1670595076250.pdf

SQL COMMANDS
Prepared By
Pandeeswari M

CONTENTS
1.FUNDAMENTALS OF SQL
2.FILTERING COMMANDS
3.ORDERING COMMANDS
4.ALIAS
5.AGGREGATE COMMANDS
6.GROUP BY COMMANDS
7.CONDITIONAL STATEMENT
8.JOINS
9.SUBQUERY
10.VIEW & INDEX
11.STRING FUNCTIONS
12.MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS
13. DATE-TIME FUNCTIONS
14.PATTERN MATCHING(regex)
15.DATA TYPE CONVERSION FUNCTIONS

DQL(Data Query Language)
To fetch the data from the database
Example: SELECT
DML(Data Manipulation Language)-
To modify the database objects
Example: INSERT,UPDATE,DELETE
DDL(Data Definition Language)
To create & modify database objects
Example: CREATE,DROP,ALTER,TRUNCATE

1.Fundamentals of SQL
CREATE
CREATE statement is used to create a table
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE ‘’TABLE_NAME’’(
‘’COLUMN1’’ ‘’DATA_TYPE’’ CONSTRAINTS,
………………………………………………………………..
‘’COLUMN N’’ ‘’DATA_TYPE’’ CONSTRAINTS
);
INSERT
INSERT statement is used insert new data
into the table

Syntax:
INSERT INTO
“TABLE_NAME” (COL1, COL2, ……..COL_N)
VALUES (Col_val_1,Col_val_2, ……. Col_val_N);
Import data from file(PostgreSQL)
For csv file
COPY TABLE_NAME(column1, column2,… ) FROM
FILE_PATH DELIMITER ‘ , ’ CSV HEADER;
For txt file
COPY TABLE_NAME(column1, column2,… ) FROM
FILE_PATH DELIMITER ‘ , ’ ;
SELECT
SELECT statement is used to retrieve data from
the table
Syntax
SELECT * FROM “TABLE_NAME”;

For select one column
SELECT “COLUMN_NAME” FROM “TABLE_NAME”;
For select multiple columns
SELECT “COLUMN1,COLUMN2,…”
FROM “TABLE_NAME”;
For select all columns
SELECT * FROM “TABLE_NAME”;
DISTINCT
DISTINCT keyword is used to eliminate all
duplicate records & fetch only unique records
Syntax:
SELECT DISTINCT(*) FROM “TABLE_NAME”;
WHERE
WHERE clause is used to filter a records
Syntax:
SELECT “COLUMN_NAME(S)”

FROM “TABLE_NAME “
WHERE CONDITION;
AND/OR
The AND/OR is used to combine multiple conditions
Syntax:
SELECT “COLUMN_NAMES(s)”
FROM “TABLE_NAME”
WHERE CONDITION AND/OR CONDITION;
UPDATE
It is used to modify the existing data in the
table
Syntax:
UPDATE “TABLE_NAME”
SET COL_1=VAL_1,COL_2=VAL_2,…
WHERE CONDITION;
DELETE
It is used to delete existing records in the table

Syntax:
For delete all rows
DELETE FROM “TABLE_NAME”;
For delete single/multiple row(s)
DELETE FROM “TABLE_NAME “
WHERE CONDITION;
ALTER
It is used to change the definition or structure
of the table
Syntax:
ADD COLUMN
ALTER TABLE “ TABLE_NAME”
ADD “COLUMN_NAME “ “DATA_TYPE”;
DROP COLUMN
ALETR TABLE “TABLE_NAME”
DROP “COLUMN_NAME”;
MODIFY DATA TYPE
ALTER TABLE “TABLE_NAME”
ALTER COLUMN “COL_NAME” TYPE NEW_DATA_TYPE;

RENAME COLUMN
RENAME COLUMN “COL_NAME” TO “NEW_NAME”;
ADD CONSTRAINTS
ADD CONSTRAINT COL_NAME CHECK CONDITION;
2.Filtering Commands
IN
Used to reduce multiple OR logical operator in
SELECT,DELETE,INSERT & UPDATE statements
Syntax:
SELECT “COL_NAME” FROM “TABLE_NAME”
WHERE “COL_NAME” IN (‘VAL1’, ’VAL2’,…);
BETWEEN
Used to retrieve data within a given range

Syntax:
SELECT “COL_NAME(S)” FROM “TABLE_NAME”
WHERE “COL_NAME” BETWEEN “VAL1” AND “VAL2”;
LIKE
Used to perform pattern matching/regex using
wildcards(% , _)
% - match any string of any length
_ - match on a single character
Syntax:
SELECT “COL_NAME” FROM “TABLE_NAME”
WHERE “COL_NAME” LIKE ‘PATTERN’;
3.Ordering Commands
ORDER BY
Used to sort the data & it is only used in
SELECT statement

Syntax:
SELECT “COL_NAME(s)” FROM “TABLE_NAME”
ORDER BY “COL_NAME” ASC/DESC;
LIMIT
Used to limit the number of records based on a
given limit
Syntax:
SELECT “COL_NAME(S)” FROM “TABLE_NAME”
[WHERE & ORDER BY – Optional]
LIMIT “LIMIT_VALUE”;
4.ALIAS
AS
Used to assign an alias to the column

Syntax:
SELECT “COL_NAME” as “COL_ALIAS”
FROM “TABLE_NAME”;
5.AGGREGATE COMMANDS
COUNT
Used to count the expression
Syntax:
SELECT COUNT(COL_NAME) FROM “TABLE_NAME”;
SUM
Used to sum the expression
Syntax:
SELECT SUM(COL_NAME) FROM “TABLE_NAME”;

AVG
Used to average the expression
Syntax:
SELECT AVG(COL_NAME) FROM “TABLE_NAME”;
MIN
Used to retrieve the minimum value
Syntax:
SELECT MIN(COL_NAME) FROM “TABLE_NAME”;
MAX
Used to retrieve the maximum value
Syntax:
SELECT MAX(COL_NAME) FROM “TABLE_NAME”;

6.GROUP BY COMMANDS
GROUP BY
GROUP BY clause is used to group the results by
one or more columns
Syntax:
SELECT “COL_1”, “COL_2”,…… FROM “TABLE_NAME”
GROUP BY “COL_NAME”;
HAVING
HAVING clause is added to SQL because the
WHERE keyword cannot be used with aggregate
functions
Syntax:
SELECT “COL_1”, “COL_2”,…… FROM “TABLE_NAME”
GROUP BY “COL_NAME”
HAVING ‘CONDITION’;

7.CONDITIONAL STATEMENT
CASE
CASE expression is a conditional expression
Syntax:
CASE
WHEN CONDITION THEN RESULT
[WHEN CONDITION THEN RESULT]
[WHEN CONDITION THEN RESULT]
ELSE RESULT
END
8.JOINS
JOINS used to fetch data from multiple tables
TYPES:
INNER JOIN
INNER JOIN produces only the set of records
that match in table A and table B

Syntax:
SELECT COL1,COL2,…..
FROM “TABLE_1”
INNER JOIN “TABLE_2”
ON TABLE_1. COMMON_COL = TABLE_2. COMMON_COL;
LEFT JOIN
LEFT JOIN returns all the rows in the table
A(Left),even if there is no matches in the table B(Right)
Syntax:
SELECT COL_1,COL_2,…
FROM “TABLE_1”
LEFT JOIN “TABLE_2”
ON TABLE_1. COMMON_COL = TABLE_2. COMMON_COL;
RIGHT JOIN
RIGHT JOIN returns all the rows in the
table B(Right),even if there is no matches in the table
A(left)

Syntax:
FROM “TABLE_1”
RIGHT JOIN “TABLE_2”
ON TABLE_1.COMMON_COL = TABLE_2. COMMON_COL;
FULL JOIN
FULL JOIN combines the results of both
right & left join
Syntax:
FROM “TABLE_1”
FULL JOIN “TABLE_2”
ON TABLE_1.COMMON_COL = TABLE_2. COMMON_COL;
CROSS JOIN
CROSS JOIN creates Cartesian product
between two sets
Syntax:

SELECT TAB1.COL,TAB2.COL,…..
FROM “TABLE_1”, “TABLE_2”,……..
EXCEPT
Used to fetch all the data from table A except that
matches with table B
Syntax:
SELECT COL1,COL2,……..
FROM TABLE_A [WHERE]
EXCEPT
SELECT COL_1,COL_2,……
FROM TABLE_B [WHERE];
UNION
Used to combine two or more SELECT statements
Syntax:
SELECT COL1,COL2,……..
FROM TABLE_A [WHERE]
UNION
SELECT COL_1,COL_2,……
FROM TABLE_B [WHERE];

SUBQUERY
SUBQUERY is a query within a query
Syntax:
SUBQUERY is in WHERE clause
SELECT “COL_1” FROM “TABLE_NAME_1”
WHERE “COL_2” [operator]
(SELECT “COL_3” FROM “TABLE_NAME_2”
WHERE CONDITION);
VIEW
VIEW is a virtual table created by a query
joining one or more tables
Syntax:
CREATE[OR RESPONSE] view_name AS
SELECT “COL_NAME(S)”
FROM “TABLE_NAME”
INDEX

An INDEX creates an entry for each value that
appears in the indexed column
Syntax:
CREATE[UNIQUE] INDEX “index_name”
ON “TABLE_NAME”
(index_col1 [ASC/DESC],………..
11.STRING FUNCTIONS
LENGTH:
LENGTH function retrieves the length of the
specified string
Syntax:
LENGTH(‘string’)
UPPER/LOWER
UPPER/LOWER function converts all the
characters in the specified string to
uppercase/lowercase
Syntax:
upper(‘string’)

lower(‘string’)
REPLACE
REPLACE function replaces all the
occurrences of the specified string
Syntax:
REPLACE(‘string’, ’from string’, to string’)
TRIM
TRIM function removes all specified characters
either from beginning or end of the string or both
Syntax:
TRIM( [Leading|Trailing|Both] [trim char] from string)
RTRIM
RTRIM function removes all specified characters
from RHS of the string
Syntax:
RTRIM(‘string’, trim char)
LTRIM

LTRIM function removes all specified characters
from LHS of the string
Syntax:
LTRIM(‘string’, trim char)
CONCATENATION
|| operator used to concatenate two or more
strings
Syntax:
‘string_1’ || ‘string_2’ || ‘string_3’
SUBSTRING
SUBSTRING function used to extract substring
from a string
Syntax:
SUBSTRING(‘string’ [start position]
[substring length]);
STRING_AGG

String aggregate function concatenates input
values into a string, separated by a delimiter
Syntax
STRING_AGG(‘expression’, delimiter)
12.MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS
CEIL
CEIL function returns the smallest integer value
which is greater than or equal to a number
Syntax:
CEIL(number)
FLOOR
FLOOR function returns the largest integer value
which is less than or equal to a number
Syntax:
FLOOR(number)

RANDOM
RANDOM function used to generate random
number between 0 & 1 (1 will be excluded)
Syntax:
RANDOM( );
SETSEED
SETSEED function used to set a seed for the next
time that we call the RANDOM function
Syntax:
SETSEED(seed)
[seed can have a value between 1 and -1(both are
inclusive]
ROUND
ROUND function rounds a number to a specified
number of decimal places
Syntax:
ROUND(number)

POWER
POWER function returns m raised to the nth
power
Syntax:
POWER(m,n)
13. DATE-TIME FUNCTIONS
CURRENT_DATE
CURRENT_DATE function returns the current
date
Syntax:
CURRENT_DATE( )
CURRENT_TIME
CURRENT_TIME function returns the current
time with the time zone
Syntax:
CURRENT_TIME( )

CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
CURRENT_ TIMESTAMP function returns the
current date & current time with the time zone
Syntax:
CURRENT_ TIMESTAMP ( )
AGE
AGE function returns the difference between two
dates
Syntax:
AGE(date1,date2)
EXTRACT
EXTRACT function extract specified parts
from date
Syntax:
EXTRACT(‘unit’ FROM ‘date’)
[unit will be day,month,year,doy,decade,hour,minute,
second,etc.,]

14.PATTERN MATCHING
There are three different approaches to pattern
matching
• Using LIKE
• Using SIMILAR TO
• Using Regular Expression
• | denotes alternation (either of two alternatives).
• * denotes repetition of the previous item zero or more times.
• + denotes repetition of the previous item one or more times.
• ? denotes repetition of the previous item zero or one time.
• {m} denotes repetition of the previous item exactly m times.
• {m,} denotes repetition of the previous item m or more times.
• {m,n} denotes repetition of the previous item at least m and not
more than n times.
• Parentheses () can be used to group items into a single logical
item.
• A bracket expression [...] specifies a character class,
15.DATA TYPE CONVERSION FUNCTIONS
TO_CHAR
TO_CHAR function converts number/date to
String
Syntax:

TO_CHAR(value,format-mask)
TO_DATE
TO_DATE function converts string to date
Syntax:
TO_DATE(string,format-mask)
T0_NUMBER
T0_NUMBER function converts string to date
Syntax:
TO_NUMBER(string,format-mask)
Format Description
9 Numeric value with the specified number of digits
0 Numeric value with leading zeros
.
(period)
decimal point
D decimal point that uses locale
,
(comma)
group (thousand) separator

Format Description
FM Fill mode, which suppresses padding blanks and leading zeroes.
PR Negative value in angle brackets.
S Sign anchored to a number that uses locale
L Currency symbol that uses locale
G Group separator that uses locale
MI Minus sign in the specified position for numbers that are less than
0.
PL Plus sign in the specified position for numbers that are greater
than 0.
SG Plus / minus sign in the specified position
RN Roman numeral that ranges from 1 to 3999
TH or th Upper case or lower case ordinal number suffix
Pattern Description
Y,YYY year in 4 digits with comma
YYYY year in 4 digits
YYY last 3 digits of year

YY last 2 digits of year
Y The last digit of year
IYYY ISO 8601 week-numbering year (4 or more digits)
IYY Last 3 digits of ISO 8601 week-numbering year
IY Last 2 digits of ISO 8601 week-numbering year
I Last digit of ISO 8601 week-numbering year
BC, bc, AD or ad Era indicator without periods
B.C., b.c., A.D. ora.d.Era indicator with periods
MONTH English month name in uppercase
Month Full capitalized English month name
Month Full lowercase English month name
MON Abbreviated uppercase month name e.g., JAN, FEB, etc.
Mon Abbreviated capitalized month name e.g, Jan, Feb, etc.
Mon Abbreviated lowercase month name e.g., jan, feb, etc.
MM month number from 01 to 12
DAY Full uppercase day name
Day Full capitalized day name

Day Full lowercase day name
DY Abbreviated uppercase day name
Dy Abbreviated capitalized day name
Dy Abbreviated lowercase day name
DDD Day of year (001-366)
IDDD Day of ISO 8601 week-numbering year (001-371; day 1 of
the year is Monday of the first ISO week)
DD Day of month (01-31)
D Day of the week, Sunday (1) to Saturday (7)
ID ISO 8601 day of the week, Monday (1) to Sunday (7)
W Week of month (1-5) (the first week starts on the first day
of the month)
WW Week number of year (1-53) (the first week starts on the
first day of the year)
IW Week number of ISO 8601 week-numbering year (01-53;
the first Thursday of the year is in week 1)
CC Century e.g, 21, 22, etc.
J Julian Day (integer days since November 24, 4714 BC at
midnight UTC)
RM Month in upper case Roman numerals (I-XII; >

Rm Month in lowercase Roman numerals (i-xii; >
HH Hour of day (0-12)
HH12 Hour of day (0-12)
HH24 Hour of day (0-23)
MI Minute (0-59)
SS Second (0-59)
MS Millisecond (000-999)
US Microsecond (000000-999999)
SSSS Seconds past midnight (0-86399)
AM, am, PM or pm Meridiem indicator (without periods)
A.M., a.m., P.M. or
p.m.
Meridiem indicator (with periods)

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