fundamentals of c

1.1 History of C Language
Language Name Year of development Description
ALGOL 60 1960 TOO ABSTRACT AND TOO SHORT
CPL 1963 COMBINED P.L
BCPL 1967 USED TO WRITE SYSTEM S/W.
WAS NOT SO POWERFUL.
B 1970 MACHINE DEPENDENT
C 1972 GENERAL PURPOSE,COMPILED,
STRUCTURED P.L, WITH UNIX O.S
- ‘C’ LANGUAGE WAS DEVELOPED BY ‘DENNIS RITCHIE’ AT AT &T BELL LABORATORY IN 1972.
Vijayalaxmi D Wakode

Importance of C
1. It is robust language whose rich set of built in functions and operators
can be used to write any complex program.
2. The language is very well suited from writing both system s/w and
business package. We can also write compilers .
3. We can also write structural programs using C language.
Character Set of C
LETTERS A-Z, a-z
DIGITS 0-9
SPECIAL CHARACTER _ ,! , etc.
WHITE SPACES tab , enter , etc.
The white spaces are ignored by compiler unless they are part of strings.

1.2 TOKENS IN C
• To form a program i.e. set of executable statement , we need grammar.
Like all language , C language also has its own rules and grammar known
as syntactic rules / syntax.
• The smallest individual unit in a program is known as ‘Token’.
e.g. int,
char, float,
do , etc
Num , hello,
world, etc
e.g.
10,5, 90.11,
etc
e.g.
+ , - , * , %,/,
etc
e.g. “Hello
This is 1st
lecture”
e.g.
{},[], etc

i) Keywords
• A keyword is a reserved word whose meaning can’t be changed by user.
• Keyword serves as a basic building block for program design and
development. The keywords must be written in ‘Lower Case’ , they have
predefined meaning .
• The C language consists of 32 keywords.
Table 1.1 Keywords in ANSI C Vijayalaxmi D Wakode

ii)Identifier
• The words other than the keywords that are used in C program are
known as ‘Identifiers’. These are the names that can be given to
various program elements as variable, function, etc.
• Identifier is user defined name.
• The language identifies only 1st 32 characters as the identifiers.
Naming rules for identifier
a) First letter of identifier should not start with a digit
b) Upper case and lower case letters are different
c) The keyword name can’t be identifier
d) White spaces and special symbols except underscore( _ ) are not allowed

iii) Constants
• In C language , the constants are referred to fixed values that don’t change
during program execution.
Figure 1.1: Types of constants in C Vijayalaxmi D Wakode

a)Integer Constants
• Decimal Integers : consists of a set of digits 0 to 9 preceded by an optional + or –
sign. Spaces, commas and non digit characters are not permitted between digits.
e.g. 12, -44 , 787878
• Octal Integers : consists of any combination of digits from 0 to 7 with prefix O.
e.g. O26, O22 , O7
• Hexadecimal Integers : it is preceded by OX or Ox, they may contain alphabets
from A to F(10-15) or a to f(10-15)
• The quantities that are represented by numbers containing fractional parts are
called real or floating point constants. These quantities are represented by
numbers containing fractional parts like 98.72.
e.g. 0.0023, -9.8
b)Real Constants

c) single character constants
• These constants are of a single character may be an alphabet, digit or special
symbol that is enclosed in a pairs of single quotation marks .
e.g. ‘x’ , ‘12’ , ‘ . ’ , etc.
• These consists of the sequence of characters that are enclosed within a pairs of a
double quotation marks.
e.g. “Introduction of C” , “XYZ 123 ” , etc.
• In C , every string is terminated by ‘0’ . It is null character that is automatically
added to the string by the compiler . It is backslash character constant. These are
also known as escape sequence character .
d) string character constants

Escape sequence characters
• Backslash used in front of these characters tells the compiler to
escape from regular behavior and perform the desired function.
• List of the other such characters is as shown
n new line
b backspace
t horizontal space
o null character
r carriage return
• The constants can be defined in 2 ways in program.
-we can give a direct value that is used as constant. E.g. int a=10.
-we can use #define preprocessor directive. E.g. #define PI 3.14

iv)Operator
• A operator is defined as a symbol that tells the computer to perform
certain mathematical or logical manipulation.
• These are basically used to manipulate data .
• C provides a rich set of built in operators.

a) Arithmetic Operator
• The C language supports various different arithmetic operators as +,-,/,*,%.
The % is known as modulus operator used to find remainder of an expression.
Integer Arithmetic
• An arithmetic operation performed on 2 whole numbers/ integers . It always
gives an integer result. In integer division the fractional part is truncated.
Floating point Arithmetic
• An arithmetic operation performed on 2 real / fractional numbers. It results
can be truncated according to the properties requirement. The remainder
operator (%) is not applicable for floating point arithmetic operands.
Mixed mode Arithmetic
• An arithmetic operation performed on 1 of real operands and another integer
operand. Its result is always real.

b)Comparison Operator
• These operators are also known as relational operator. These are used to
compare 2 quantities. The value of relational expression is either 0/1. If
expression is true then 1 and 0 if its false
• Syntax : exp1 relational operator exp2. e.g. -90 > 0 false(0), 11> 7+2 true(1)
• Relational operator are used in decision making statements in C language.
symbols meaning
< Less than
<= Less than equal to
> Greater than
>= Greater than equal to
== Equal to
!= Not equal to

c) Logical Operator
• The language supports 3 kinds of logical operator. These are basically used
when we want to use more than 1 condition and make certain decision.
i)Logical AND (&&) ii)Logical OR(||)
iii) Logical NOT(!)
A B o/p : A && B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
A B o/p : A|| B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
A o/p: !A
0 1
1 0

v) Assignment Operator
• These are used to assign the result of an expression to a variable / it
can also be used to assign value to a variable.
• In case of assignment operator L.H.S must be a variable but R.H.S can
be expression or any constant value.
e.g. A = 2, x = A + 3
• C language also supports set of short hand assignment operator .
Operator Stmt with simple assign
operator
Stmt with shorthand
property
+= a=a+1 a+=1
-= a=a-1 a-=1
*= a=a*1 a*=1
/= a=a/1 a/=1
%= a=a%1 a%=1

v) Unary Operator

vi)Conditional Operator
• Conditional operator operates 3 conditions, hence also known as
ternary operator.
Syntax : expr1 ? expr2 : expr3;
e.g. (5>10)? printf(“5”); : printf(“10”);
• Expr1 is evaluated first. Its value is either true or false . If it is true the
expr2 is evaluated and this becomes value of complete expr. If expr1
is false, then expr3 is evaluated and this becomes the value of
complete expr. Only 1 of the expr’s i.e expr2/ expr3 will be evaluated
but not both.
• Conditional operator is short form of if…else structure.

vii)Bitwise Operator
• C language also supports various bitwise operator that operates at bit level.
These are used to test bits them in left / right.
• The o/p of bitwise AND is 1 if all the corresponding bits of all operands is 1.
• The o/p of bitwise OR is 1 if at least one corresponding bits of all operands is 1.
• The o/p of bitwise XOR is 1 if the corresponding bits of 2 operands are opposite.
• Bitwise complement operator is an unary operator. It changes 1 to 0(condition).
operator meaning
& Bitwise and
| Bitwise or
~ Complement
^ Bitwise exclusive or
<< Shift left
>> Shift right

viii) Special Operator
• C language also supports some special operators as comma, sizeof(),
pointer operator (*), member selection operator( . )
i) comma operator :
It is used to separate variables.
e.g. int a,b,c;
ii) sizeof operator :
The sizeof is a compile time operator that returns the numbers of
bytes the operand occupies. The operand may be a variable , constant or
datatype qualifier.
e.g. int x,y;
y=sizeof(x);
o/p: y = 2 Vijayalaxmi D Wakode

1.3 Data Types in C
• Datatype means type of data which we are going to give to computer for
processing. It basically used to calculate the memory requirement.
fig. 1.2. Data types in C

Primary Data Types
These are the built in and fundamental data types .
Integers are whole numbers i.e. numbers without decimal point. All these data types
short int, int, long int have signed & unsigned forms. Unsigned numbers are always
positive.
Floating point numbers are real numbers. It has 6 digits of precision. These numbers
are denoted by keyword float. When accuracy of floating point number
is insufficient , we use double keyword, it has 14 digits precision. To extend precision
further , we use long double.
It is used to specify type of function. When function does not return any value and if
there is empty parameter list
It is declared using keyword char. It stores single character item.
Integer Type
Floating Point Type
Void Type
Character Type

Storage space requirement
Type
Size Range
short int 8 bits(1 byte) -128 to 127
int or signed int 16 bits(2 bytes) -32768 to 32767
Unsigned int 16 bits(2 bytes) 0 to 65535
Long int 32 bits(4 bytes) -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,648
Unsigned long int 32 bits(4 bytes) 0 to 4,294,967,295
Float 32 bits(4 bytes) 2^32
Double 64 bits(8 bytes) 2^64
Long double 80 bits(10 bytes) 2^80
Char 8 bits(1 byte) -128 to 127
Table 1.2 Primary data types in C

1.4 Variables in C
• A variable is used to store data. It tells compiler variable name and data type of
variable.
Declaration : datatype identifier;
e.g. int x,y,z;
Converting lower type to higher type and vice versa, is known as type conversion.
Lower type is automatically converted into higher type
It is the process of local conversion. Its also known as type casting
Syntax : (type name) expression;
Type name is standard data type in c
Type Conversion
a) Implicit Conversion
b)Explicit Conversion

1.5 Input and Output in C
fig.1.3 input/output function in C

Format specifiers
symbol use
%d integer
%f Float value
%c Character value
%s String value
%u Unsigned integer value
%ld Long int

1.6 Structure of C Program
Documentation Section
Link Section
Definition Section
Global Declaration Section
Main()
{
Declaration Part;
Executable Part;
}
Subprogram Section :
Function 1, Function 2, Function 3 Vijayalaxmi D Wakode

fundamentals of c

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fundamentals of c