10. medicinal plants history bY Alla

 Many Islamic physicians made outstanding
discoveries in all aspects of medicine during
the Islamic Golden Age, building upon the
knowledge of Galen and the Greek and
adding their own discoveries. The most
notable Islamic scholar in the history of
medicine was al-Razi.

 Central to Islamic medicine was belief in the
Qur'an and Hadiths, which stated that
Muslims had a duty to care for the sick and
this was often referred to as "Medicine of the
Prophet." According to the sayings of the
Prophet Muhammed, he believed that Allah
had sent a cure for every ailment and that it
was the duty of Muslims to take care of the
body and spirit. This certainly falls under the
remit of improving the quality of healthcare
and ensuring that there is access for all, with
many of the Hadiths laying down guidelines
for a holistic approach to health.

 Prophet Muhammad himself urged people to
"take medicines for your diseases", as people
at that time were reluctant to do so. He also
said,
 "God created no illness, except that He has
established for it a cure, except for old age.
When the antidote is applied, the patient
will recover with the permission of God."

 Abu Ali al-Hasan (965-1020 A.D.) known as Alhazen in the west is
recognised as the greatest authority on optics the world has ever
produced. He was born at Basra and later joined the service of a
Fatimid Caliph of Egypt, where he was assigned to discover the
method of regulating the inundation of the river Nile. He could
not achieve this objective, hence he had to remain underground
till the death of the Caliph. He has made valuable contributions
to the development of physics and medicine, but his outstanding
achievement is in the realm of optics. He has corrected the
theories of Euclid and Ptolemy on the subject. His Opticae
Thesaurus influenced such great writers on optics as Roger Bacon,
Leonard da Vinci, John Kepler and all mediaeval western writers,
who base their works on the research of Alhazen. The two
greatest luminaries of the Islamic world Ibn Sina and Al-Beruni
shared and fully endorsed Alhazen's opinion that, 'It is not the ray
that leaves the eye and meets the object that gives rise to
vision. Rather the form of the perceived object passes into the
eye and is transmitted by its transparent body.

 Al-Zahrawi lived during most powerful period of
the Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba. He was born
in 936 and died in 1013, and served the Umayyad
Caliph al-Hakam II and the military ruler, al-
Mansur. Throughout his life, al-Zahrawi was a
court physician, having been patronized by the
rulers of al-Andalus and recognized for his
medical genius. He served in such a capacity as a
doctor for over 50 years. "Every branch of
science was seriously studied there, and
medicine received more and greater additions by
the discoveries of the doctors and surgeons of
Andalusia than it had gained during all the
centuries that had elapsed since the days of
Galen."

 He was a native of Ahwaz, Persia. He received his
medical education at the worldfamous medical school
of Jundishapur. He was a court physician of Buwide
ruler AduduDawla (d983), who founded the Adudi
Hospital in Baghdad. His Latinized was HalyAbbas in
the west as Haly Abbas, who died in 994 A. D., was
the author of a celebrated work Kitab-al-Maliki
known as Liber Regius in Latin, an excellent and
compact encyclopaedia dealing with both the theory
and practice of medical science. It is less voluminous
than Al-Razi's Hawi and it remained a standard book
until it was superseded by the Canon the masterpiece
of the great Avicenna. Perhaps Majusi was the first
physician to write about the capillary system and to
describe accurately the way in which a child is born.

1. Al Razi = (850-923)
2. Yuanna ibn Masawyh = (777-857)
3. Hunayan ibn Nishaq (808-873)
4. Al Tabari = ( 810-855)
5. Alhakim ( ---- 840)
6. Ibn Sina = (
7. Ibn Al Nafis = (1213-

 known as Averroes in the west who died in
1198 in Morocco is the greatest Aristotelian
philosopher, He is the author of 16 medical
works of which one Kulliyat Fil Tib dealing
with general rules of medicine was
translated into Latin as Colliget. It was
printed several times in Europe. Averroes is
one of the most outstanding literary figures
that Islamic Spain has produced and he was
instrumental in clearing away the darkness of
illiteracy that had enveloped Europe.

 Also known as Geber. The father of Arab
chemistry known for his highly influential
works on alchemy and metallurgy.


Al Razi, whose full name is Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya Al-Razi, is also known by Rhazes especially to
the western world. He is Persian, born in the year 841, in a small town in Iran called Rayy. He lived to the
age of 60 years old and died in 925 AD.
known to the Europeans as Rhazes (may be spelt Rhases, Rasis, Rasi or ar-Razi) (865-923), was at the
forefront of Islamic research into medicine. A prolific writer, he produced over 200 books about medicine
and philosophy, including an unfinished book of medicine that gathered most of the medical knowledge
known to the Islamic world in one place. This book was translated into Latin and it became one of the
backbones of the western history of medicine.
 Al Razi wrote extensively about human physiology and understood how the brain and nervous system
operated muscles, and only the Islamic distaste for dissection prevented him from refining his studies in
this area.
 Al Razi one of the greatest thinkers, doctors and writers of all time.

 lso known as Alfarabius, the first-known philosopher
in the Islamic world to uphold the primacy of
philosophical truth over revelation, claiming that,
contrary to the beliefs of various other religions,
philosophical truths are the same throughout the
world. He was born
in Farab, Transoxiana (now Uzbekistan), of Turkish
parentage. He studied first inKhorasan (in Iran) and
then in Baghdad, where his teachers
were Syriac Christians well acquainted with Greek
philosophy. He eventually came to the court
of Sayf al-Dawla, the ruler of Aleppo inSyria. Al-
Farabi was one of the earliest Islamic thinkers to
transmit to the Arab world the doctrines of Plato and
Aristotle (which he considered essentially identical),
thereby greatly influencing such later Islamic
philosophers as

 Yuhanna Ibn Masawyh (777 - 857) was
regarded as amongst the great translators of
work from Greek into Arabic, but he also
acted as a physician to the Caliphs and
served at a hospital. He is believed to have
written the works 'Disorders of the Eye' and
'Knowledge of the Oculist Examinations' as
well as Kita al Mushajjar al-Kabir, a short
work including descriptions, diagnosis,
symptoms and treatments of diseases.

 Hunayan ibn Nishaq (808-873), known as
Johannitus in the West, was one of the titans
of Islamic medicine and was a prominent
author of medical texts, covering a variety of
disciplines. As well as extensive translation
work, he wrote a book called 'The Book of
Introduction to Medicine,' which drew heavily
upon Galen but also included many unique
and novel additions. His work was probably
the first Islamic medical text translated into
Latin.

 701 (died) - Khalid Ibn Yazeed - Alchemy
 721 - Jabir Ibn Haiyan (Geber) - (Great Muslim Alchemist)
 740 – Al-Asmai - (Zoology, Botany, Animal Husbandry)
 800 - Ibn Ishaq Al-Kindi - (Alkindus) - (Philosophy, Physics, Optics)
 808 - Hunain Ibn Is’haq - Medicine, Translator
 838 - Ali Ibn Rabban Al-Tabari - (Medicine, Mathematics)
 857 – Ibn MasawaihYou’hanna – Medicine ,
 884 - Al-Razi (Rhazes) - (Medicine,Ophthalmology, Chemistry)
 912 (died) - Al-Tamimi Muhammad Ibn Amyal (Attmimi) – Alchemy
 930 - Ibn Miskawayh, Ahmed Abuali - Medicine, Alchemy
 932 - Ahmed Al-Tabari – Medicine
 936 - Abu Al-Qasim Al-Zahravi (Albucasis) - (Surgery, Medicine
 950 – Al Majrett’ti Abu-alQasim – Astronomy, Alchemy, Mathematics
 976 - Ibn Abil Ashath - Medicine


 980 - Ibn Sina (Avicenna)
 1060 - (died) Ali Ibn Ridwan Abu’Hassan Ali - Medicine,
Philosophy, Mathematics)
 1077 - Ibn Abi-Sadia Abul Qasim - Medicine
 1090 - Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) - Surgery, Medicine
 1097 - Ibn Al-Baitar Diauddin (Bitar) - Botany, Medicine,
Pharmacology 1091 - Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) - ( Surgery,
Medicine)
 1095 - Ibn Ba
 1100 - Ibn Tufayl Al-Qaysi - Philosophy, Medicine jah,
Mohammad Ibn Yahya (Avenpace) - Philosophy, Medicine
 1128 - Ibn Rushd (Averroe’s) - Philosophy, Medicine
 1135 - Ibn Maymun, Musa (Maimonides) - Medicine,
Philosphy

 1162 - Al Baghdadi, Abdellateef Muwaffaq - Medicine,
Geography
 1203 - Ibn Abi-Usaibi’ah, Muwaffaq Al-Din – Medicine
 1248 (died) - Ibn Al-Baitar - ( Pharmacy, Botany)
 1258 – Ibn Al-Banna (Al Murrakishi), Azdi - Medicine,
Mathematics
 1341 (died) - Al-Jildaki, Muhammad Ibn Aidamer – Alchemy
 History of Islamic Science Based on the book Introduction
to the History of Scienceby George Sarton (provided with
photos and portraits) Edited and prepared by Prof. Hamed
A. Ead 1 (died) - Al-Jildaki, Muhammad Ibn Aidamer -
Alchemy

 AMMAR Latin name: Canamusali. Abu-l-Qasim
Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili. From Mawsil in Iraq;
flourished in Egypt in the reign of al-Hakim, who
ruled from 996-1020. Physician. The most
original of Muslim oculists, His work was eclipsed
by that of his contemporary Ali ibn Isa, which
was more comprehensive. His summary on the
treatment of the eye (Kitab al-muntakhab fi ilaz
al-ain) contains many clear descriptions of
diseases and treatments, arranged in logical
order. The surgical part is especially important.

 ALI IBN RIDWAN Abu-l-Hasan Ali ibn Radwan ibn
Ali ibn Ja’far al-Misri. Born in Jiza near Cairo, c.
998. Flourished in Cairo and died there in 1061
or in 1067. Astrologer. physician. The author of
many medical writings of which the most popular
was his commentary on Galen’a Ars prava, which
was translated by Gerardo Cremonese. I may still
quote his treatise on hygiene with special
reference to Egypt (fi daf mudar alabdan bi-ard
Misr). He wrote various other commentaries on
Hippoctates and Galen and on Ptolemy’s
astrological books.

 IBN AL-TAIYIB Abu-l-Faraj Abdallah Ibn al-Taiyib
al-Iraqi. Latin name : Abulpharagius Abdalla
Benattibus. Died in 48 1043-44. Nestorian
physician. Secertary to Elias I, Nestorian
Catholics from 1028 to 1049. Physician at the
Adudite hospital in Bagdad. He had many
commentaries on Greek medicine, and original
memories on various medical topics, also a
translation of the pseudo-Aristotelian De plantis,
with additional excerpts from ancient literature.
From Arabic translation of the Diatessaron
ascribed to him

 Al Tabari, (810 - 855) wrote a book known as 'The Paradise of Wisdom,' in 850, which was based
largely upon the earlier works of Galen and Hippocrates, but it also included an appendix with
translations from Indian sources. Like many physicians of the time, his work involved providing
better and more detailed encyclopedias, containing the medical knowledge available at that time.
Sadly, it is believed that most of his works are lost and are only referred to as quoted in later
texts.
 Al Tabari's work was made up of nine discourses, each divided into many chapters. These were:
 General pathology, symptoms of internal disorders and general therapeutic principles
 Diseases and conditions affecting the head
 Diseases of the eyes, nose, face and mouth
 Nervous diseases
 Diseases of the chest and throat
 Diseases of the stomach
 Diseases of the liver
 Diseases of the heart and lungs
 Diseases of the intestines, urinary tract and genitals

 Jamal al-Din Muhammad ibn Muhammad
Aqsara'i(died 1379), also writtenal-Aqsara'i, was a
14th-century Persian or Turkish physician. Al-Aqsara'i
studied medicine with his father, under whose
tutelage he first read the Mujiz. Thereafter he
studied The Canon of Medicine itself, as well as
the Hawi by Razi and the Complete Book on
Medicine by al-Majusi, as well as the medical writings
of Najib al-Din al-Samarqandi. He employed these
other treatises in his commentary on the Mujiz, and
he titled his commentary "The Key to the Mujiz" (Hall
al-Mujiz). He died in 1379.

 Al Hakm (Died 840) wrote the earliest known
book in the medical sciences in the Islamic
world and it drew heavily upon Greek
sources, including information about
physiology, surgery and general healthcare,
amongst other sections.

 Abu Ali Husain Ibn Sena was born in Afshana near Bokhara in central Asia Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn
Sīnā (c. 980 -1037), often referred to as Ibn Sina or Avicenna (Latinized name) was a Persian polymath (one with
numerous skills and professions) who was a prolific writer. Of 450 books and articles written by him, 240 still
exist today, of which 40 focus on medicine. Avicenna was born c. 980 in Afšana, a village near Bukhara (in
present-day Uzbekistan).
 The Islamic scholar Ibn Sina, Avicenna, was a true polymath who excelled in many academic fields, including
philosophy, theology, Islamic medicine and natural sciences. From a young age, he gained renown as a physician
and teacher, writing many detailed treatises about medicine
 One of Ibn Sina’s most famous writings was the book ‘The Canon of Medicine’ or Qanun fi al Tibb. The Canon is
a medical Encyclopedia of more than a million words. The Canon summarizes the existing medical knowledge
and adds new discoveries too. It is divided into many sections and topics and discusses general medicine, it talks
about hundreds of drugs and medicinal plants, it talks about the different organs of the body in detail, diseases
and the spread of them.
 Ibn-Sina believed that many diagnoses could be made by simply checking the pulse and the urine, and a large
part of the Canon is given over to making diagnoses from the color, turbidity, and odor of urine. Of course, this
also needed to be set alongside the Islamic holistic approach of looking at diet and background.

 IBN ISHAQ AL-KINDI (801 – 873) another of the great Islamic
polymaths, further contributed to the history of medicine. This
scholar was heavily influenced by the work of Galen, and also
made unique contributions of his own to the field. In his
Aqrabadhin (Medical Formulary), he described many preparations
drawn from plant, animal and mineral sources.
 To the drugs known to physicians such as Hippocrates and Galen,
he added knowledge drawn from India, Persia and Egypt. Like
many Islamic works, the books contained information based upon
medicinal herbs, aromatic compounds, such as musk, and
inorganic medicines. It could, quite legitimately, be argued that
the Islamic contribution to the history of medicine saw the first
divide between medicine and pharmacology as separate sciences.

 (Persian: ‫قمری‬ ‫نوح‬ ‫بن‬ ‫حسن‬ ‫منصور‬ ‫ابو‬ )was a Persian physician of the 10th
century who lived in Khorasan. Qumri was the teacher ofAvicenna. He
was court physician to the Samanid prince al-Mansur, to whom he
dedicated the only treatise by him that is preserved: the Kitab al-Ghina
wa-al-Muna (The Book of Wealth and Wishes), which was also known
as al-Shamsiyah al-mansuriyah (The Mansurian Sunshade) after its
dedicatee. Little else in known of his life except that he died shortly
after 990.

 Arab scientist, botanist and physician who
systematically recorded the discoveries made
by Islamic physicians in the Middle Ages

 He was born in Seville, Spain where he built up
his reputation early on as anoutstanding
physician. His family produced six generations of
doctors, as was his sonAbu Bekr Ibn Zuhr. He
believed in the practice of medicine, as much as
bedsideobservation. He attended the poor free
of charge, but took high fee from the rich.
Heaccumulated much wealth through his
practice. He was court physician of Moahhed
rulerof Seville Abdul Momin (d1163) to whom he
dedicated his book on diets

 (d1136)He was the first person who used Persian in his scientific writings. His
bestknown work is gigantic
 Zakhira Khawarazamshahi
 (Treasury of King of Khawarism)which was acclaimed as the best textbook on
science and medicine.He also wrote
 Aghraz al-Tibb
 (Aim of the Medicine),
 Yadigari Tibb
 (MedicalMemoranda)and the
 Khuffe Alai
 (Book of Exaltation). He popularized Arabic medical terminology, phrases, and
terms which remained in Persian language. His descriptions of disease aretrue
account of his personal observations. For instance in describing goiter and swellingof
the throat he was the first to connect an exophthalmos with such swellings, a sign
re-discovered by Parry in 1825. None of his works were translated into any of the
Europeanlanguages

 He was born at the newly developed
metropolis of Islamic Spain, Madinat az-
Zahra, located 8 km from Cordoba. He was a
practicing physician, a surgeon, and
a pharmacist. Caliph Abdur Rahman III (912-
961) appointed him court physician.

 Ibn Tilmidh (468-560/1076-1165) known as Amin al-
Dawlah. He was one of the important Arab physician, who
traveled throughout Persia but later returned to settle in
Baghdad where, he was appointed as head of physicians of
Baghdad. In his capacity as head of Baghdad physicians, he
was asked to teach healing art to many students from far
and near who after graduation led prominent and
successful professional life in their own countries. As
reported by many historians, Ibn al-Tilmidh made use of
the works of the Greek physicians and also the works of Ibn
Sina as the main sources of his teaching. Therefore, we are
not surprise to find out his works consisted of ideas of
Greek physicians notably Hippocratic corpus and Galen and
those of Hunayn, Ibn Sina, al-Razi, etc.

 He was born in a small town Kersh, near Damascus, educated at
the college-hospital founded by Sultan Nurudin Zangi. He learnt
Islamic jurisprudence, literatureand, theology besides medicine.
When he moved to Cairo he was appointed director ofthe famous
Nasri hospital. He trained a large number of medical students,
including Ibnal-Quff, the famous surgeon. He was an authority on
religious law and a prolific writer ofmedical tracts. He
specialized in eye diseases. He was the first director of
recentlyconstructed Mansuriyya hospital in Cairo, to which
he bequeathed his house, library, andclinic. He was given the
title of Chief of Physicians
 .


 (reigned 537-555/1143-1160). In medicine,
he wrote several treatises included two
works on theriaca (al-Tiryaq al-Sab`ini) and
on diet (al-Aghdhiyyah). During the later
period of his life, he became acquaintance
with Ibn Rushd, to whom he dedicated his al-
Taysir fi Mudawat al-Tadbir.

 Ibn al-Haytham (Al-hazen in Latin) (965-c.
1040), an Iraqi Muslim scientist, explained
scientifically that the eye is an optical
instrument. He described the anatomy of the
eye in great detail and later formed theories
on image formation. Al-haytham's Book of
Optics became widely read throughout
Europe until the 17th century.

 Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi (1162-1231), a famous Iraqi physician,
historian, Egyptologist and traveler, said that Galen was wrong to
say that the lower jaw consists of two parts. On observing the
remains of humans who had starved to death in Egypt, he
concluded that the lower jaw (mandible) consists of just one
bone. In his work, "Book of Instruction and Admonition on the
Things Seen end Events Recorded in the Land of Egypt", he wrote:
"What I saw of this part of the corpses convinced me that the
bone of the lower jaw is all one, with no joint nor suture. I have
repeated the observation a great number of times, in over two
thousand heads...I have been assisted by various different
people, who have repeated the same examination, both in my
absence and under my eyes.."

 Ibn al-Haytham (Al-hazen in Latin) (965-c. 1040), an
Iraqi Muslim scientist, explained scientifically that
the eye is an optical instrument. He described the
anatomy of the eye in great detail and later formed
theories on image formation. Al-haytham's Book of
Optics became widely read throughout Europe until
the 17th century.
Ahmad ibn Abi al-Ash'ath, an Iraqi doctor, described
how a full stomach dilates and then contracts after
experimenting on live lions. al-Ash'ath preceded
William Beaumont by nearly 900 years in carrying out
experiments in gastric physiology.


known as Algazel to the western medieval world, was born
and died in Tus, in the Khorasan province of Persia (modern
day Iran). He was a Muslim theologian, jurist, philosopher,
physician, psychologist and mystic of Persian origin], and
remains one of the most celebrated scholars in the history
of Sufi Islamic thought. He is considered a pioneer of the
methods of doubt and skepticism, and in one of his major
works, The Incoherence of the Philosophers, he changed
the course of early Islamic philosophy, shifting it away
from the influence of ancient Greek and Hellenistic
philosophy, and towards cause-and-effect that were
determined by God or intermediate angels.

 , the Moorish physician who died in 1369 A.D. is
the author of excellent book on the plague. A
severe plague which ravaged Alemaria in Spain in
1348-49 A.D. caused the celebrated physician to
write a treatise on the plague which was
superior to all earlier works on the subject. This
book was edited and translated in Europe in the
15th century A.D. and revealed the contagious
character of the plague and its remedies which
were not known to Greek physicians.

 Aminu Dawla Ibn al-Quff 22 nd August 1233 - 1286
at DamascusHe was a master of many disciplines like
medicine, physiology, natural science,and philosophy.
He learnt medicine from Ibn Abi Usayba (1203-1270)
who was muchimpressed with his aptitude for
medicine. In his youth he read number of biographies
andspent great deal of time in meditation.His
teacher asked him to study Masai l of Ishaq ibn
Hunain and A phorism s and Prognosi sof Hippocrate.
After reading these books he learnt the causes,
symptoms and treatment ofdisease. In his
commentaries he included sayings and annotations of
Zakariya al-Razi

 (Albucasis), who was born in Al-Zahra in
AD936. He is regarded as the most famous of
the Arab surgeons, but he was also skilled in
the use of simple and compound remedies, and
was thus sometimes described as "the
pharmacist surgeon". He wrote the famous
manual on surgery, called Al-Tasrif, although it
also includes sections on the preparation and
dosage of drugs, nutrition, public health, and
anatomical dissection. The celebrated sections
on surgery are illustrated with drawings of
about one hundred surgical instruments

 Najeebuddin al-Samarqandi ( Herat - d 1222)
 He was a famous physician from Afghanistan who flourished at
the time ofPersian philosopher Fakhruddin ar-Razi (d1210). He
died during the pillage of hishometown Heart by Mongols. His
most important medical work is
 Asbab wal -Almat
 (etiology and symptoms of disease), a commentary on thiswork
was written by al-Kirmani. He also wrote a book on the
treatment of disease by dietand two medical formularies. His
other works are:
 Al-Adwiya al-Mufrada - simple drugs Aghziyat al-Marada - diet
for the ill Aghziya wal Ashriba - food and drink Fee Mudawat
waja al-Mafasid - cure of pain in the joints Feel al- Tibb - on
medicine Fee kafiyat Tarkib Tabaqat al-Ayn - on the layers of
eye Feel Adwiya al-Mustamala Indal sayadila - drug preparation
by pha

 Abdul Lateef
 (1162-1231)He was born in Baghdad, where he
studied alchemy and medicine in his youth.
In1189 he started his long journey to Damascus,
Jerusalem & Cairo. In Damascus he
taughtmedicine and philosophy, & took part in a
debate with some city philosophers. He was
 victorious in this debate. He visited Jerusalem,
and then onto Cairo where be becamefriend of
Musa ibn Maimoon, the personal physician of
Sultan Salahuddin Ayubi

 He was born in Cordoba, Islamic Spain where his grandfather was Imam of theGrand
Mosque. He was born in a family of learned scholars and jurists. His father
andgrandfather were judges. He was by nature pensive, loathed to position and
wealth. He passed most of his time in study and it was said that during his long life
there had beenonly two nights when he could not study - on the night of his
marriage and the other onthe night of his fathers death.In 1169 he became
magistrate (Qazi) of Seville, then Cordoba, and in 1196governor of Andalusia on
account of his astonishing erudition. As a judge in Seville for25 years he busied
himself writing commentaries on Aristotle's books. Once he expressedhis
unhappiness over the fact that all his books were still in his hometown. In Cordoba
hedeveloped friendship with famous physician Ibn Zuhr who suggested him to
studymedicine. He requested his physician friend to write a book on al-Umur al-
Juziya(treatment of head to toe diseases) which he did and called it
 Kitab al Theisir


 Abouleish, E. (n.d). Contributions of Islam to
medicine. In S. Athar (Ed.), Islamic medicine. Retrieved May 16, 2007.
 Al Jauziyah, I. Healing with the medicine of the Prophet (2nd ed.) (J.
Abual Rub, Trans.). KSA: Darussalam. 2003.
 Al-Hassani, S. (Editor). 1001 Inventions: Muslim Heritage in Our World.
UK: Foundation for Science Technology and civilization. 2006.
 As-Suyuti, J, A. Medicine of the Prophet [Ahmed Thomson, translator].
UK: Ta-Ha publishers. 2009.
 Ayad, A.. Healing Body & Soul. KSA: IIPH. 2008.
 Az-Zahabi, S. ‫النبوي‬ ‫الطب‬[ Prophetic medicine]. (M.A. Al-Merashly, Ed.).
Lebanon: Dar An-nafaes. 2004.
 Nagamia, H. F. (October 1, 1998). Islamic medicine: History and current
practice. Retrieved May 16, 2007.
 National Library of Medicine. Islamic Culture and the Medical Arts:
Prophetic Medicine. Retrieved June 6, 2007. April 5, 1998.

 Bibliography:1.

 History of Science, by George Sarton, page 565
 2.

 Arabian Medicine, E.G. Brown, page 39, 1939 Cambdrige
 3.

 Tahzeebul Akhlaq, Aligarh, India April 1989
 4.

 Al Judri wal-Hasba, English Tr. by Greenhill, page 137, 1848.
 5.

 Medicine in Persia, E.G. Brown, page 37 NY 1934
 6.

 Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol 8, 474
 7.

 History of Medicine by Max Neuberger, page 361, 1910
 8.

 Arabian Medicine, page 44

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