10. timestamp
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This document discusses time zones and functions related to timestamps and time zones in databases. It explains that time is measured in 24 time zones based on Greenwich Mean Time. It provides examples of functions like CURRENT_DATE, CURRENT_TIMESTAMP, and LOCALTIMESTAMP that return date and time values based on the user or database time zone. It also demonstrates functions like TO_TIMESTAMP, EXTRACT, and operations like adding intervals to timestamps to change them to different time zones or adjust relative dates.
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More from Amrit Kaur (20)
File Organization
File OrganizationAmrit Kaur Databases store large amounts of data permanently on disk. Only a small portion of data is loaded into memory at a time for processing. Data is stored on disk in files containing records of related data values. Records can have fixed or variable lengths. Files are organized using different methods like heap, sequential, indexed, and hashed to allow for efficient data retrieval, storage, and access. Indexed files use a separate index file to locate records in the data file faster. Hashed files determine record locations using a hashing algorithm and hash function to map records to disk blocks.
Introduction to transaction processing
Introduction to transaction processingAmrit Kaur The document discusses transaction processing and related concepts. It introduces transactions as units of work that must be completely processed or not processed at all. It covers transaction control language commands like START TRANSACTION, COMMIT, and ROLLBACK. It discusses the ACID properties of atomicity, consistency, isolation, and durability that transactions should satisfy. It defines schedules as the order of transaction operations and describes serial, non-serial, and conflict schedules. It also discusses concurrency control issues that can arise from conflicting schedules like lost updates.
ER diagram
ER diagramAmrit Kaur 1. The document defines key concepts in conceptual data modeling including entities, attributes, relationships, and extended entity relationship (EER) modeling.
2. Entities can be strong or weak. Attributes can be single-valued or multi-valued, stored or derived. Relationships can be one-to-one, one-to-many, many-to-one, or many-to-many.
3. EER modeling allows for generalization and specialization of entities through supertypes/subtypes to model common and unique attributes more accurately.
Transaction Processing
Transaction ProcessingAmrit Kaur What is Transaction,
What are ACID Properties
Serializabilty and Recoverability
Concurrency Control Techniques
Locks
Time stamp
Normalization
NormalizationAmrit Kaur Normalization is a process of organizing data to reduce redundancy and improve data integrity. It involves decomposing relations with anomalies into smaller, well-structured relations by identifying functional dependencies and applying normal forms. The normal forms are first normal form (1NF), second normal form (2NF), third normal form (3NF) and Boyce-Codd normal form (BCNF). Each normal form adds additional rules to reduce redundancy through a multi-step process of identifying dependencies and extracting subsets of data into new relations.
Sample Interview Question
Sample Interview QuestionAmrit Kaur This document contains interview questions and answers related to C++. It discusses concepts like constructors, copy constructors, virtual destructors, and the differences between constructor and assignment operator. Key points are that constructors initialize objects while assignment operators assign values to existing objects, virtual destructors allow calling the proper destructor at runtime, and constructors cannot be virtual but destructors can.
12. oracle database architecture
12. oracle database architectureAmrit Kaur An Oracle database consists of physical files on disk that store data and logical memory structures that manage the files. The database is made up of data files that contain tables and indexes, control files that track the physical components, and redo log files that record changes. The instance in memory associates with one database and manages access through background processes. The database is divided into logical storage units called tablespaces that map to the physical data files. Common tablespaces include SYSTEM, SYSAUX, undo and temporary tablespaces.
11. using regular expressions with oracle database
11. using regular expressions with oracle databaseAmrit Kaur The Oracle database provides a set of SQL functions to search and manipulate strings using regular expressions. These functions include REGEXP_COUNT, REGEXP_LIKE, REGEXP_SUBSTR, REGEXP_INSTR, and REGEXP_REPLACE. Regular expressions use metacharacters like period, plus, star, and pipe to specify patterns to match. Metacharacters have special meanings like wildcard, repeating, or range of characters. The regular expression functions take a source string and pattern to perform matching and extraction.
9. index and index organized table
9. index and index organized tableAmrit Kaur Indexes are data structures that enable fast searching of data in database tables. There are different types of indexes including B-tree, bitmap, and function-based indexes. Indexes can be unique or non-unique. Index-organized tables store data in an index structure based on the primary key, while heap-organized tables store data separately from indexes and access rows using row IDs. Proper use of indexes can improve query performance.
8. transactions
8. transactionsAmrit Kaur A transaction is a logical unit of work that contains one or more SQL statements. It must be committed or rolled back as a whole to comply with the ACID properties of atomicity, consistency, isolation, and durability. Transactions begin with the first SQL statement and end with a COMMIT or ROLLBACK. The COMMIT makes all changes permanent while ROLLBACK undoes any changes made in the transaction. SAVEPOINT can be used to roll back portions of a transaction.
7. exceptions handling in pl
7. exceptions handling in plAmrit Kaur Exceptions in PL/SQL refer to unwanted events that terminate scripts unexpectedly. There are predefined exceptions for common errors that provide more user-friendly error messages instead of system codes. User-defined exceptions handle violations of business rules. The EXCEPTION block catches both predefined and user-defined exceptions, and specific exception types can be handled with the WHEN clause to execute exception handling code.
6. triggers
6. triggersAmrit Kaur Triggers are stored program units that are implicitly executed when DDL or DML statements are used on associated tables. They define procedures to enforce business rules, prevent invalid transactions, and provide information on user events. Triggers can be row or statement level and fire before, after, or instead of insert, update, or delete operations. They are comprised of a trigger event, optional restriction, and action to execute.
5. stored procedure and functions
5. stored procedure and functionsAmrit Kaur Stored procedures and functions are named PL/SQL blocks that are stored in a database. They improve performance by reducing network traffic and allowing shared memory usage. Stored procedures are created using the CREATE PROCEDURE statement and can accept parameters using modes like IN, OUT, and IN OUT. Stored functions are similar but return a value. Packages group related database objects like procedures, functions, types and provide modularity and information hiding.
4. plsql
4. plsqlAmrit Kaur PL/SQL is a block-structured language used for accessing and manipulating Oracle databases. A PL/SQL block contains three parts: a declarative section, executable section, and exception-handling section. PL/SQL supports both scalar and composite datatypes. Control structures include conditional statements like IF-THEN-ELSE and CASE, and iterative statements like LOOP, WHILE, and FOR. Database interaction is done through SQL statements and cursors, which allow processing of multiple rows returned from a query.
3. ddl create
3. ddl createAmrit Kaur This document discusses how to manage tables in a database including creating, modifying, and dropping tables. The key points are:
1. A table stores data in rows and columns and is created using the CREATE TABLE statement.
2. Tables can be modified using the ALTER TABLE statement to add, modify, or drop columns and constraints.
3. Integrity constraints like primary keys, foreign keys, checks and defaults are applied to tables to maintain data integrity.
4. External tables allow querying data stored outside the database in flat files and are created using the CREATE TABLE statement with the ORGANIZATION EXTERNAL clause.
2. DML_INSERT_DELETE_UPDATE
2. DML_INSERT_DELETE_UPDATEAmrit Kaur The document discusses different ways to manipulate data in tables, including inserting, updating, and deleting rows. It explains that the INSERT statement is used to add rows to a table. The UPDATE statement updates existing rows by changing column values. Rows can be deleted using the DELETE statement with an optional WHERE clause to target specific rows, or the TRUNCATE statement to delete all rows at once. Subqueries can also be used with these statements to insert, update, or delete rows based on the results of a subquery. Guidelines are provided for each operation to ensure data integrity is maintained.
1. dml select statement reterive data
1. dml select statement reterive dataAmrit Kaur The document provides an overview of SQL concepts for retrieving and manipulating data using SQL statements like SELECT, JOIN, GROUP BY, and subqueries. It discusses the key clauses and operations for projection, selection, aggregation, sorting, joining tables, grouping data, and using subqueries. Some important points covered include using SELECT to retrieve specific attributes or calculate column values, filtering rows with WHERE, sorting with ORDER BY, aggregation functions, inner/outer/cross joins, and applying grouping and aggregation at different levels with ROLLUP and CUBE.
Chapter 8 Inheritance
Chapter 8 InheritanceAmrit Kaur This document discusses inheritance in C++. It defines inheritance and the key terminology used. It describes the different types of inheritance including single, hierarchical, multilevel, multiple and hybrid inheritance. Examples of code are provided for each type. Issues that can arise with multiple inheritance like ambiguities are also covered. In summary, the document provides an overview of inheritance in C++ through definitions, explanations and code examples of the various inheritance techniques.
Chapter 7 C++ As OOP
Chapter 7 C++ As OOPAmrit Kaur This document discusses C++ as an object-oriented language. It describes key concepts like classes, objects, data members, member functions, access specifiers (public, private, protected), constructors, and destructors. Classes allow the combination of data and related functions that represent real-world objects. Constructors initialize objects, while destructors handle cleanup when objects are destroyed. Access specifiers determine visibility and access to class members from within and outside the class.
Chapter 6 OOPS Concept
Chapter 6 OOPS ConceptAmrit Kaur Object oriented programming views a system as a collection of objects that contain both data (state) and behaviors (operations). An object has an identity, state, and behavior. Classes are sets of similar objects that share common attributes and behaviors. The key characteristics of object oriented programming are abstraction, encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism. Abstraction involves hiding non-essential details and focusing on essential characteristics. Encapsulation implements abstraction by hiding implementation details within an object. Inheritance allows new classes to inherit and modify attributes and behaviors from existing classes. Polymorphism means an object can behave differently under different circumstances.
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10. timestamp
- 1. Managing Data in Different Time Zones
- 2. Time Zones • The hours of the day are measured by the turning of the earth. • The time of day at any particular moment depends on where you are. • The earth is divided into 24 time zones, one for each hour of the day.
- 3. Time Zones • Greenwich Mean Time GMT also known as Coordinated Universal Time or UTC. • UTC is the time standard against which all other time zones in the world are referenced. • All time is measured relative to UTC.
- 4. Time Zone Functions – CURRENT_DATE: • Returns the current date from the user session • Has a data type of DATE – CURRENT_TIMESTAMP: • Returns the current date and time from the user session • Has a data type of TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE – LOCALTIMESTAMP: • Returns the current date and time from the user session • Has a data type of TIMESTAMP
- 5. Time Zone Functions • Display the value of the database time zone: SELECT DBTIMEZONE FROM DUAL; • Display the value of the session’s time zone: SELECT SESSIONTIMEZONE FROM DUAL;
- 6. Timestamp Datatype Same as the TIMESTAMP data type; also includes a time zone offset in its value TIMESTAMP WITH LOCAL TIME ZONE Same as the TIMESTAMP data type; also includes: TIMEZONE_HOUR, and TIMEZONE_MINUTE or TIMEZONE_REGION TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE Year, Month, Day, Hour, Minute, Second with fractional seconds TIMESTAMP FieldsData Type
- 7. Time Zone Functions • Display the YEAR component from the SYSDATE. SELECT EXTRACT (YEAR FROM SYSDATE) FROM DUAL; • Display the MONTH component from the HIRE_DATE SELECT last_name, hire_date, EXTRACT (MONTH FROM HIRE_DATE) FROM employees
- 8. TimeZone Functions • Display the character string '2007-03-06 11:00:00‘ as a TIMESTAMP value: SELECT TO_TIMESTAMP ('2007-03-06 11:00:00‘, YYYY-MM-DD HH:MI:SS') FROM DUAL; • Display a date that is 100 days and 10 hours after the hire date for all the employees. SELECT last_name, TO_CHAR(hire_date + TO_DSINTERVAL('100 10:00:00'), ‘mm-dd-yy:hh:mi:ss') hiredate2 FROM employees;
- 9. TimeZone Functions • Display a date that is one year and two months after the hire date for the employees. SELECT hire_date, hire_date + TO_YMINTERVAL('01-02') AS HIRE_DATE_YMININTERVAL FROM employees
- 10. Changing TimeZone • The TIME_ZONE parameter is set to –5:00 and then SELECT statements for each date and time is executed to compare differences. ALTER SESSION SET NLS_DATE_FORMAT = 'DD-MON-YYYY HH24:MI:SS'; ALTER SESSION SET TIME_ZONE = '-5:00'; SELECT SESSIONTIMEZONE, CURRENT_DATE, CURRENT_TIMESTAMP, LOCALTIMESTAMP FROM DUAL;