Object oriented modeling
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Object oriented modeling,Object-Oriented Database (OODB), Object-Oriented Database (OODB) FEATURES TO BE CONSIDERED, DATA MODELS TO BE CONSIDERED: object and object identifier, attributes and methods, class, Class hierarchy and inheritance
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Combinational circuit.pptx
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number system.pptx
number system.pptxPooja Dixit The document discusses different number systems used in digital electronics, including binary, decimal, octal, and hexadecimal. It provides examples and explanations of how to convert between these number systems. In particular, it outlines the process for converting binary numbers to decimal numbers by multiplying each bit by its place value weight and summing the results. This includes approaches for fractional binary numbers and mixed binary numbers containing both integer and fractional parts.
Multiplexer.pptx
Multiplexer.pptxPooja Dixit This document discusses different types of multiplexers, including 2x1, 4x1, and 8x1 multiplexers. It provides the block diagram and truth table for each type of multiplexer. A 2x1 multiplexer has 2 inputs, 1 selection line, and 1 output. A 4x1 multiplexer has 4 inputs, 2 selection lines, and 1 output. An 8x1 multiplexer has 8 inputs, 3 selection lines, and 1 output. The logical expressions and circuits for each type of multiplexer are also provided.
Logic Gates.pptx
Logic Gates.pptxPooja Dixit Logic gates are basic building blocks of digital circuits and systems. Common logic gates include AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, and XNOR gates. AND gates output 1 only if all inputs are 1, while OR gates output 1 if any input is 1. NOT gates output the inverse of the single input. NAND and NOR gates are combinations of AND/OR with NOT gates. XOR and XNOR gates output 1 only if inputs are both the same or different respectively.
K-Map.pptx
K-Map.pptxPooja Dixit The document discusses Karnaugh maps, which are a graphical technique for simplifying boolean functions. A K-map is a diagram with squares that each represent minterms or maxterms. Variables are represented along rows and columns. Groups of 1s can be combined according to grouping rules to simplify boolean expressions. The example shows a 2-variable K-map used to minimize the boolean expression XY' + X'Y + X'Y' to X' + Y'. K-maps allow boolean functions to be reduced more easily than boolean algebra.
Karnaugh Map Simplification Rules.pptx
Karnaugh Map Simplification Rules.pptxPooja Dixit The document discusses rules for minimizing Boolean functions using K-maps. It explains that K-maps are used to graphically represent Boolean functions according to the number of variables. Values are filled in the K-map and grouped based on several rules: groups must contain only 0s or 1s but not both; groups can overlap; groups must contain a power of 2 cells and be horizontal or vertical only; groups should be as large as possible with fewest groups overall. Examples are provided to illustrate opposite and corner grouping.
Half Subtractor.pptx
Half Subtractor.pptxPooja Dixit The half subtractor is a digital circuit that subtracts two single bit binary numbers and outputs the difference and borrow. It contains two inputs, A and B, and two outputs, Diff and Borrow. The Diff output is the difference of A and B, calculated as A XOR B. The Borrow output is 1 only when A is 1 and B is 0, calculated as A'B. The full subtractor expands on this to subtract three 1-bit numbers by adding a third input, Borrowin, and producing Diff and Borrow outputs based on all input combinations.
Gray Code.pptx
Gray Code.pptxPooja Dixit The document discusses Gray code, which is a binary numbering system where two successive numbers differ in only one bit. This reduces switching errors during transitions between numbers. Gray code is used in digital communications and applications where normal binary could produce errors. The document provides examples to show how decimal numbers convert to binary and Gray code. In binary, more bits may change between numbers, while Gray code ensures only one bit changes.
Flip Flop.pptx
Flip Flop.pptxPooja Dixit The document provides information about Prof. Neeraj Bhargava and Mrs. Pooja Dixit who work in the Department of Computer Science in the School of Engineering & System Sciences at MDS University in Ajmer, Rajasthan.
Encoder.pptx
Encoder.pptxPooja Dixit This document discusses encoders and provides examples of 4-to-2 and 8-to-3 line encoders. It defines an encoder as a combinational circuit that performs the reverse operation of a decoder, with a maximum of 2n input lines and n output lines. Truth tables and logic circuits are given for 4-to-2 and 8-to-3 line encoders. Uses of encoders include converting decimal to binary numbers to perform binary operations like addition and subtraction in digital systems.
De-multiplexer.pptx
De-multiplexer.pptxPooja Dixit This document discusses demultiplexers, which are combinational circuits with one input and multiple outputs. It describes 1x2 and 1x4 demultiplexers specifically. For a 1x2 demultiplexer, there are two outputs, one selection line, and a single input. The input is directed to one of the two outputs based on the selection line value. A 1x4 demultiplexer has four outputs, two selection lines, and one input. The input is directed to one of the four outputs based on the combination of values on the two selection lines. Block diagrams and truth tables are provided to illustrate the functionality of 1x2 and 1x4 demultiplexers.
DeMorgan’s Theory.pptx
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Combinational circuit.pptx
Combinational circuit.pptxPooja Dixit This document discusses combinational circuits and provides examples of half adders and full adders. It defines combinational circuits as those whose outputs only depend on the current inputs. A half adder is described as having two inputs (A and B) and two outputs (sum and carry), which can add two single bits. Its truth table and logic diagram using an XOR gate and AND gate are shown. A full adder handles three inputs (A, B, Cin) to add two bits along with a carry bit, with outputs of sum and carry out. Its block diagram and truth table are presented.
Boolean Algebra.pptx
Boolean Algebra.pptxPooja Dixit The document discusses Boolean algebra, which uses binary numbers (0 and 1) to analyze and simplify digital logic circuits. It was invented by George Boole in 1854. The document outlines several important rules of Boolean algebra, including commutative, associative, distributive, identity, idempotent, complement, and double negation laws. It also discusses de Morgan's theorem and finding the dual of Boolean expressions.
Binary Multiplication & Division.pptx
Binary Multiplication & Division.pptxPooja Dixit Binary multiplication and division work similarly to decimal operations but use only 0s and 1s. For binary multiplication, there are four basic rules and the process involves multiplying each bit of one number by the other number and summing the results. Examples show multiplying 1010 x 101 to get 10100 and comparing the binary result to its decimal equivalent. Binary division uses long division to divide strings of binary digits. Examples demonstrate dividing several binary numbers by powers of two.
Binary addition.pptx
Binary addition.pptxPooja Dixit Binary arithmetic is essential for digital computers and systems. It includes four rules for binary addition and subtraction. Binary addition examples show that adding two 1s results in a 1 in the next column with a carry of 1. Binary subtraction uses borrowing to subtract binary numbers, as shown through several examples.
Basics of Computer Organization.pptx
Basics of Computer Organization.pptxPooja Dixit This document provides an overview of computer organization. It defines computer organization as how the various parts of a computer are organized and work together. It describes the main components of a computer like the CPU, memory (RAM and cache), and buses. It also discusses number systems like binary, decimal, octal, and hexadecimal. Additional topics covered include Gray codes, Boolean algebra, logic gates, and flip flops.
Decoders
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Three Address code 
Three Address code Pooja Dixit The document discusses three address code, which is an intermediate code used by optimizing compilers. Three address code breaks expressions down into separate instructions that use at most three operands. Each instruction performs an assignment or binary operation on the operands. The code is implemented using quadruple, triple, or indirect triple representations. Quadruple representation stores each instruction in four fields for the operator, two operands, and result. Triple avoids temporaries by making two instructions. Indirect triple uses pointers to freely reorder subexpressions.
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Cyrus beck line clipping algorithmPooja Dixit The Cyrus-Beck algorithm is used for line clipping against non-rectangular convex polygons. It uses a parametric equation to find the intersection point of the line with the polygon boundary. The algorithm calculates the time values for the line endpoints at each polygon edge, then uses those times in the parametric equation to find the clipped line segment P'0 and P'1 that is visible within the polygon clipping window.
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All the materials around us are made up of elements. These elements can be broadly divided into two major groups:
Metals
Non-Metals
Each group has its own unique physical and chemical properties. Let's understand them one by one.
Physical Properties
1. Appearance
Metals: Shiny (lustrous). Example: gold, silver, copper.
Non-metals: Dull appearance (except iodine, which is shiny).
2. Hardness
Metals: Generally hard. Example: iron.
Non-metals: Usually soft (except diamond, a form of carbon, which is very hard).
3. State
Metals: Mostly solids at room temperature (except mercury, which is a liquid).
Non-metals: Can be solids, liquids, or gases. Example: oxygen (gas), bromine (liquid), sulphur (solid).
4. Malleability
Metals: Can be hammered into thin sheets (malleable).
Non-metals: Not malleable. They break when hammered (brittle).
5. Ductility
Metals: Can be drawn into wires (ductile).
Non-metals: Not ductile.
6. Conductivity
Metals: Good conductors of heat and electricity.
Non-metals: Poor conductors (except graphite, which is a good conductor).
7. Sonorous Nature
Metals: Produce a ringing sound when struck.
Non-metals: Do not produce sound.
Chemical Properties
1. Reaction with Oxygen
Metals react with oxygen to form metal oxides.
These metal oxides are usually basic.
Non-metals react with oxygen to form non-metallic oxides.
These oxides are usually acidic.
2. Reaction with Water
Metals:
Some react vigorously (e.g., sodium).
Some react slowly (e.g., iron).
Some do not react at all (e.g., gold, silver).
Non-metals: Generally do not react with water.
3. Reaction with Acids
Metals react with acids to produce salt and hydrogen gas.
Non-metals: Do not react with acids.
4. Reaction with Bases
Some non-metals react with bases to form salts, but this is rare.
Metals generally do not react with bases directly (except amphoteric metals like aluminum and zinc).
Displacement Reaction
More reactive metals can displace less reactive metals from their salt solutions.
Uses of Metals
Iron: Making machines, tools, and buildings.
Aluminum: Used in aircraft, utensils.
Copper: Electrical wires.
Gold and Silver: Jewelry.
Zinc: Coating iron to prevent rusting (galvanization).
Uses of Non-Metals
Oxygen: Breathing.
Nitrogen: Fertilizers.
Chlorine: Water purification.
Carbon: Fuel (coal), steel-making (coke).
Iodine: Medicines.
Alloys
An alloy is a mixture of metals or a metal with a non-metal.
Alloys have improved properties like strength, resistance to rusting.
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Object oriented modeling
- 1. Prof. Neeraj Bhargava Pooja Dixit Department of Computer Science School of Engineering & System Science MDS, University Ajmer, Rajasthan, India 1
- 2. An object database is a database management system in which information is represented in the form of objects as used in object-oriented programming. Object databases are different from relational databases which are table-oriented. Object- relational databases are a hybrid of both approaches. OODBMSs allow object-oriented programmers to develop the product, store them as objects, and replicate or modify existing objects to make new objects within the OODBMS. Because the database is integrated with the programming language, the programmer can maintain consistency within one environment, in that both the OODBMS and the programming language will use the same model of representation. Object-oriented modeling (OOM) is the construction of objects using a collection of objects that contain stored values of the instance variables found within an object. Unlike models that are record-oriented, object-oriented values are solely objects. 2
- 3. An object-oriented database is a database that subscribes to a model with information represented by objects. Object-oriented databases are a niche offering in the relational database management system (RDBMS) field and are not as successful or well- known as mainstream database engines. As the name implies, the main feature of object-oriented databases is allowing the definition of objects, which are different from normal database objects. Objects, in an object-oriented database, reference the ability to develop a product, then define and name it. The object can then be referenced, or called later, as a unit without having to go into its complexities. This is very similar to objects used in object- oriented programming. A real-life parallel to objects is a car engine. It is composed of several parts: the main cylinder block, the exhaust system, intake manifold and so on. Each of these is a standalone component; but when machined and bolted into one object, they are now collectively referred to as an engine. Similarly, when programming one can define several components, such as a vertical line intersecting a perpendicular horizontal line while both lines have a graded measurement. This object can then be collectively labeled a graph. 3
- 4. OODB = Object Orientation + Database Capabilities FEATURES TO BE CONSIDERED: Persistence support of transactions simple querying of bulk data concurrency control resilience and recovery Security Versioning integrity performance issues • DATA MODELS TO BE CONSIDERED: Complex object model Semantic data model such as Extended ER (EER) model OPM model 4
- 5. The Object-Oriented Data Model A data model is a logic organization of the real world objects (entities), constraints on them, and the relationships among objects. A DB language is a concrete syntax for a data model. A DB system implements a data model. A core object-oriented data model consists of the following basic object-oriented concepts: (1) object and object identifier: Any real world entity is uniformly modeled as an object (associated with a unique id: used to pinpoint an object to retrieve). (2) attributes and methods: every object has a state (the set of values for the attributes of the object) and a behavior (the set of methods - program code - which operate on the state of the object). The state and behavior encapsulated in an object are accessed or invoked from outside the object only through explicit message passing. (3) class: a means of grouping all the objects which share the same set of attributes and methods. An object must belong to only one class as an instance of that class (instance-of relationship). A class is similar to an abstract data type. A class may also be primitive (no attributes), e.g., integer, string, Boolean. (4) Class hierarchy and inheritance: derive a new class (subclass) from an existing class (superclass). The subclass inherits all the attributes and methods of the existing class and may have additional attributes and methods. single inheritance (class hierarchy) vs. multiple inheritance (class lattice). 5