into the privacy implications of cross vices users enjoy; 3) uses all available means to pro‑ correlated data mining, so that this technique can vide a social networking space (probably on existing serve society in terms of the potential benefits it may networks) that is free of commercial exploitation, offer, while protecting the human rights. The Group for those users who choose it, recognising that the also recommends that the EU further explores if and users may have to pay for this privilege. under which conditions sensitive data can or cannot be used, including cross‑correlative data mining. • The EGE is of the view that in order for people to enter a commercial contract, the terms and condi‑ 5.9 Environment and Raw Materials tions of that contract should be presented to the users in clear, concise and intelligible terms. The area of ICT and the environment is complex: ICT may have positive and negative consequences on envi‑ 5.7.2 Corporate Social Responsibility ronment. The impact of ICT on the environment may be extremely positive: it may be a tool for the protection of Protection of privacy is embraced by the principles, in‑ environment: monitoring environmental issues, man‑ cluding in the Corporate Social Responsibility strategy aging urban environment systems, communicating adopted by the European Commission adopted which environmental knowledge, disseminating information in October 2011. The Strategy describes how enterpris‑ to the public, stimulating active participation of citi‑ es can benefit from CSR while contributing to society zens, enabling efficient use of resources, reducing the as a whole by making every effort to meet their social consumption of energy and essential natural resources responsibilities. (e.g. reducing the consumption of paper through elec‑ tronic and paperless communication), bettering the use • The EGE welcomes this initiative and recommends of natural resources. Examples of such transformation that the EU encourages companies to take privacy include using ICT to improve practices in agriculture, into consideration when applying their CSR poli‑ to monitor air and water pollution, to predict disaster, cy – also using the technological solutions such improve the efficiency of the energy, transportation, as Privacy impact assessment, Privacy enhancing and goods and services sectors. The use of electronic technology and piracy by design. devices such as mail or videoconference services may also reduce the need for transportation. 5.8 Cross‑Correlative Data Mining At the same time, the sustainability of these technolo‑ Cross‑correlative data mining may be of real signifi‑ gies must also be managed to avoid unintended conse‑ cance when databases collected from many sources quences such as increased energy consumption, waste are analysed together to provide information that is of used electronic devices and the use of raw materials not contained in the individual databases. Linking such as rare earth elements. Many electronic devices shopping data collected through store cards with need extensive use of rare elements (such as tantalum, bank data and/or health data, for example, provides lanthanum or dysprosium) and modern batteries need insights into an individual’s habits which may not have large quantities of lithium. The need for such materi‑ been immediately obvious. The above actions often als is creating social and environmental problems in make use of citizens’ data without their specific con‑ countries producing the minerals containing these ele‑ sent for such a use and may allow profiling of unaware ments. At the same time production of some compo‑ and uninformed people with possible risks of stigma‑ nents is limited to some countries. These facts create tisation and violation of privacy. The EGE therefore a dependence of energy and raw materials for the use recommends: of ICT producing an added state of vulnerability that has to be taken into account. 64
- 68. PART C: | RECOMMENDATIONS RECOMMENDATIONS | 10 • The EGE recommends that the ecological effects of ICT (use of energy, production of waste and use of raw materials) are quantified, recognised, analysed and communicated and that exploitation of natural resources is minimised. • The EGE recommends that the EU investigates the vulnerability of the ICT system due to the scarcity of raw materials. • The Group is aware that several reports have stressed that the production of some minerals which are essential raw materials for the production of hardware in ICT is carried out under inhuman conditions. The Group therefore appeals to the EU to work towards the improvement of working con‑ ditions of persons working in this sector, in order to respect the human rights. This should also be incor‑ porated in EU financed development programmes. 5.10 Concluding Recommendation The EGE recognises the potential of the Digital Agenda for Europe (DAE) for the European Union, and stresses the need to promote a responsible, inclusive and so‑ cially sustainable implementation of this important policy sector. The Group therefore advocates the need to promote DAE actions in accordance with European Union fundamental values. It equally underlines the need for education and research in the ethical, legal, social and environmental areas to be financed in the Horizon 2020 ICT Programmes. 65
- 70. RECOMMENDATIONS | 10 67
- 72. Groupe européen d’éthique des sciences et des nouvelles technologies auprès de la Commission européenne AVIS DU GROUPE EUROPÉEN D’ÉTHIQUE DES SCIENCES ET DES NOUVELLES TECHNOLOGIES AUPRÈS DE LA COMMISSION EUROPÉENNE Éthique des technologies de l‘information et de la communication Référence: avis requis par le président Barroso Julian Kinderlerer, Peter Dabrock, Rapporteurs: Hille Haker, Herman Nys; Seul le texte original en anglais est authentique. N° 26
- 73. 4 | RECOMMANDATIONS RECOMMANDATIONS | PARTIE C: Ethique de biologie synthétique ANNEX 1 PARTIE C: 5 RECOMMANDATIONS 5.1 Cadre éthique de l’avis Le présent avis s’inscrit dans le contexte des valeurs et droits fondamentaux énoncés dans le traité sur l’Union En mars 2011, M. le Président José Manuel Barroso européenne, qui constituent un fondement éthique a demandé au GEE d’élaborer un avis sur les questions pour les recommandations qu’il contient. éthiques que soulève l’expansion rapide des technolo- gies de l’information et de la communication, déclarant Article 2: L’Union est fondée sur les valeurs de que cet avis doit «pouvoir servir de point de référence respect de la dignité humaine, de liberté, de pour la Commission, dans sa promotion d’une utilisa- démocratie, d’égalité, de l’État de droit, ainsi tion responsable de l’agenda numérique pour l’Europe que de respect des droits de l’homme, y com- et dans son action pour faciliter l’acceptation, par la pris des droits des personnes appartenant à des société, de cet élément important de sa stratégie». minorités. Ces valeurs sont communes aux États membres dans une société caractérisée par le Le GEE reconnaît le rôle joué par les technologies de pluralisme, la non-discrimination, la tolérance, la l’information et de la communication dans la société, justice, la solidarité et l’égalité entre les femmes tant au niveau européen que mondial, et salue les et les hommes. efforts de la Commission européenne pour mettre en Article 3: 1. L’Union a pour but de promouvoir la œuvre l’agenda numérique pour l’Europe de façon paix, ses valeurs et le bien-être de ses peuples. (…) responsable et novatrice. Le groupe souligne éga- 3. L’Union établit un marché intérieur. Elle œuvre lement les efforts déployés par l’Union européenne pour le développement durable de l’Europe fondé pour concevoir ses cadres stratégiques conformément sur une croissance économique équilibrée et sur la aux valeurs fondamentales de l’Union européenne et stabilité des prix, une économie sociale de marché souligne la nécessité d’élaborer ce processus de façon hautement compétitive, qui tend au plein emploi et démocratique et transparente. Les TIC facilitent la au progrès social, et un niveau élevé de protection mondialisation d’une façon qui n’avait pas été prévue et d’amélioration de la qualité de l’environnement. lorsque le sujet de la mondialisation a été abordé pour Elle promeut le progrès scientifique et technique. la première fois, et l’impact de ce nouveau monde glo- Elle combat l’exclusion sociale et les discrimina- balisé doit être considéré sous l’angle des valeurs fon- tions, et promeut la justice et la protection sociales, damentales de l’Union européenne. l’égalité entre les femmes et les hommes, la solida- rité entre les générations et la protection des droits Conscient qu’il est impossible de couvrir le très large de l’enfant. Elle promeut la cohésion économique, éventail des questions que recouvrent les technolo- sociale et territoriale, et la solidarité entre les États gies de l’information et de la communication (TIC), le membres. Elle respecte la richesse de sa diversité GEE a choisi de se concentrer essentiellement sur les culturelle et linguistique, et veille à la sauvegarde technologies Internet. Par conséquent, les questions et au développement du patrimoine culturel de sécurité posées par les TIC seront examinées par européen. (…) le GEE dans un avis ultérieur à remettre à la Commis- 5. Dans ses relations avec le reste du monde, l’Union sion, comme demandé par M. le Président Barroso, en affirme et promeut ses valeurs et ses intérêts et 2013. Le GEE a également décidé de ne pas couvrir les contribue à la protection de ses citoyens. (…) questions liées aux droits de propriété intellectuelle et prend acte de la controverse que suscitent les négocia- Le principal objectif de l’Union dans toutes les poli- tions en cours et futures de l’accord commercial anti- tiques, y compris l’agenda numérique et la gouver- contrefaçon (ACAC). nance des TIC, est la promotion de ce cadre de valeurs, ainsi que l’engagement en faveur de la paix et du Les recommandations suivantes du GEE auront par bien-être des peuples de l’Union. Aux fins de cet avis, conséquent un caractère général et incluront l’accès le groupe souligne particulièrement l’importance des aux TIC, l’identité, le commerce électronique, la pro- principes suivants: tection de la vie privée, la protection des données et diverses questions sociales liées à l’utilisation des TIC • la dignité humaine - la Charte des droits fon- dans l’Union européenne et dans le monde. damentaux de l’Union européenne dispose que 70
- 74. PARTIE C: | RECOMMANDATIONS RECOMMANDATIONS | 4 «[l] a dignité humaine est inviolable. Elle doit être s’applique par conséquent dans plusieurs domaines respectée et protégée.» (Article 1);221 de la vie d’une personne, comme l’éducation, le tra- vail, le commerce et la santé. Le GEE se félicite des me- • le respect de la liberté, qui garantit notamment le sures prises par la Commission européenne dans le droit à la communication et à l’agence sans censure secteur des TIC et invite l’Union européenne à parti- dans l’ère numérique; ciper activement et à promouvoir l’accès aux TIC dans les sociétés européennes, tout en garantissant l’accès • le respect de la démocratie, de la citoyenneté et aux services sociétaux de base par les citoyens qui de la participation qui inclut notamment la pro- ne sont pas disposés à utiliser les outils TIC ou qui ne tection contre l’exclusion injustifiée et la protection sont pas en mesure de les utiliser, en raison de diffi- contre la discrimination illégale; cultés techniques, éducatives ou socio-économiques. • le respect de la vie privée qui garantit notamment • Le GEE recommande à l’UE de garantir et promou- la sphère privée personnelle contre les interven- voir le droit d’accès à Internet. Le GEE souligne tions injustifiées; que cette approche devrait également être promue à l’échelle internationale en accordant une atten- • le respect de l’autonomie et du consentement tion particulière aux régions les moins développées éclairé qui garantit notamment le droit à l’informa- du monde. tion et au consentement à l’utilisation des données ou aux actions qui reposent sur le traitement des • Le GEE appelle à la mise en place de programmes données; éducatifs permettant aux personnes de dévelop- per une culture technique et/ou numérique: des • la justice qui garantit notamment l’égalité d’ac- outils qui visent à simplifier les applications des cès aux TIC et une répartition équitable de ses TIC et à accroître la culture numérique au sein de bénéfices; la population de l’UE, qui répondent spécialement aux attentes des personnes qui ont des besoins • la solidarité parmi les citoyens européens a no- particuliers et qui informent le public sur la façon tamment pour objectif l’inclusion de quiconque d’utiliser Internet (par exemple, de la banque en souhaite participer aux TIC, mais elle vise égale- ligne à la lecture numérique). ment à garantir l’inclusion sociale de ceux qui, par exemple, ne peuvent pas participer à des pratiques • Le GEE appelle à la mise en place de programmes en ligne ou souhaitent maintenir des interactions éducatifs qui responsabilisent et sensibilisent sociales alternatives. à l’impact des TIC sur l’identité personnelle, sociale et morale de chacun. Le GEE salue les nombreuses actions positives déjà entreprises par l’Union européenne et ses institutions • Le GEE se félicite des mesures prises par l’UE en et formule diverses recommandations visant à faire en matière de libre accès et appelle à l’étude de nou- sorte que l’agenda numérique pour l’Europe contribue velles mesures dans ce domaine. à la prospérité de l’Union tout en respectant les valeurs qui la fondent et qu’elle continue de promouvoir. 5.3 Recommandations concernant l’identité individuelle 5.2 Droit d’accès aux TIC Les concepts d’identité personnelle – l’identification, La Charte européenne des droits fondamentaux exige à savoir l’authentification de l’identité d’un utilisateur que chacun ait la possibilité de contribuer à construire prenant part aux multiples activités rendues possibles la société européenne, ce qui inclut évidemment l’uti- par les TIC, et l’identité individuelle, à savoir l’identité lisation des TIC. La protection du principe d’égalité d’une personne, y compris ses valeurs, ses objectifs, ou son auto-interprétation – revêtent de nouvelles formes et évoluent considérablement dans l’«ère numérique». Dans la partie précédente, le GEE a abordé plusieurs 221 «La dignité de la personne humaine n’est pas seulement un droit fondamental en soi, mais constitue la base même des droits défis éthiques qui commandent une analyse et un exa- fondamentaux.» (Déclaration concernant les explications men plus approfondis de la question de l’identité. Le relatives à la Charte des droits fondamentaux). groupe recommande diverses mesures: 71
- 75. 4 | RECOMMANDATIONS RECOMMANDATIONS | PARTIE C: Ethique de biologie synthétique • le groupe est d’avis que, pour favoriser l’utilisation barrière contre toute intrusion du monde extérieur. La responsable des TIC envisagée dans l’agenda «vie privée» facilite notre perception de nous-mêmes, numérique pour l’Europe, l’UE devrait soutenir le c’est-à-dire la reconnaissance du fait que nos pensées développement d’outils éducatifs visant à créer et et nos actions nous sont propres, condition essentielle à développer chez les utilisateurs une «culture so- à l’attribution d’une responsabilité morale. Cela permet ciale» qui engloberait notamment la responsabilité à la personne d’exercer un certain degré de contrôle personnelle qu’il y a lieu d’exercer. Des program- sur les informations qu’elle met à la disposition d’autrui, mes tendant à encourager le respect, la tolérance et préservant de ce fait son autonomie et sa vie privée. la sensibilité lors de la communication numérique devraient être mis en place; Les personnes doivent disposer d’un contrôle suffisant de leurs données en ligne pour être en mesure d’utiliser • compte tenu de la complexité et de la multiplicité Internet de façon responsable. Il conviendrait donc de croissantes des possibilités offertes par Internet, clarifier les conditions du consentement222 de la per- le GEE est d’avis que de nouvelles protections sonne concernée, afin de garantir qu’il soit toujours devraient être mises en place à l’intention des en- accordé en connaissance de cause, et de s’assurer que fants et des adolescents, afin de leur garantir un l’intéressé est pleinement conscient qu’il donne son au- environnement sûr pour apprendre et se divertir. torisation et sait de quel traitement il s’agit, conformé- Par conséquent, le groupe recommande que des ment à l’article 8 de la Charte des droits fondamentaux activités de sensibilisation ciblant les enfants, les de l’Union européenne. La clarification des notions clés adolescents, leurs parents et les enseignants soient peut également favoriser les initiatives en matière d’au- intégrées aux programmes et actions de l’UE en toréglementation visant à dégager des solutions pra- matière d’éducation; tiques conformes au droit de l’Union (Com(2010)°609 final, 9). Le respect de la vie privée lors de la conception • le GEE recommande que l’UE agisse de manière (la protection de la vie privée et des données à carac- à responsabiliser les utilisateurs des TIC, qu’il tère personnel est prise en compte tout au long du s’agisse de particuliers ou de prestataires de servi- cycle de vie des technologies, depuis le stade de leur ces. Ses actions devraient porter sur les questions conception jusqu’à leur déploiement, utilisation et éli- de la responsabilité, de l’identification et de la tra- mination finale) devrait être pris en compte dans les çabilité des identités Internet; procédures de consentement éclairé. • le GEE prend acte des études démontrant l’impact Le GEE salue et soutient la proposition de révision du psychologique de l’utilisation des TIC sur le déve- cadre réglementaire de l’UE en matière de protection loppement personnel. Le groupe recommande des données adoptée par la Commission en janvier à l’UE de prendre des mesures de sensibilisation 2012. Il souhaite que, pendant le débat interinstitu- à ces changements en promouvant et en finançant tionnel sur le cadre réglementaire proposé, les recom- de nouvelles activités de recherche, et particulière- mandations suivantes soient prises en considération: ment en mesurant l’impact des TIC sur le dévelop- pement et les concepts d’identité dans l’initiative • le groupe recommande que les caractéristiques Horizon 2020. qualifiant les «données à caractère personnel» soient clarifiées, de même que leur application 5.4 Le droit à la protection de la vie privée et à différents usages des TIC (adresses IP, numéros des données à caractère personnel RFID uniques, données de géolocalisation) et au développement de nouveaux types de données. Il est important que tous ceux qui souhaitent embrasser Cette clarification devrait ensuite être intégrée au les innovations dans le domaine des TIC se voient faci- liter la tâche, tout en conservant leur droit à l’autono- mie et à la vie privée. Il est certes difficile d’expliquer le concept de vie privée, mais pour beaucoup, ce concept 222 La question est cependant compliquée par le fait que, dans évoque l’«intimité». Ils entendent par là que certains as- certains cas, on ne voit pas clairement ce qui constituerait un consentement libre, exprès et éclairé à un traitement pects de leur vie ne concernent qu’eux. Cette interpré- de données, comme dans le domaine de la publicité com- tation est fréquemment prolongée par une description portementale en ligne où certains considèrent, mais pas du concept de vie privée comme étant le droit d’une d’autres, que les paramètres du navigateur de l’internaute personne de ne pas être dérangée ou comme étant une expriment son consentement. 72
- 76. PARTIE C: | RECOMMANDATIONS RECOMMANDATIONS | 4 cadre réglementaire de l’UE en matière de protec- Les personnes concernées devraient avoir le droit tion des données; d’exiger que leurs données à caractère personnel soient effacées et ne subissent aucun traitement • eu égard aux évolutions technologiques et so- ultérieur. En principe, les données analysées anté- ciétales, il y a lieu d’examiner les dispositions en rieurement doivent être supprimées, sauf si leur vigueur concernant les données sensibles, afin de conservation est justifiable. Les procédures de déterminer s’il conviendrait d’y soumettre d’autres consentement éclairé devraient préciser les condi- catégories de données et de préciser davantage tions dans lesquelles le retrait n’est pas possible. Le les conditions applicables à leur traitement. Sont responsable du traitement doit être suffisamment concernées, par exemple, les données génétiques assuré que la personne signifiant son consente- et biométriques; ment est réellement l’intéressé, et des instruments de certification du consentement à l’utilisation des • la transparence est une condition fondamen- données (par exemple, signatures numériques ou tale pour permettre aux personnes concernées électroniques) doivent être intégrés dans les TIC re- d’exercer un contrôle sur leurs propres données quérant la communication de données à caractère et pour assurer une protection effective des don- personnel; nées à caractère personnel. Il est donc primordial que les responsables du traitement informent les • les enfants et les adultes vulnérables requièrent personnes concernées correctement et clairement, une protection particulière, car ils peuvent être de façon simple et transparente, afin qu’elles sa- moins conscients des risques, des conséquences, chent qui recueillera et traitera leurs données, se- des garanties et des droits liés au traitement de lon quelles modalités, pour quels motifs et pendant leurs données à caractère personnel; combien de temps, et qu’elles connaissent leurs droits en ce qui concerne l’accès à ces données, • le groupe soutient l’idée du «droit à l’oubli». Dans leur rectification ou leur suppression. La transpa- un environnement en ligne, le GEE recommande rence repose sur des éléments fondamentaux, tels que le droit à la suppression des données à ca- qu’un accès aisé à l’information, qui doit être facile ractère personnel soit étendu de telle manière à comprendre; que les copies ou reproductions accessibles au pu- blic soient supprimées; • pour que le traitement des données à caractère personnel soit légal, les données à caractère • le GEE recommande que le traitement des données personnel devraient être traitées sur la base du à caractère personnel des personnes résidant sur le consentement exprès de la personne concernée territoire de l’UE par un responsable établi en de- (incluant un droit de retrait) ou de tout autre fon- hors de l’UE/EEE soit soumis au cadre normatif de dement légitime; l’UE en matière de protection des données. • le consentement devrait être donné par toute 5.5 Aspects sociaux: la fracture numérique méthode appropriée permettant une indication librement donnée, expresse, éclairée et non ambi- 5.5.1 La fracture numérique guë des souhaits de l’intéressé, qui garantisse que la personne concernée est pleinement consciente L’application des principes de justice et de non-dis- qu’elle donne son consentement, notamment en crimination est un facteur clé à prendre en considé- cochant une case lorsqu’elle consulte un site Inter- ration lorsqu’on promeut l’utilisation des TIC dans net. Le silence ou l’inaction ne devraient donc pas différents domaines sociétaux, de l’administration être constitutifs d’un consentement. Toute utilisa- en ligne à la santé en ligne et du commerce électro- tion ou transmission des données dans un but au- nique aux services en ligne. Cette utilisation des TIC tre que celui consenti par l’intéressé (par exemple, devient éthiquement sensible quand elle se substitue commerce électronique ou maintien de l’ordre) ne complètement aux formes classiques de la prestation devrait pas être autorisée, sauf si la législation ap- de services et influe dès lors sur toute la communauté plicable le justifie; des citoyens européens. Les modalités innovantes dans les domaines du commerce, de l’administration et de • le consentement peut toujours être retiré la santé peuvent en effet offrir aux citoyens des ser- sans conséquences négatives pour l’intéressé. vices de meilleure qualité et plus durables. Cet objectif 73
- 77. 4 | RECOMMANDATIONS RECOMMANDATIONS | PARTIE C: Ethique de biologie synthétique mérite certainement d’être soutenu et encouragé, mais internationaux, et recommande que l’UE adopte ceux qui promeuvent ces politiques ne doivent pas ou- des stratégies qui ne consistent pas seulement à ou- blier que celles‑ci peuvent compromettre le principe vrir l’accès au public mais qui intègrent également de justice participative et l’accès aux services des per- des mesures permettant un exercice effectif de cet sonnes et des groupes qui n’ont pas accès à ces moda- accès. Cela implique d’instruire le public et de le lités nouvelles ou qui ne peuvent ou ne souhaitent pas motiver à tirer parti du potentiel des TIC au moyen y recourir. de programmes éducatifs et de tutorat, qui eng- agent chacun dans un processus d’apprentissage La société connaît des changements rapides, utile et judicieux; constants et incessants. L’inventer, le recyclage et l’élimination en quasi-continu sont les manifestations • le GEE recommande que, dans les domaines où d’une quête exclusivement humaine qui vise à faire la société impose des obligations aux citoyens ou progresser et prospérer l’humanité. La société où nous dans lesquels l’accès aux services essentiels repo- vivons aujourd’hui est dominée par la technologie et se sur l’utilisation des TIC, des mécanismes indé- la plupart d’entre nous admettent que l’évolution pendants des TIC soient établis à court ou moyen permanente de la technologie a transformé, ou peut terme. transformer, notre manière de vivre et nos relations réciproques. Certains toutefois, pour une foule de rai- 5.5.2 Équilibre entre vie professionnelle et vie privée sons, choisissent de ne pas prendre part à la société numérique, exprimant ainsi leur autonomie person- Tout en reconnaissant les avantages potentiels d’une nelle. Leur choix doit être respecté, bien qu’il soit connectivité accrue dans la sphère du travail, le GEE probable qu’en refusant d’intégrer les TIC dans leur souhaite mettre en évidence le risque de la culture vie quotidienne, ces personnes voient le champ de de la «connexion permanente» dans la vie profession- leurs options rétrécir de plus en plus dans l’ère nu- nelle, où «travail flexible» pourrait être synonyme de mérique. En dépit de cela, il importe que ces «reclus travail à toute heure et sans limite, avec de possibles numériques» ne soient pas privés de la possibilité incidences négatives sur la vie de famille. L’utilisation d’accéder à des services essentiels ou de s’acquitter des TIC doit être surveillée et gérée efficacement à la de leurs obligations sociétales (par exemple le vote fois par l’employé et l’employeur. ou le paiement de l’impôt) du fait de leur rejet des technologies numériques. Dans l’intérêt de l’inclusion • Le GEE invite l’UE à encourager et aider les orga- et de la solidarité, la société au sens large se voit donc nisations à élaborer des politiques explicites ga- tenue de favoriser la fourniture de moyens alternatifs rantissant une utilisation optimale des TIC dans le de satisfaire à ces obligations, ne serait‑ce qu’à court respect de l’équilibre entre vie professionnelle ou moyen terme. et vie privée. Ces politiques devraient viser à en- courager une culture organisationnelle qui ne sous- Pour garantir aux citoyens leur droit de jouer un rôle entende pas que les employés sont «d’astreinte» actif dans la société européenne tout en respectant en dehors des heures de travail. Ce point devrait leurs choix en matière d’outils utilisables à cet effet, le également être abordé dans les programmes en GEE formule les recommandations suivantes: matière de responsabilité des entreprises et dans la réglementation du travail. • le GEE reconnaît que les groupes désavantagés et marginalisés peuvent requérir des conceptions, 5.6 Participation politique applications et contenus différents pour répondre à leurs besoins spécifiques. À cet effet, le GEE re- L’influence que les TIC peuvent avoir sur le domaine commande que des mesures axées sur la fourniture politique soulève des inquiétudes en ce qui concerne directe, les subventions et la réglementation soient le droit des citoyens à la libre information, la capacité examinées par l’UE, afin que ces groupes ne soient des groupes d’intérêts ou de pression à modifier les pas privés de la possibilité de jouer pleinement un perceptions et le pouvoir de l’État de censurer des rôle actif dans la société numérique; données sur Internet. Compte tenu de l’impact massif des TIC sur la société moderne (comme décrit dans la • le GEE reconnaît les efforts consentis par la Com- première partie du présent avis), les gouvernements mission pour réduire la fracture numérique, du monde entier cherchent à interagir avec l’espace y compris sa collaboration avec des partenaires en ligne à l’aide de nouveaux outils: filtrage, exigences 74
- 78. PARTIE C: | RECOMMANDATIONS RECOMMANDATIONS | 4 d’enregistrement, pouvoirs de surveillance, responsa- (des particuliers aux entreprises, en passant par la bilité des intermédiaires, etc.). La structure des outils de société et les gouvernements) proposées dans le pré- la connaissance et de la communication, tous usages sent avis. La mise en place et en œuvre d’outils visant confondus, soulève la question de l’orientation de la à atteindre ces objectifs, de la responsabilité sociale connaissance et de l’information dans la sphère numé- des entreprises (COM(2011) 681 final) à un code de rique dans le but de façonner la réalité et la perception conduite (actions menées par la Commission au sujet du public – y compris la diffusion possible d’informa- de l’utilisation responsable de l’informatique en nuage tions faussées via les canaux numériques à des fins et de l’Internet des objets, recommandation concer- politiques. Le GEE recommande ce qui suit: nant l’innovation responsable - 2012, etc.) devrait être encouragée et soutenue. Le GEE recommande donc • le GEE reconnaît que le trait fondamental de ce qui suit: l’Internet est la participation libre et active de ses utilisateurs. Le groupe souligne la nécessité de fai- • le GEE constate qu’un équilibre doit être trouvé re en sorte que le Net reste un espace libre et entre les utilisations commerciales et non com- neutre. Cette liberté ne doit pas aller à l’encontre merciales des TIC. Il recommande à la Commission des valeurs éthiques fondamentales de l’UE; européenne: 1) de s’assurer, en se fondant sur sa législation en matière de protection des données, • l’Internet doit rester un domaine de communi- que les réseaux de médias sociaux protègent de cation où la liberté d’expression est protégée façon responsable les données communiquées par contre la censure dans le cadre de la Charte des les utilisateurs; 2) d’éduquer les utilisateurs de sorte droits fondamentaux; qu’ils comprennent que la plupart des réseaux de médias sociaux sont des organisations commercia- • le GEE reconnaît la nécessité de contrebalancer la les qui doivent utiliser les données à des fins com- gouvernance descendante de l’Internet par des merciales pour pouvoir fournir aux utilisateurs les organismes gouvernementaux appliquant des ap- services dont ils profitent; 3) d’employer tous les proches participatives ascendantes qui associent moyens disponibles pour offrir aux utilisateurs qui la communauté Internet. Il souligne qu’un modèle le souhaitent un espace de réseautage social (pro- transparent et participatif devrait être dûment bablement sur les réseaux existants) qui soit exem- intégré au processus décisionnel associant l’UE, pt d’exploitation commerciale, sachant que les uti- les États membres et les parties prenantes, et ce lisateurs pourraient devoir payer pour ce privilège; pour toute initiative en matière de réglementation des TIC. • le GEE est d’avis qu’aux fins de la conclusion d’un contrat commercial, les conditions de ce contrat 5.7 Recommandations au sujet de la sphère doivent être présentées aux utilisateurs dans des du commerce termes clairs, concis et intelligibles. 5.7.1 Les transactions commerciales 5.7.2 Responsabilité sociale des entreprises Le GEE souligne la nécessité de défendre les droits La protection de la vie privée est couverte par une série et intérêts des citoyens européens. Il salue donc de principes, notamment ceux repris dans la stratégie l’approche proposée par la Commission européenne de responsabilité sociale des entreprises (RSE) adop- en matière de responsabilité sociale des entreprises, tée par la Commission européenne en octobre 2011. selon laquelle, pour s’acquitter de leur responsabi- La stratégie explique comment les entreprises peuvent lité, les entreprises doivent engager, en collaboration tirer parti de la RSE tout en contribuant à la société étroite avec les parties prenantes, un processus des- dans son ensemble en faisant tout leur possible pour tiné à intégrer les préoccupations en matière sociale, s’acquitter de leurs responsabilités sociales. environnementale, éthique, de droits de l’homme et des consommateurs dans leurs activités commerciales • Le GEE se félicite de cette initiative et recomman- et leur stratégie de base (COM(2011) 681 final). Le GEE de à l’UE d’encourager les entreprises à prendre salue également les actions de l’UE et des organismes en considération la vie privée dans l’application internationaux pour préserver la neutralité du Net de leur politique de RSE – tout en utilisant les so- (COM(2011) 222 final); toutefois, il souligne la nécessité lutions technologiques relatives à l’évaluation des d’appliquer les mesures en matière de responsabilité répercussions sur la vie privée, au renforcement du 75
- 79. 4 | RECOMMANDATIONS RECOMMANDATIONS | PARTIE C: Ethique de biologie synthétique respect de la vie privée et à la protection intégrée urbains, communication des connaissances environne- de la vie privée. mentales, diffusion de l’information auprès du public, stimulation de la participation active des citoyens, 5.8 Exploration de données par corrélation promotion de l’utilisation efficace des ressources, croisée réduction de la consommation d’énergie et de res- sources naturelles essentielles (par exemple, réduction L’exploration de données par corrélation croisée peut de la consommation de papier grâce à la communica- présenter un intérêt réel lorsque des bases de don- tion électronique ou sans papier), amélioration de l’uti- nées collectées auprès de diverses sources sont ana- lisation des ressources naturelles. Les exemples d’une lysées ensemble pour détecter des informations qui telle transformation incluent l’utilisation des TIC pour ne sont pas contenues dans des bases déterminées. améliorer les pratiques agricoles, surveiller la pollution Par exemple, le fait de relier des données d’achats par de l’air et de l’eau, prévoir les catastrophes et amélio- cartes de magasin à des données bancaires et/ou de rer l’efficacité des secteurs de l’énergie, du transport, santé peut donner un éclairage sur des comportements ainsi que des biens et services. L’utilisation de disposi- individuels qui n’étaient éventuellement pas immédia- tifs électroniques tels que les services de messagerie tement évidents. Ce type de corrélation exploite sou- électronique ou de vidéoconférence peut également vent les données de citoyens sans le consentement réduire le besoin de transport. exprès de ceux‑ci et peut déboucher sur un profilage dissimulé et non consenti, avec un possible risque de En même temps, la durabilité de ces technologies doit stigmatisation et de violation de la vie privée. Le GEE également être gérée pour éviter des conséquences recommande donc ce qui suit: non voulues telles que la consommation accrue d’énergie, les déchets issus des dispositifs électro- • les personnes concernées devraient être ex- niques usagés et l’utilisation de matières premières pressément informées par les entreprises, les telles que des éléments de terres rares. De nombreux instances nationales ou les organismes de recher- dispositifs électroniques nécessitent une exploitation che du fait que leurs informations peuvent faire extensive d’éléments rares (tels que le tantale, le lan- l’objet d’une exploration à des fins spécifiques. Les thane ou le dysprosium) et les batteries modernes ont intéressés pourront ainsi faire des choix éclairés besoin de grandes quantités de lithium. La demande au sujet des services auxquels elles accèdent et de ces matières crée des problèmes sociaux et envi- qu’elles utilisent. Le consentement exprès devrait ronnementaux dans les pays où l’on extrait les mine- toujours être sollicité lorsque des bases de don- rais qui les contiennent. En même temps, la produc- nées sont mises en corrélation. Le GEE préconise tion de certains composants est limitée à quelques une réflexion approfondie au sujet des réper- pays. Ces faits créent une dépendance envers l’éner- cussions sur la vie privée de l’exploration de gie et les matières premières pour l’utilisation des TIC, données par corrélation croisée, de sorte que produisant un état de vulnérabilité accrue qui doit cette technique puisse rendre service à la soci- être pris en compte. été en raison de ses avantages potentiels, tout en protégeant les droits humains. Le groupe re- • Le GEE recommande que les effets écologiques des commande également que l’UE réfléchisse plus TIC (utilisation de l’énergie, production de déchets avant à la question de savoir si, et dans quelles et utilisation des matières premières) soient quan- conditions, les données sensibles peuvent être tifiés, identifiés, analysés et communiqués, et que utilisées, y compris au moyen d’un exploration l’exploitation des ressources naturelles soit réduite par corrélation croisée. au minimum. 5.9 Environnement et matières premières • Le GEE recommande à l’UE d’étudier la vulnérabilité du système des TIC, compte tenu de la rareté des La problématique des TIC et de l’environnement est matières premières. complexe: les TIC peuvent avoir des conséquences positives et négatives sur l’environnement. L’impact • Le groupe sait que plusieurs rapports ont souligné des TIC sur l’environnement peut être extrêmement que l’extraction de certains minerais constituant positif. Ce peut être un outil pour la protection de des matières premières essentielles à la fabrication l’environnement: suivi des questions environne- des équipements de TIC est effectuée dans des con- mentales, gestion des systèmes environnementaux ditions inhumaines. Le groupe appelle donc l’UE 76
- 80. PARTIE C: | RECOMMANDATIONS RECOMMANDATIONS | 4 à œuvrer à l’amélioration des conditions de travail dans ce secteur, afin de faire respecter les droits de l’homme. Ce point devrait également être intégré dans les programmes de développement financés par l’UE. 5.10 Recommandation finale Le GEE reconnaît le potentiel de l’agenda numérique pour l’Europe et souligne la nécessité de promouvoir une mise en œuvre responsable, inclusive et sociale- ment durable de cet important secteur stratégique. Le groupe plaide donc en faveur de la promotion des mesures s’inscrivant dans le cadre de l’agenda numé- rique pour l’Europe dans le respect des valeurs fonda- mentales de l’Union européenne. Il souligne également la nécessité de financer l’éducation et la recherche sur le plan éthique, juridique, social et environnemental dans le volet TIC de l’initiative Horizon 2020. 77
- 82. Europäische Gruppe für Ethik in Naturwissenschaften und neuen Technologien bei der Europäischen Kommission STELLUNGNAHME DER EUROPÄISCHEN GRUPPE FÜR ETHIK IN NATURWISSENSCHAFTEN UND NEUEN TECHNOLOGIEN BEI DER EUROPÄISCHEN KOMMISSION Ethik der Informations- und Kommunikationstechnologien Bezug: Ersuchen von Präsident Barroso Julian Kinderlerer, Peter Dabrock, Berichterstatter: Hille Haker, Herman Nys; Nur der Originaltext auf Englisch ist authentisch. Nr. 26
- 83. 4 | RECOMMANDATIONS EMPFEHLUNGEN | TEIL C: Ethik der synthetischen Biologie ANNEX 2 TEIL C: 5 EMPFEHLUNGEN 5.1 Ethischer Rahmen der Stellungnahme der Privatsphäre, Datenschutz und bestimmte soziale Fragen im Zusammenhang mit der Nutzung von IKT in Präsident José Manuel Barroso hat die EGE im März der EU und der gesamten Welt. 2011 um eine Stellungnahme zu den ethischen Fragen, die sich aus der raschen Ausdehnung von Informations- Diese Stellungnahme fußt auf den im Vertrag über die und Kommunikationstechnologien (IKT) ergeben, er- Europäische Union verankerten Grundrechten und sucht und unterstrichen, dass die Stellungnahme der Werten, die auch die ethische Grundlage für die Emp- Kommission als Bezugspunkt für die Förderung eines fehlungen bilden. verantwortungsvollen Umgangs mit der Digitalen Agenda für Europa dienen und die Akzeptanz eines Artikel 2: Die Werte, auf die sich die Union grün- derart wichtigen politischen Anliegens in der Gesell- det, sind die Achtung der Menschenwürde, Freiheit, schaft erleichtern könnte. Demokratie, Gleichheit, Rechtsstaatlichkeit und die Wahrung der Menschenrechte einschließlich der Die EGE erkennt an, dass Informations- und Kommu- Rechte der Personen, die Minderheiten angehören. nikationstechnologien eine wichtige gesellschaftliche Diese Werte sind allen Mitgliedstaaten in einer Ge- Rolle in Europa und der gesamten Welt spielen, und sie sellschaft gemeinsam, die sich durch Pluralismus, begrüßt die Bemühungen der Europäischen Kommissi- Nichtdiskriminierung, Toleranz, Gerechtigkeit, Soli- on um eine verantwortungsvolle und innovative Um- darität und die Gleichheit von Frauen und Männern setzung der Digitalen Agenda für Europa. Die Gruppe auszeichnet. möchte zudem die Anstrengungen hervorheben, die Artikel 3: 1. Ziel der Union ist es, den Frieden, ihre die Europäische Union unternimmt, um ihre politischen Werte und das Wohlergehen ihrer Völker zu för- Rahmen in Übereinstimmung mit den Grundwerten dern. (…) der Europäischen Union zu gestalten, und sie weist da- 3. Die Union errichtet einen Binnenmarkt. Sie wirkt rauf hin, dass dieser Prozess demokratisch und trans- auf die nachhaltige Entwicklung Europas auf der parent sein muss. Informations- und Kommunikations- Grundlage eines ausgewogenen Wirtschaftswachs- technologien eröffnen Globalisierungsmöglichkeiten, tums und von Preisstabilität, eine in hohem Maße die zu Zeiten, als das Thema Globalisierung erstmals wettbewerbsfähige soziale Marktwirtschaft, die auf erörtert wurde, noch unvorstellbar waren, und die Aus- Vollbeschäftigung und sozialen Fortschritt abzielt, wirkungen dieser neuen, globalisierten Welt müssen sowie ein hohes Maß an Umweltschutz und Ver- im Lichte der Grundwerte der Europäischen Union be- besserung der Umweltqualität hin. Sie fördert den trachtet werden. wissenschaftlichen und technischen Fortschritt. Sie bekämpft soziale Ausgrenzung und Diskriminierun- Die EGE hat sich vor allem mit den Internettechnologi- gen und fördert soziale Gerechtigkeit und sozialen en befasst, weil ihr bewusst ist, dass es nicht möglich Schutz, die Gleichstellung von Frauen und Män- ist, die gesamte umfangreiche Palette der mit dem IKT- nern, die Solidarität zwischen den Generationen Bereich zusammenhängenden Themen zu behandeln. und den Schutz der Rechte des Kindes. Sie fördert Die sich aus den IKT ergebenden Sicherheitsfragen den wirtschaftlichen, sozialen und territorialen werden daher in einer nachfolgenden Stellungnahme Zusammenhalt und die Solidarität zwischen den der EGE behandelt werden, die der Kommission auf Mitgliedstaaten. Sie wahrt den Reichtum ihrer kul- Ersuchen von Präsident Barroso im Jahr 2013 vorzu- turellen und sprachlichen Vielfalt und sorgt für den legen ist. Die EGE hat sich zudem dafür entschieden, Schutz und die Entwicklung des kulturellen Erbes nicht auf das Thema Rechte an geistigem Eigentum Europas. (…) einzugehen, und sie ist sich auch der Kontroverse um 5. In ihren Beziehungen zur übrigen Welt schützt die laufenden und die künftigen Verhandlungen über und fördert die Union ihre Werte und Interessen das Anti-Produktpiraterie-Handelsabkommen ACTA und trägt zum Schutz ihrer Bürgerinnen und Bürger bewusst. bei. (…) Die nachfolgenden Empfehlungen der EGE sind daher Die Förderung dieses Werterahmens bildet zusammen allgemeiner Art und beziehen sich auf die Themen Zu- mit dem Eintreten für den Frieden und für den Wohl- gang zu IKT, Identität, elektronischer Handel, Schutz stand aller EU-Bürger das Hauptziel, das die Union in 80
- 84. TEIL C: | EMPFEHLUNGEN RECOMMANDATIONS | 4 all ihren Politikbereichen einschließlich der Digitalen nach wie vor anstrebt, zum Blühen und Gedeihen der Agenda und der IKT-Governance verfolgt. Bei dieser Union beitragen kann. Stellungnahme hat die Gruppe vor allem auf folgende Grundsätze besonderes Augenmerk gelegt: 5.2 Recht auf Zugang zu IKT • Menschenwürde: Die Charta der Grundrechte Die Europäische Charta der Grundrechte sieht vor, der Europäischen Union besagt: „Die Würde des dass jede Person die Möglichkeit haben muss, einen Menschen ist unantastbar. Sie ist zu achten und zu Betrag zur Gestaltung der europäischen Gesellschaft schützen.“ (Artikel 1);223 zu leisten, was natürlich auch die Nutzung von IKT ein- schließt. Der Schutz des Gleichheitsprinzips ist daher • Wahrung der Freiheit und insbesondere des in mehreren Lebensbereichen wie Bildung, Beschäf- Rechts auf eine zensurfreie Kommunikation und tigung, Handel und Gesundheit von besonderer Be- Agentur im digitalen Zeitalter; deutung. Die EGE begrüßt die von der Europäischen Kommission im IKT-Bereich ergriffenen Maßnahmen • Wahrung von Demokratie, Bürgerrechten und und ersucht die EU, sich an der Nutzung von IKT in den Bürgerbeteiligung einschließlich Schutz vor Aus- europäischen Gesellschaftssystemen zu beteiligen und grenzung und unzulässiger Diskriminierung; den Zugang zu IKT zu fördern, gleichzeitig aber auch Bürgern, die aus technischen, bildungsspezifischen • Wahrung der Privatsphäre einschließlich oder sozioökonomischen Gründen nicht auf IKT-Werk- Schutz vor ungerechtfertigten Eingriffen in die zeuge zurückgreifen können oder wollen, den Zugang Privatsphäre; zu grundlegenden sozialen Diensten zu garantieren. • Wahrung der Selbständigkeit und Aufklärungs- • Die EGE empfiehlt der EU, das Recht auf Zugang pflicht bei Einwilligungen, u.a. zum Schutz des zum Internet zu wahren und zu stärken. Die EGE Rechts auf Information und auf Aufklärung im Vor- betont, dass ein solches Vorgehen auch auf inter- feld einer Zustimmung zur Datenverwendung oder nationaler Ebene gefördert und dabei besonderes zu sich auf die Verarbeitung dieser Daten gründen- Gewicht auf die weniger entwickelten Regionen der den Maßnahmen; Welt gelegt werden sollte. • Gerechtigkeit, u.a. zwecks Sicherstellung eines • Die EGE fordert die Einrichtung von Bildungs- gleichberechtigten Zugangs zu IKT und einer ge- programmen, durch die der Einzelne in die Lage rechten Nutzung ihrer Vorteile; versetzt wird, seine technische und/oder digitale Kompetenz zu verbessern (z.B. durch Werkzeuge • Solidarität unter den EU-Bürgern, u.a. zwecks zur Vereinfachung von IKT-Anwendungen), und die Einbeziehung von jedem, der an IKT mitwirken auf die Verbesserung der digitalen Kompetenz der möchte, aber auch zur Sicherstellung der gesell- gesamten EU-Bevölkerung abstellen und sich ins- schaftlichen Eingliederung von Personen, die sich besondere mit den Anforderungen von Menschen beispielsweise nicht an Online-Praktiken beteiligen mit besonderen Bedürfnissen befassen (Werkzeuge können oder alternative soziale Interaktionsformen zum Erlernen des Umgangs mit dem Internet, an- beibehalten möchten. gefangen beim Internetbanking bis hin zu elektro- nischen Büchern). Die EGE begrüßt die positiven Maßnahmen, die die Europäische Union und ihre Organe bereits ergriffen • Die EGE fordert die Einrichtung von Bildungspro- haben und unterbreitet nachfolgend eine Reihe von grammen zur Sensibilisierung für die Auswirkungen Empfehlungen, durch die sichergestellt werden soll, der IKT auf die persönliche, gesellschaftliche und dass die Europäische Digitale Agenda unter Wahrung moralische Identität des Einzelnen und zur Schaf- der Werte, auf die sich Europa gründet und die Europa fung eines größeren Verantwortungsbewusstseins für diese Identität. • Die EGE begrüßt die von der EU ergriffenen Maß- 223 „Die Würde des Menschen ist nicht nur ein Grundrecht an sich, nahmen zur Förderung eines offenen Zugangs sondern bildet das eigentliche Fundament der Grundrechte.“ (Er- und regt an, dass weitere Maßnahmen auf diesem klärung zu den Erläuterungen zur Charta der Grundrechte). Gebiet sondiert werden sollten. 81
- 85. 4 | RECOMMANDATIONS EMPFEHLUNGEN | TEIL C: Ethik der synthetischen Biologie 5.3 Empfehlungen zum Thema individuelle Forschungsmaßnahmen auf diesem Gebiet zu Identität fördern und zu finanzieren und insbesondere die Auswirkungen von IKT auf die Entwicklung und die Konzepte, die sich mit der persönlichen Identität des Identitätskonzepte im Rahmen von „Horizont 2020“ Einzelnen (d.h. mit der Identifizierung zwecks Prüfung zu überwachen. der Echtheit eines sich mit den zahlreichen durch IKT ermöglichten Tätigkeiten befassenden Nutzers und 5.4 Das Recht auf Privatsphäre und mit der individuellen Identität einer Person und ihrer Datenschutz Werte, Ziele oder Selbstsicht) befassen, nehmen im „digitalen Zeitalter“ neue Formen an und unterliegen Für Menschen, die von IKT-Innovationen Gebrauch einem starken Wandel. Die EGE hat im vorhergehenden machen wollen, ist es wichtig, dass sie dabei unter- Teil verschiedene ethische Herausforderungen ange- stützt werden, gleichzeitig aber ihre Eigenständigkeit sprochen, die in Bezug auf die Frage der Identität der und ihre Privatsphäre gewahrt bleiben. Obschon der weiteren Analyse und Prüfung bedürfen, und die Grup- Begriff „Privatsphäre“ nicht einfach zu erklären ist, ha- pe empfiehlt diesbezüglich folgende Maßnahmen: ben doch die meisten Menschen das Empfinden, dass bestimmte Aspekte ihres Lebens nur sie selbst etwas • Um eine verantwortungsvolle Nutzung der in angehen. Dass „Privatsphäre“ regelmäßig als der nicht- der Digitalen Agenda für Europa vorgesehenen öffentliche Bereich definiert wird, in dem ein Mensch IKT zu fördern, sollte die EU nach Auffassung der unbehelligt von äußeren Einflüssen sein Recht auf freie Gruppe die Entwicklung von Bildungswerkzeugen Entfaltung der Persönlichkeit wahrnehmen kann, stärkt unterstützen, die dazu dienen, eine „soziale Kom- dieses Empfinden. Die Privatsphäre erleichtert dem petenz“ der Nutzer zu schaffen und auszuprägen; Menschen das Verständnis von sich selbst, sprich: die dies schließt die Unterstützung eines eigenverant- Erkenntnis, dass sein Denken und sein Handeln sein wortlichen Handelns ein. Es sollten einschlägige eigen sind, was wiederum eine wesentliche Voraus- Programme aufgelegt werden, die auf die Förde- setzung dafür ist, dass er moralische Verantwortung rung von Respekt, Toleranz und Einfühlungsver- übernehmen kann. Dies ermöglicht dem Einzelnen, mögen bei der digitalen Kommunikation abstellen. ein gewisses Maß an Kontrolle über die Informationen auszuüben, die er anderen gibt und so seine Eigenstän- • Da die vom Internet gebotenen Möglichkeiten im- digkeit und seine Privatsphäre zu wahren. mer zahlreicher und immer komplexer werden, ist die EGE der Auffassung, dass zusätzliche Sicher- Um das Internet verantwortungsvoll nutzen zu können, heitsvorkehrungen für Kinder und Jugendli- benötigt jeder Mensch hinreichende Kontrolle über sei- che getroffen werden sollten, damit diese in einer ne Onlinedaten. Daher sollten die Bedingungen für die sicheren Umgebung lernen und spielen können. Einwilligung der betroffenen Person224 stets klargestellt In diesem Sinne empfiehlt die Gruppe die Integra- werden, damit gewährleistet ist, dass die Einwilligung tion von Aufklärungsmaßnahmen für Kinder und nach erfolgter Aufklärung erteilt wurde („informierte Jugendliche und ihre Eltern und Lehrer in die Bil- Einwilligung“) und die betroffene Person sich vollauf dungsprogramme und die politischen Maßnahmen darüber im Klaren war, dass sie einer Verarbeitung ihrer der EU. Daten im Sinne von Artikel 8 der Charta der Grundrech- te der Europäischen Union zustimmt und welche Fol- • Die EGE empfiehlt der EU, Mittel zur Stärkung des gen dies hat. Klarheit über Schlüsselbegriffe kann zu- Verantwortungsbewusstseins der Nutzer und der dem der Entwicklung von Selbstregulierungsinitiativen Anbieter von IKT-Diensten bereitzustellen. Konkret zur Ausarbeitung von praktischen, im Einklang mit dem sollte es dabei um die Themen Rechenschafts- EU-Recht stehenden Lösungen förderlich sein (siehe pflicht, Identifizierung und Rückverfolgbarkeit der Internetidentität gehen. 224 Ein erschwerender Umstand ist allerdings, dass in manchen • Die EGE hat die Studien, die die psychologi- Fällen gar nicht klar ist, worin die betreffende aus freiem schen Auswirkungen der Nutzung von IKT auf Willen und nach vorheriger Aufklärung erteilte Zustim- mung zu einer spezifischen Datenverarbeitung besteht. die persönliche Entwicklung aufgezeigt haben, Dies gilt beispielsweise für die verhaltensorientierte Wer- zur Kenntnis genommen. Die Gruppe empfiehlt bung im Internet, bei der die Einwilligung des Nutzers nach der EU, das Bewusstsein für diese Veränderun- Auffassung mancher (aber eben nicht aller) im Wege der gen zu schärfen und zu diesem Zweck weitere Browsereinstellungen erteilt wird. 82
- 86. TEIL C: | EMPFEHLUNGEN RECOMMANDATIONS | 4 KOM (2010) 609 endg., S. 9). Fester Bestandteil aller eine Daten stets auf der Grundlage einer ausdrückli- „informierte Einwilligung“ voraussetzenden Verfahren chen Einwilligung der betroffenen Person (mit sollte daher ein „eingebauter Datenschutz“ sein (d.h. Bestimmungen über das Recht auf Rücknahme der der Schutz der Privatsphäre und der Datenschutz wer- Einwilligung) oder auf einer sonstigen zulässigen den in den gesamten Lebenszyklus von Technologien Rechtsgrundlage verarbeitet werden. eingebettet, angefangen bei der Konzeption über die Einführung und Verwendung bis hin zur Abschaffung). • Die Einwilligung sollte in jeder geeigneten Form möglich sein, so dass die betroffene Person ihre Die EGE begrüßt und befürwortet den Vorschlag zur Wünsche frei, konkret, informiert und unzweideutig Neufassung des EU-Datenschutzrahmens, den die zum Ausdruck bringen kann und damit sicherge- Kommission im Januar 2012 angenommen hat. Die stellt ist, dass sich der Einzelne vollauf bewusst ist, Gruppe hat betont, dass bei der interinstitutionellen dass er seine Einwilligung erteilt (beispielsweise Debatte über den Vorschlag folgende Empfehlungen durch Ankreuzen eines Kästchens auf einer Websei- berücksichtigt werden sollten: te). Wenn keine Äußerung oder Handlung erfolgt, sollte dies mithin keine Einwilligung darstellen. • Die Gruppe empfiehlt, dass klargestellt werden Jede Verwendung oder Übermittlung von Daten zu sollte, welche Merkmale Daten zu personenbe- einem anderen als dem von der betroffenen Person zogenen Daten machen, welche Bedeutung dies gebilligten Zweck (z.B. im elektronischen Handel für die verschiedenen Nutzungsformen von IKT oder zu polizeilichen Zwecken) sollte nur zulässig (IP-Adressen, RFID-Nummern, Geolokationsdaten sein, wenn dies einschlägige Rechtsvorschriften so usw.) hat, und wie sich dies auf die Entwicklung vorsehen. neuer Datenarten auswirkt. Diese Präzisierungen sollten sodann in den Datenschutzrahmen der EU • Die Einwilligung sollte jederzeit widerrufen einfließen. werden können, ohne dass dies negative Kon- sequenzen für die betroffene Person hat. Die be- • Es ist angesichts der technologischen und der sons- troffene Person sollte verlangen können, dass ihre tigen gesellschaftlichen Entwicklung notwendig, personenbezogenen Daten gelöscht und nicht wei- die geltenden Bestimmungen über sensible Daten ter verarbeitet werden. Grundsätzlich sollten alle zu überdenken, zu prüfen, ob andere Datenkate- Daten nach ihrer Analyse gelöscht werden, wenn gorien hinzugefügt werden sollten und näher zu eine weitere Vorhaltung nicht gerechtfertigt ist. Die klären, unter welchen Bedingungen sie verarbeitet Bedingungen, unter denen eine Rücknahme der werden dürfen. Beispielsweise betrifft dies geneti- Einwilligung nicht möglich ist, sollten in den Ver- sche und biometrische Daten. fahrensbestimmungen über die „informierte Ein- willigung“ detailliert dargelegt werden. Der für die • Transparenz ist eine grundlegende Vorausset- Verarbeitung Verantwortliche muss hinreichende zung für die Kontrolle des Einzelnen über seine Gewissheit haben, dass es sich bei dem Einwilligen- Daten und für einen wirksamen Schutz personen- den tatsächlich um die betroffene Person handelt, bezogener Daten. Daher ist es von wesentlicher und für IKT, die eine Verarbeitung von Daten der Bedeutung, dass jeder Einzelne von dem für die betroffenen Person erforderlich machen, müssen Verarbeitung seiner Daten Verantwortlichen auf Instrumente für den Nachweis der Einwilligung zur einfache und transparente Weise hinreichend Datennutzung (wie die digitale oder elektronische darüber aufgeklärt wird, wie, von wem, aus wel- Unterschrift) verfügbar sein. chen Gründen und für welchen Zeitraum seine Daten gesammelt und verarbeitet werden, und • Kinder und hilfebedürftige Erwachsene benö- welche Rechte er hat, wenn er seine Daten ein- tigen einen besonderen Schutz ihrer personenbe- sehen, berichtigen oder löschen möchte. Grund- zogenen Daten, weil ihnen die Risiken, Folgen und legender Bestandteil dieser Transparenz ist die Sicherheitsgarantien im Zusammenhang mit der Anforderung, dass diese Informationen ohne Verarbeitung von personenbezogenen Daten so- Weiteres verfügbar und leicht verständlich sein wie ihre diesbezüglichen Rechte möglicherweise müssen. weniger bekannt sind. • Damit die Verarbeitung personenbezogener Da- • Die Gruppe unterstützt die dem sogenannten ten rechtmäßig ist, sollten personenbezogene Recht auf Vergessen zugrunde liegende Idee und 83
- 87. 4 | RECOMMANDATIONS EMPFEHLUNGEN | TEIL C: Ethik der synthetischen Biologie empfiehlt für den Onlinebereich, das Recht auf Lö- die ja Ausdruck ihrer persönlichen Eigenständigkeit schung personenbezogener Daten dahingehend ist, muss respektiert werden. Da sie die IKT nicht in ihr auszuweiten, dass sämtliche öffentlich verfügbaren tägliches Leben einfließen lassen, besteht gleichwohl Originale und Kopien gelöscht werden müssen. die Wahrscheinlichkeit, dass ihre Wahlmöglichkeiten im digitalen Zeitalter zunehmend geringer werden. Nur • Die EGE empfiehlt, auch die Verarbeitung perso- weil sie sich dafür entschieden haben, den digitalen nenbezogener Daten von in der EU ansässigen Technologien die kalte Schulter zu zeigen, sollten der- betroffenen Personen durch einen nicht in der EU artige „digitale Hinterwäldler“ aber unabhängig davon bzw. im EWR niedergelassenen für die Verarbeitung nicht vom Zugang zu wesentlichen Diensten ausge- Verantwortlichen durch den normativen Rahmen schlossen werden, und ihnen darf auch nicht die Mög- der EU für den Datenschutzbereich zu regeln. lichkeit genommen werden, ihren gesellschaftlichen Pflichten (Teilnahme an Wahlen, Entrichten von Steu- 5.5 Soziale Aspekte: die digitale Kluft ern usw.) nachzukommen. Im Interesse von Integration und Solidarität ist es mithin die Aufgabe der breiten 5.5.1 Die digitale Kluft Gesellschaft, sich dafür einzusetzen, dass zumindest kurz- und mittelfristig alternative Möglichkeiten zur Ein zentraler Faktor, den es bei allen Überlegungen Erfüllung dieser Pflichten geschaffen werden. über die Förderung der Nutzung von IKT in unter- schiedlichen gesellschaftlichen Bereichen - von der Damit das Recht der Bürger auf eine aktive Rolle in der elektronischen Verwaltung bis zu elektronischen Ge- europäischen Gesellschaft gewahrt bleibt und ihre sundheitsdiensten und vom elektronischen Geschäfts- Entscheidung bezüglich der von ihnen dafür ausge- verkehr bis zu elektronischen Dienstleistungen - zu wählten Mittel respektiert wird, unterbreitet die EGE berücksichtigen gilt, ist die Umsetzung des Gerechtig- folgende Empfehlungen: keitsprinzips und des Nichtdiskriminierungsgrundsat- zes. Ethisch betrachtet wird eine solche Nutzung von • Die EGE erkennt an, dass es anderer Konzepte, In- IKT immer dann heikel, wenn sie vollständig an die halte und Anwendungen bedarf, um den beson- Stelle herkömmlicher Dienstleistungen tritt und sich deren Anforderungen von benachteiligten und so auf die Gemeinschaft aller EU-Bürger auswirkt. In- marginalisierten Gruppen gerecht zu werden. Zu novative Formen des Handels, der Verwaltung und der diesem Zweck empfiehlt die EGE der EU, zu prüfen, Gesundheitsversorgung können in der Tat eine bessere inwieweit mit Maßnahmen zur direkten Bereitstel- Qualität und nachhaltigere Dienste für den Bürger mit lung der betreffenden Dienste, mit Finanzhilfe- sich bringen. Dieses Ziel ist zweifelsohne beizubehal- maßnahmen und mit Regulierungsmaßnahmen ten und zu fördern, aber wer diese Politik propagiert, sichergestellt werden kann, dass diese Gruppen sollte stets im Hinterkopf behalten, dass sie möglicher- nicht von einer umfassenden und aktiven Rolle in weise den Grundsatz der partizipatorischen Gerechtig- der digitalen Gesellschaft ausgeschlossen werden. keit berührt und sich auch auf den Dienstleistungszu- gang von Einzelnen und Gruppen auswirken kann, die • Die EGE begrüßt die Anstrengungen der Kommissi- keinen Zugang zu Dienstleistungen haben oder von on zur Beseitigung der digitalen Kluft und insbe- diesen keinen Gebrauch machen können oder wollen. sondere die Zusammenarbeit mit internationalen Partnern, und sie empfiehlt der EU die Annahme Die Gesellschaft unterliegt einem raschen, kontinuierli- von Strategien, die über die Bereitstellung eines öf- chen und ständigen Wandel. Der innere Drang, nahezu fentlichen Zugangs hinausgehen und Maßnahmen fortwährend Neues zu erfinden bzw. wiederzuerfinden einschließen, welche darauf abstellen, dass von und Altes abzulegen, ist ein nur dem Menschen eige- diesem Zugang auch effektiv Gebrauch gemacht ner Wesenszug, der auf dessen Streben nach Fortschritt werden kann. Dabei sollte es unter anderem darum und Wohlstand für die Menschheit beruht. Die heuti- gehen, Menschen die nötigen Fähigkeiten und die ge Gesellschaft wird von Technik beherrscht, und die nötige Motivation zu vermitteln, damit diese das meisten Menschen sind davon überzeugt, dass die im- Potenzial von IKT im Rahmen von Bildungs- und mer neuen technologischen Entwicklungen ihr Leben Mentoringprogrammen, bei denen sie in einen und ihre Beziehungen zueinander verändert haben sinnvollen und für sie nützlichen Lernprozess ein- oder verändern können. Es gibt aber auch Menschen, gebunden werden, ausschöpfen können. die aus einer Vielzahl von Gründen nicht am digitalen Leben teilnehmen möchten, und diese Entscheidung, 84
- 88. TEIL C: | EMPFEHLUNGEN RECOMMANDATIONS | 4 • Die EGE empfiehlt, dass in Bereichen, in denen die politischen Zwecken. Diesbezüglich empfiehlt die EGE Bürger bestimmten gesellschaftlichen Verpflich- folgende Maßnahmen: tungen unterliegen oder in denen der Zugang zu wesentlichen Diensten ohne Rückgriff auf IKT nicht • Die EGE erkennt an, dass die Grundeigenschaft möglich ist, kurz- oder mittelfristig IKT-unabhängi- des Internets die freie und aktive Mitwirkung ge Verfahren eingeführt werden. seiner Nutzer ist. Sie betont die Notwendigkeit, die Freiheit und die Neutralität des Internets 5.5.2 Vereinbarkeit von Berufs- und Privatleben zu wahren. Gleichwohl darf diese Freiheit nicht den grundlegenden ethischen Werten der EU Die EGE ist sich bewusst, welche Möglichkeiten eine zuwiderlaufen. stärkere Vernetzung im Berufsleben bietet, möchte aber auf die Risiken hinweisen, die die Kultur der stän- • Das Internet muss ein Kommunikationsbereich digen Erreichbarkeit im Berufsleben mit sich bringt, so bleiben, in dem die Meinungsfreiheit nach Maß- dass sich hinter dem Begriff „flexible Arbeitszeiten“ in gabe der Charta der Grundrechte gegen Zensur Wirklichkeit die „Flexibilität“ verbirgt, dass atypisch und geschützt wird. länger gearbeitet wird, was sich negativ auf das Famili- enleben auswirken kann. Daher sollten Arbeitnehmer • Die EGE sieht die Notwendigkeit eines ausgewo- wie Arbeitgeber die Nutzung von IKT in diesem Bereich genen Verhältnisses zwischen einer von oben überwachen und wirksam steuern. nach unten erfolgenden Steuerung des Internet durch Regierungsstellen und den von unten nach • Die EGE drängt die EU, Organisationen dazu anzure- oben gerichteten partizipatorischen Ansätzen gen und dabei zu unterstützen, explizite Strategien der Internetgemeinschaft. Sie betont daher, dass für eine optimale Nutzung von IKT zu entwickeln, die EU, die Mitgliedstaaten und sonstige wichtige bei der die Vereinbarkeit von Berufs- und Privat- Akteure bei ihren gemeinsamen Beratungen ein leben gewährleistet bleibt. Ziel derartiger Strategi- transparentes Mitbestimmungskonzept in den en sollte die Förderung einer Unternehmenskultur Entscheidungsfindungsprozess einbeziehen sein, bei der nicht erwartet wird, dass die Beschäf- sollten. Dies gilt für alle Regulierungsmaßnahmen tigten in ihrer Freizeit „auf Abruf“ bereitstehen. im IKT-Bereich. Dieser Aspekt sollte auch in die Programme zum Thema soziale Verantwortung von Unternehmen 5.7 Empfehlungen für den Handelsbereich und in die Arbeitsordnungen einfließen. 5.7.1 Handelsgeschäfte 5.6 Politische Mitbestimmung Die EGE unterstreicht die Notwendigkeit, die Rechte Der Einfluss, den die IKT auf die Politikgestaltung haben und die Interessen der EU-Bürger zu wahren. Sie be- können, gibt, was das Recht des Bürgers auf freie Infor- grüßt daher die von der Europäischen Kommission vor- mation, die Fähigkeit von Interessengruppen zur Wahr- geschlagene Strategie für die soziale Verantwortung nehmungsveränderung und die Möglichkeiten des der Unternehmen, welche vorsieht, dass die Unterneh- Staates zur Internetzensur angeht, Anlass zu Beden- men, um ihrer Verantwortung nachkommen zu kön- ken. Angesichts des großen, im ersten Teil dieser Stel- nen, auf ein Verfahren zurückgreifen können sollen, mit lungnahme beschriebenen Einflusses von IKT auf die dem soziale, ökologische, ethische, Menschenrechts- moderne Gesellschaft setzen die Regierungen in der und Verbraucherbelange in enger Zusammenarbeit ganzen Welt neue Mittel ein, um mit der Onlinewelt zu mit den „Stakeholdern“ in die Betriebsführung und in interagieren: Filter und Sperren, Registrierungspflicht, ihre Kernstrategie integriert werden (KOM(2011) 681 Überwachungsbefugnisse, Haftung von Intermediären endg.). Die EGE begrüßt zudem die von der EU und usw. Die Struktur der zur Wissensvermittlung und zur von internationalen Gremien ergriffenen Maßnahmen Kommunikation eingesetzten Instrumente wirft bei all zur Wahrung der Netzneutralität (siehe beispielsweise ihren Verwendungsformen Fragen bezüglich der Len- KOM(2011) 222 endg.), weist jedoch auf die Notwen- kung von Wissen und Informationen zum Zwecke der digkeit der in dieser Stellungnahme vorgeschlagenen Realitäts- und Meinungsbildung im digitalen Zeitalter Maßnahmen zum Thema Verantwortung (des Einzel- auf, darunter das Risiko einer möglichen Online-Ver- nen, von Unternehmen, der Gesellschaft und der Re- breitung von verzerrt dargestellten Informationen zu gierungen) hin. Daher sollte die Schaffung von geeig- neten Instrumenten (und deren Umsetzung) gefördert 85
- 89. 4 | RECOMMANDATIONS EMPFEHLUNGEN | TEIL C: Ethik der synthetischen Biologie werden, mit denen sich diese Ziele verwirklichen lassen Umsetzung ihrer Politik für ihre soziale Verantwor- – und zwar angefangen bei der sozialen Verantwor- tung auch dem Schutz der Privatsphäre Rechnung tung der Unternehmen (KOM(2011) 681 endg.) bis hin zu tragen und dabei auch auf technologische Lö- zu einem einschlägigen Verhaltenskodex (Maßnahmen sungen wie Datenschutz-Folgenabschätzungen, der Kommission für eine verantwortungsvolle Nutzung Technologien für einen besseren Schutz der Pri- des „Cloud computing“, „Internet der Dinge“, Empfeh- vatsphäre und einen „eingebauten Datenschutz“ lung für verantwortungsvolle Innovationen - 2012 zu setzen. usw.). Zu diesem Zweck empfiehlt die EGE folgende Maßnahmen: 5.8 Kreuzkorrelative Datenerschließung • Die EGE erkennt an, dass es ein ausgewogenes Die kreuzkorrelative Datenerschließung kann eine Verhältnis zwischen der Nutzung von IKT wichtige Rolle spielen, wenn aus einer Vielzahl von zu kommerziellen Zwecken und ihrer Ver- Quellen zusammengestellte Datenbanken gemeinsam wendung zu nicht kommerziellen Zwecken analysiert werden, um Informationen zu erschließen, zu schaffen gilt. Sie empfiehlt der Europäischen die in den einzelnen Datenbanken als solche nicht Kommission, 1.) ihre Datenschutzvorschriften zur enthalten sind. So liefert beispielsweise die Verknüp- Anwendung zu bringen und dafür Sorge zu tra- fung von über Kundenkarten zusammengetragenen gen, dass soziale Netzwerke verantwortungsvoll Einkaufsdaten mit Bankdaten und/oder mit Gesund- mit den ihnen von ihren Nutzern mitgeteilten Da- heitsdaten Aufschlüsse über die Gewohnheiten eines ten umgehen; 2.) die Nutzer darüber aufzuklären, Menschen, die ansonsten vielleicht nicht auf Anhieb dass es sich bei sozialen Netzwerken zumeist um erkennbar gewesen wären. Eine derartige Datenver- gewerbliche Unternehmen handelt, die die Daten knüpfung erfolgt oftmals unter Verwendung von Da- für kommerzielle Zwecke verwenden müssen, um ten von Bürgern, die einer solchen Verwendung nicht die von ihnen angebotenen Dienste erbringen zu ausdrücklich zugestimmt haben, und diese kann die können; 3.) alle verfügbaren Mittel für die Schaf- Erstellung des Profils von nicht aufgeklärten und sich fung eines (voraussichtlich auf den bestehenden dieser Möglichkeit gar nicht bewussten Personen er- Netzen aufbauenden) Raums der sozialen Netze möglichen, wobei das Risiko einer Stigmatisierung die- bereitzustellen, in dem es keine gewerbliche Nut- ser Personen und einer Verletzung ihrer Privatsphäre zung gibt und der allen Nutzern offensteht (wenn- bestehen kann. Daher empfiehlt die EGE folgende gleich sie unter Umständen für dieses Vorrecht Maßnahmen: bezahlen müssen). • Einzelpersonen sollten von Unternehmen, • Die EGE ist der Auffassung, dass Menschen, die ei- staatlichen Stellen und Forschungsgremien aus- nen Handelsvertrag abschließen möchten, in ein- drücklich darüber informiert werden, dass ihre deutiger, präziser und verständlicher Weise über Daten zu bestimmten Zwecken einer Datener- die Bestimmungen und Bedingungen eines solchen schießung unterzogen werden können. Auf die- Vertrags aufgeklärt werden sollten. se Weise wäre sichergestellt, dass jeder Einzelne eine „informierte“ Entscheidung darüber treffen 5.7.2 Soziale Verantwortung der Unternehmen kann, auf welche Dienste er zurückgreift. Immer wenn Datenbanken zueinander in Beziehung ge- Für den Schutz der Privatsphäre sind insbesondere setzt werden sollen, sollte zuvor die ausdrückliche die Grundsätze der im Oktober 2011 von der Euro- Einwilligung der betroffenen Personen eingeholt päischen Kommission angenommenen Strategie für werden. Daher sollten weitere Forschungsarbei- die soziale Verantwortung der Unternehmen maß- ten über die Auswirkungen der kreuzkorrela- geblich. Die Strategie zeigt auf, wie Unternehmen tiven Datenerschließung auf die Privatsphä- sich ihre soziale Verantwortung zunutze machen re durchgeführt werden, damit die potenziellen und gleichzeitig einen Beitrag zur Gesellschaft ins- Vorteile dieses Verfahrens der Gesellschaft zum gesamt leisten können, in dem sie sich nach Kräf- Nutzen gereichen können, gleichzeitig aber die ten bemühen, ihren sozialen Verantwortlichkeiten Menschenrechte gewahrt bleiben. Zudem emp- nachzukommen. fiehlt die EGE der EU, näher zu prüfen, ob bzw. unter welchen Bedingungen sensible Daten – u.a. • Die EGE begrüßt diese Initiative und empfiehlt der für die kreuzkorrelative Datenerschließung – ver- EU, die Unternehmen dazu zu ermutigen, bei der wendet werden können. 86
- 90. TEIL C: | EMPFEHLUNGEN RECOMMANDATIONS | 4 5.9 Umwelt und Rohstoffe • Die EGE empfiehlt der EU, die Unsicherheiten, die wegen der Rohstoffknappheit in Bezug auf das der- Das Verhältnis zwischen den IKT und der Umwelt ist zeitige IKT-System bestehen, näher zu analysieren. überaus komplex, denn die IKT können sich sowohl positiv als auch negativ auf die Umwelt auswirken. • Der Gruppe ist bekannt, dass bereits in mehreren So können die IKT äußerst positive Auswirkungen auf Berichten bemängelt wurde, dass bestimmte Mine- die Umwelt haben, wenn sie als Mittel zum Schutz der ralien, die von wesentlicher Bedeutung für die Her- Umwelt genutzt werden, sei es zur Überwachung von stellung von IKT-Hardware sind, unter menschen- Umweltaspekten, zur Steuerung von Systemen zum unwürdigen Bedingungen gefördert werden. Die Schutz der städtischen Umwelt, zur Weitervermitt- Gruppe fordert die EU daher auf, sich für bessere lung von Umweltkenntnissen, zur Verbreitung von Arbeitsbedingungen der in diesem Sektor tätigen Informationen an die Öffentlichkeit, zur Förderung ei- Personen einzusetzen, so dass die Menschenrechte ner aktiven Bürgerbeteiligung, zur Vereinfachung einer gewahrt werden. Diese Anforderung sollte auch in effizienten Ressourcenverwendung, zur Minderung des die von der EU finanzierten Entwicklungsprogram- Verbrauchs von Energie und wichtigen natürlichen Res- me aufgenommen werden. sourcen (Beispiel: Reduzierung des Papierverbrauchs durch elektronische und papierlose Kommunikation) 5.10 Abschließende Empfehlung oder für eine bessere Nutzung natürlicher Ressourcen. Als Beispiel für eine solche Transformation ist insbeson- Die EGE erkannt das Potenzial der Digitalen Agenda für dere die Nutzung von IKT zur Verbesserung landwirt- Europa an und unterstreicht die Notwendigkeit einer schaftlicher Praktiken, zur Überwachung der Luft- und verantwortungsvollen, integrativen und sozial nachhal- der Wasserverschmutzung, zur Katastrophenvorhersa- tigen Umsetzung dieser wichtigen Politik. Die Gruppe ge sowie zur Effizienzverbesserung in den Bereichen empfiehlt daher, die Maßnahmen der Digitalen Agenda Energie, Verkehr, Güter und Dienstleistungen zu nen- für Europa in Übereinstimmung mit den Grundwerten nen. Auch kann der Rückgriff auf elektronische Kom- der Europäischen Union zu fördern. Zudem betont sie munikationsmittel wie E-Mail oder Videokonferenzen die Notwendigkeit, im Rahmen der IKT-Programme von zu einem geringeren Verkehrsaufkommen beitragen. „Horizont 2020“ Bildungs- und Forschungsmaßnah- men in den Bereichen Ethik, Recht, Gesellschaft und Gleichzeitig gilt es an der Nachhaltigkeit dieser Tech- Umwelt zu finanzieren. nologien zu arbeiten, um nicht eingeplante Folgen wie einen höheren Energieverbrauch, die Entsorgung ge- brauchter Elektronikgeräte oder die Verschwendung von Rohstoffen wie seltenen Erden zu vermeiden. Zahlreiche Elektronikgeräte erfordern in der Herstel- lung einen extensiven Rückgriff auf seltene chemische Elemente wie Tantal, Lanthan oder Dysprosium, und moderne Batterien und Akkus bestehen großenteils aus Lithium. In den Ländern, die Mineralien, welche diese Elemente enthalten, fördern, führt die Nachfra- ge nach diesen Metallen zu sozialen und ökologischen Problemen. Außerdem werden bestimmte Elemente überhaupt nur in einigen wenigen Ländern gefördert. Wer IKT nutzen möchte, ist mithin auf Energie und auf bestimmte Rohstoffe angewiesen, und den damit ver- bundenen Unsicherheiten gilt es Rechnung zu tragen. • Die EGE empfiehlt, die Auswirkungen von IKT auf die Umwelt (Energieverbrauch, Abfallproduktion und Rohstoffeinsatz) zu quantifizieren, anzuerken- nen, zu analysieren und zu kommunizieren und die Ausbeutung natürlicher Ressourcen auf ein Mini- mum zu beschränken. 87
- 91. EGE Secretariat Address: European Commission Berl 8/362 1049 Brussels Fax +32 22994565 E-mail: [email protected] Internet: http://ec.europa.eu/european_group_ethics/index_en.htm Maurizio Salvi MBA, MBS, PhD, D. Biotech. European Commission Head BEPA Ethics sector Head of the EGE Secretariat General Secretary EC IBD Berl 8/359 — 1049 -Brussels E-mail: [email protected] Kim Hoang Le European Commission EGE Secretariat Berl 8/362 — 1049 Brussels Tel. +32 22999228 E-mail: [email protected] Adriana-Sorina OLTEAN European Commission EGE Secretariat Berl 8/362 — 1049 Brussels Tel. +32 22993016 E-mail: [email protected]
- 92. Opinion No. 26 Ethics of Information and Communication Technologies Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union 2012 — 87 pp. — 21 x 29.7 cm ISBN 978-92-79-22734-9 doi:10.2796/13541
- 96. HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS Free publications: • via EU Bookshop (http://bookshop.europa.eu); • a t the European Union’s representations or delegations. You can obtain their contact details on the Internet (http://ec.europa.eu) or by sending a fax to +352 2929-42758. Priced publications: • via EU Bookshop (http://bookshop.europa.eu). Priced subscriptions (e.g. annual series of the Official Journal of the European Union and reports of cases before the Court of Justice of the European Union): • v ia one of the sales agents of the Publications Office of the European Union (http://publications.europa.eu/others/agents/index_en.htm).
- 97. NJ-AJ-12-026-EN-C Ethics of Information and Communication Technologies Opinion No. 26 Ethics of Information and Communication Technologies Brussels, 22 February 2012 doi:10.2796/13541