249895150 medri-bahri-docx

Medri Bahri
Medri Bahri (Tigrinya: ምድሪ ባሕሪ?) was a medieval kingdom in the Horn of Africa. Situated in modern-day Eritrea, it was ruled by the Bahri
Negus (also called the Bahri Negasi), whose capital was located at Debarwa. The state's main provinces were Hamasien, Serae and Akele Guzai,
all of which are today predominantly inhabited by the Tigrinya (who constitute over 50% of Eritrea's population). In 1890, Medri Bahri was
conquered by the Kingdom of Italy.
Ruler of the Province of Medri Bahri
Bahri Negassi Yeshaq (died 1578) was Bahri Negassi, or ruler of the Province of Medri Bahri (Bahr Midir in Ge'ez) in present-day Eritrea
during the mid to late 16th century. His support of the Emperor of Ethiopia during the invasion of Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (also
known as Ahmed Gragn), when so many of the local aristocrats had switched their support, helped to preserve Abyssinia from extinction. Bahr
negus Yeshaq first appears in history about the time the Portuguese fleet arrived at Massawa in 1541. When Christovão da Gama marched inland
with his 400 matchlockmen, Yeshaq not only provided him provisions and places to camp in his realm, but also about 500 soldiers and
information about the land. The Bahr negus also joined Emperor Gelawdewos in the decisive Battle of Wayna Daga, where Imam Ahmad was
killed and his forces scattered (1543). When the Ottoman general Özdemir Pasha, who had been made governor of the Ottoman province of
Habesh, crossed over from Jeddah in 1557 and occupied Massawa, Arqiqo and finally Debarwa, capital of the Bahri negassi, Yeshaq led the local
peasantry against the invaders, recapturing Debarwa and seizing the "immense treasure" the invaders piled up within. Although he enjoyed good
relations with Emperor Galawdewos, his relations with his successors were not as positive. In 1560, the year after Menas became emperor, Bahri
negassi Yeshaq revolted against the new Emperor. While he was successful at first, eventually Menas drove Yeshaq out of Tigray, and the noble
was forced to seek refuge at the court of his former enemy. In return for ceding the town of Debarwa, Ozdemur Pasha extended military support
to the exiled Bahri negassi, and Yeshaq led an army into Tigray and the other northern provinces. Emperor Menas campaigned against the
forces of this alliance again in 1562, but was not able to decisively defeat Yeshaq. When Sarsa Dengel was made emperor, Yeshaq at first pledged
his loyalty, but within a few years he once more went into rebellion, and found another ally in the ruler of Harar, Sultan Mohammed IV Mansur.
Despite these alliances, Emperor Sarsa Dengel defeated and killed Yeshaq in battle (1578). Richard Pankhurst concurs with the judgement of
James Bruce on Yeshaq, who points out that the status of the Bahri negassi "was much diminished by Yeshaq's treachery. From then onwards the
governor of the provinces beyond the Tekezé was not allowed the sandaq (Banner) and nagarit (War Drum), and no longer had a place in
Council unless especially called on by the Emperor". This could also mean that the Bahr neguses' kingdom was no longer part of the "Empire"
per se.
Emishi
The Emishi or Ebisu (蝦夷) constituted a group of people who lived in northeastern Honshū in the Tōhoku region which was referred to as
michi no oku (道の奥) in contemporary sources. The original date of the Emishi is unknown, but they definitely occurred sometime in the B.C.
era, as they are believed to have advanced the Jōmon. The first mention of them in literature was in 400 A.D.,[citation needed] mentioned as 'the
hairy people' from the Chinese records. Some Emishi tribes resisted the rule of the Japanese Emperors during the late Nara and early Heian
periods (7th–10th centuries CE). More recently, scholars believe that they were natives of northern Honshū and were descendants of those who
developed the Jōmon culture. They are thought to have been related to the Ainu. The separate ethnic status of the Emishi is not in doubt; this
understanding is based upon a language that is separate from Japanese, which scholars have been unable to reconstruct.
Chief of the Isawa (朝廷) band of Emishi
Aterui (アテルイ阿弖流爲) (died, AD 802 in Enryaku) was the most prominent chief of the Isawa (朝廷) band of Emishi in northern
Japan.[citation needed] The Emishi were an indigenous people of North Japan, who were considered hirsute barbarians by the Yamato
Japanese.[citation needed] Aterui was born in Isawa[disambiguation needed], Hitakami-no-kuni, what is now Mizusawa Ward of Ōshū City in
southern Iwate Prefecture. Nothing is known of his life until the battle of Sufuse Village in 787. In 786 Ki no Asami Kosami was appointed by
the Japanese emperor Emperor Kammu as the new General of Eastern Conquest and given a commission to conquer Aterui. In June 787 Kosami
split his army in two and sent them north from Koromogawa on each side of the Kitakami River hoping to surprise Aterui at his home in
Mizusawa. Burning houses and crops as they went they were surprised when Emishi cavalry swept down from the hills to the East and pushed
them into the river. Over 1,000 armored infantry drowned in the river weighed down by their heavy armor. In September Kosami returned to
Kyoto where he was rebuked by the emperor Kammu for his failure. Another attack in 795 was unsuccessful as well and it was not until 801 that
any Japanese general could claim success against the Emishi. In that year Sakanoue no Tamuramaro, who had previously been appointed to the
positions of Supervisory Delegate of Michinoku and Ideha and Governor of Michinoku, General of the Peace Guard and Grand General of
Conquering East-Barbarians (Seii Tai Shogun), was given a commission by Emperor Kammu to subjugate the Emishi. He and his 40,000 troops
were somewhat successful as he reported back to the emperor on September 27, "We conquered the Emishi rebels." But still the Emishi leaders
Aterui and More eluded capture. In 802 Tamuramaro returned to Michinoku and built Fort Isawa in the heart of Isawa territory. Then on April
15 he reported the most important success of all in this campaign: The Emishi leaders Aterui and More surrendered with more than 500
warriors. General Sakanoue delivered Aterui and More to the capital on July 10. Despite General Sakanoue's pleadings the government, "...cut
them down at Moriyama in Kawachi province." This was an epic moment in the history of the Emishi conquest. Before this time the Japanese had
adhered to a policy of deporting captured women and children to Western Japan then enticing their warrior husbands and fathers to join their
families in their new homes. Captured warriors had not been killed either. The executions of Aterui and More are thought[by whom?] to have
been responsible for the fierce resistance by the Emishi over the next hundred years or so. For many Japanese, he was long demonized as the
"Lord of the Bad Road" (悪路王 Akuro-o). Aterui folklore has been made into many plays and an anime (Aterui the Second). In January 2013
dramatization of Aterui's life, Fiery Enmity: Hero of the North (火怨・北の英雄アテルイ伝), starring Takao Osawa in the title role, which was

broadcast on NHK.[1] Aterui is also a supporting character in Shin Teito Monogatari, the prequel to the bestselling historical fantasy novel Teito
Monogatari (Hiroshi Aramata). 7590 Aterui (1992 UP4) is an asteroid discovered on October 26, 1992 by K. Endate and K. Watanabe.
Kumaso
The Kumaso (熊襲) were a people of ancient Japan, believed to have lived in the south of Kyūshū until at least the Nara period. William George
Aston, in his translation of the Nihongi, says Kumaso refers to two separate tribes, Kuma (meaning "bear") and So (written with the character for
"attack" or "layer on"). In his translation of the Kojiki, Basil Hall Chamberlain records that the region is also known simply as So, and elaborates
on the Yamato-centric description of a "bear-like" people, based on their violent interactions or physical distinctiveness. (The people called
tsuchigumo by the Yamato people provide a better-known example of the transformation of other tribes into legendary monsters. Tsuchigumo--
the monstrous "ground spider" of legend—is speculated to refer originally to the native pit dwellings of that people.) As the Yamato pushed
southward, the Kumaso people were either assimilated or exterminated. The last leader of the Kumaso, Torishi-Kaya, aka Brave of Kahakami,
was assassinated in the winter of 397 by Prince Yamato Takeru of Yamato, who was disguised for this as a woman at a banquet. Geographically,
Aston records that the Kumaso domain encompassed the historical provinces of Hyūga, Ōsumi, and Satsuma (contemporaneous with Aston's
translation), or present-day Miyazaki and Kagoshima prefectures. The word Kuma ('Bear') survives today as Kumamoto Prefecture ('source of the
bear'), and Kuma District, Kumamoto. Kuma District is known for a distinct dialect, Kuma Dialect.
List of Leaders of the Kumaso people
Torishi-Kaya(aka Brave of Kahakami) was a leader of the Kumaso people in late 4th century AD. Torishi-Kaya, aka Brave of Kahakami, was
assassinated in the winter of AD 397 by Prince Yamato Takeru of Yamato, who was disguised for this as a woman at a banquet.
Atsukaya was a leader of the Kumaso people.
Sakaya was a leader of the Kumaso people.
Haider Al-Abadi (or al-'Ibadi; Arabic: ‫يدر‬ ‫ح‬ ‫)يدابعدا‬ is an Iraqi politician, spokesman for the
Islamic Dawa Party and Prime Minister of Iraq since August 11, 2014 by President Fuad Masum. Al-
Abadi was also Minister of Communications in the Iraqi Governing Council from September 1,
2003 until June 1, 2004. A Shia Muslim and electronic consultant engineer by training with a PhD
degree from the University of Manchester, United Kingdom, in 1980. Al-Abadi lived in exile in
London during the time of Saddam Hussein. After studying at the University of Manchester, Al-
Abadi remained in the UK in voluntary exile until 2003. His positions during this time included:
DG of a small high tech vertical and horizontal transportation design and development firm in
London, (1993–2003), a top London Consultant to the industry in matters relating to people
movers, (1987–2003), Research Leader for a major modernization contract in London, (1981–1986).
He was registered a patent in London in rapid transit system, (2001). He was awarded a smart grant from the UK Department of Trade and
Industry, (1998). Politically, he is one of the leaders of the popular Islamic Dawa Party, the head of its political office and a spokesman for the
party. He became a member of the party in 1967 and a member of its executive leadership in 1979. The Baath regime executed two of his
brothers and imprisoned a third brother for ten years. In 2003, Al-Abadi became sceptical of the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA)
privatization plan, proposing to Paul Bremer that they had to wait for a legitimate government to be formed. In October 2003, Al-Abadi with all
25 of the Governing Council interim ministers protested to Paul Bremer and rejected the CPA's demand to privatize the state-owned companies
and infrastructure prior to forming a legitimate government. The CPA, led by Bremer, fell out with Al-Abadi and the Governing Council. The
CPA worked around the Governing Council, forming a new government that remained beholden to the CPA until general elections had been
completed, prompting more aggressive armed actions by insurgents against U.S.-led coalition personnel. While Al-Abadi was Minister of
Communications, the CPA awarded licenses to three mobile operators to cover all parts of Iraq. Despite being rendered nearly powerless by the
CPA,[6] Al-Abadi was not prepared to be a rubber stamp and he introduced more conditions in the licenses. Among them stated that a sovereign
Iraqi government has the power to amend or terminate the licenses and introduce a fourth national license, which caused some frictions with
the CPA. In 2003, press reports indicated Iraqi officials under investigation over a questionable deal involving Orascom, an Egypt-based telecoms
company, which in late 2003 was awarded a contract to provide a mobile network to central Iraq. Al-Abadi asserted that there was no illicit
dealing in the completed awards. In 2004, it was revealed that these allegations were fabrications, and a US Defense Department review found
that telecommunications contracting had been illegally influenced in an unsuccessful effort led by disgraced U.S. Deputy Undersecretary of
Defense John A. Shaw, not by Iraqis. In 2005, he served as an advisor to the Prime Minister of Iraq in the first elected government. He was
elected member of Iraqi Parliament in 2005 and chaired the parliamentary committee for Economy, Investment and Reconstruction. Al-Abadi

was re-elected as member of Iraqi Parliament representing Baghdad in the general election held on March 2010. In 2013, he chaired the Finance
Committee and was at the center of a parliamentary dispute over the allocation of the 2013 Iraqi budget. Al-Abadi's name was circulated as a
prime ministerial candidate during the formation of the Iraqi government in 2006 during which Ibrahim al-Jaafari was replaced by Nouri al-
Maliki as Prime Minister. In 2008, Al-Abadi remained steadfast in his support of Iraqi sovereignty, insisting on specific conditions to the
agreement with the U.S. regarding presence in Iraq. In 2009, Al-Abadi was identified by the Middle East Economic Digest as a key person to
watch in Iraq's reconstruction. He is an active member of the Iraq Petroleum Advisory Committee, participating in the Iraq Petroleum
Conferences of 2009–2012. He was one of several Iraqi politicians supporting a suit against Blackwater as a result of the 2010 dismissal of
criminal charges against Blackwater personnel involved the 2007 killing of 17 Iraqi civilians. Al-Abadi was again tipped as a possible Prime
Minister during the tough negotiations between Iraqi political blocs after the elections of 2010 to choose a replacement to incumbent PM Nouri
Al-Maliki. Again in 2014, he was nominated by Shia political parties as an alternative candidate for Prime Minister. On July 24, 2014, Fuad
Masum became the new president of Iraq. He, in turn, nominated Al-Abadi for prime minister on August 11, 2014. However, for the
appointment to take effect, Al-Abadi must form a government and be confirmed by Parliament, within 30 days. Al-Maliki however refused to
give up his post and referred the matter to the federal court claiming the president's nomination was a "constitutional violation." He said: "The
insistence on this until the end is to protect the state." On August 14, 2014, however in the face of growing calls from world leaders and members
of his own party the embattled prime minister announced he was stepping down to make way for Al-Abadi. The Iraqi Parliament approved al-
Abadi's new government and his presidential program on 8 September 2014. By late October 2014, Abadi had made noticeable improvements in
governance. He split the remaining cabinet positions three ways: Defense went to the Sunnis, a significant appointment given Sunni demands
for more representation in the security forces, Interior went to the Shia, and Finance went to the Kurds, also significant given Kurdish demands
for resolutions to the oil and budget disputes. While these appointments were made as a result of necessary political agreements between Iraq’s
various political groups, they nevertheless represented a shift in power sharing arrangements that were lacking under Maliki, who had
completely consolidated power in his own hands as prime minister. Abadi also appeared before the CoR three times in two months and took
steps to address corruption by removing thousands of “ghost soldiers” from the Iraqi security force’s own payroll and sacking several generals at
the top of the chain of command.
Islamic State
The Islamic State (IS) (Arabic: ‫ة‬ ‫دود‬ ‫يد‬ ‫ييمالسية‬ ad-Dawlah al-ʾIslāmiyyah), also known as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) and the
Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS /ˈaɪsɪs/),[a] is a jihadist group, widely regarded as a terrorist organisation. In its self-proclaimed status as a
caliphate, it claims religious authority over all Muslims across the world and aspires to bring much of the Muslim-inhabited regions of the world
under its direct political control, beginning with territory in the Levant region, which includes Jordan, Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, Cyprus, and an
area in southern Turkey that includes Hatay. The group has been officially designated as a foreign terrorist organization by the United States,
the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, Indonesia, and Saudi Arabia, and has been widely described as a terrorist group by Western and Middle
Eastern media sources. The group, in its original form, was composed of and supported by a variety of Sunni Arab terrorist insurgent groups,
including its predecessor organizations, Al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI) (2003–2006), Mujahideen Shura Council (2006–2006) and the Islamic State of
Iraq (ISI) (2006–2013), other insurgent groups such as Jeish al-Taiifa al-Mansoura, Jaysh al-Fatiheen, Jund al-Sahaba and Katbiyan Ansar Al-
Tawhid wal Sunnah, and a number of Iraqi tribes that profess Sunni Islam. ISIS grew significantly as an organization owing to its participation in
the Syrian Civil War and the strength of its leader, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi. Economic and political discrimination against Arab Iraqi Sunnis since
the fall of the secular Saddam Hussein also helped it to gain support. At the height of the 2003–2011 Iraq War, its forerunners enjoyed a
significant presence in the Iraqi governorates of Al Anbar, Nineveh, Kirkuk, most of Salah ad Din, parts of Babil, Diyala and Baghdad, and
claimed Baqubah as a capital city. In the ongoing Syrian Civil War, ISIS has a large presence in the Syrian governorates of Ar-Raqqah, Idlib and
Aleppo. ISIS is known for its extreme and brutally harsh interpretation of the Islamic faith and sharia law and has a record of horrifying
violence, which is directed at Shia Muslims, indigenous Assyrian/Chaldean/Syriac Christians and Armenian Christians, Yazidis, Druze, Shabakis
and Mandeans in particular. It has at least 4,000 fighters in its ranks in Iraq who, in addition to attacks on government and military targets, have
claimed responsibility for attacks that have killed thousands of civilians. ISIS had close links with al-Qaeda until 2014, but in February of that
year, after an eight-month power struggle, al-Qaeda cut all ties with the group, reportedly for its brutality and "notorious intractability". ISIS’s
original aim was to establish a caliphate in the Sunni-majority regions of Iraq. Following its involvement in the Syrian Civil War, this expanded
to include controlling Sunni-majority areas of Syria. A caliphate was proclaimed on June 29, 2014, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi—now known as Amir
al-Mu'minin Caliph Ibrahim—was named as its caliph, and the group was renamed the Islamic State.
Caliph—Head of state and theocratic absolute monarch—of the self-proclaimed Islamic State
Ibrahim Awwad Ibrahim Ali al-Badri al-Samarrai (Arabic: ‫يم‬ ‫ريه‬ ‫إب‬ ‫ن‬ ‫يب‬ ‫عويد‬ ‫ن‬ ‫يب‬ ‫يم‬ ‫ريه‬ ‫إب‬ ‫ن‬ ‫يب‬ ‫لي‬ ‫ع‬
‫ن‬ ‫يب‬ ‫سحسد‬ ‫بدرا‬ ‫يد‬ ‫,يدمعسريلي‬ born 1971), formerly also known as Dr Ibrahim and Abu Du'a (‫و‬ ‫أب‬ ‫)دععء‬ most
commonly known by the nom de guerre Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi (‫و‬ ‫أب‬ ‫كر‬ ‫ب‬ ‫غديدا‬‫ب‬ ‫)يد‬ and in an attempt to
claim him as a descendant of Prophet Muhammad, more recently as Abu Bakr Al-Baghdadi Al-Husseini Al-
Qurashi (‫و‬ ‫أب‬ ‫كر‬ ‫ب‬ ‫غديدا‬‫ب‬ ‫يد‬ ‫ني‬ ‫ي‬ ‫م‬ ‫ح‬ ‫يد‬ ‫شسي‬ ‫هع‬ ‫يد‬ ‫شي‬ ‫قر‬ ‫)يد‬ and now as Amir al-Mu'minin Caliph Ibrahim (‫ير‬ ‫أس‬
‫ين‬ ‫ن‬ ‫سؤس‬ ‫يد‬ ‫فة‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ل‬ ‫خ‬ ‫يد‬ ‫يم‬ ‫ريه‬ ‫,)إب‬ has been named the Caliph—head of state and theocratic absolute monarch—of
the self-proclaimed Islamic State located in western Iraq and north-eastern Syria since June 29, 2014. He is
the former leader of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), alternatively translated as the Islamic
State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS). On October 4, 2011, the US State Department listed al-Baghdadi as a Specially
Designated Global Terrorist and announced a reward of up to US$10 million for information leading to his
capture or death. Only Ayman al-Zawahiri, chief of the global al-Qaeda organization, merits a larger reward
(US$25 million). Al-Baghdadi is believed to have been born near Samarra, Iraq, in 1971. Reports suggest that
he was a cleric at the Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal Mosque in Samarra at around the time of the US-led
invasion of Iraq in 2003. He earned a master's degree and a PhD in Islamic studies from the University of

Islamic Sciences in the Baghdad suburb of Adhamiya. After the US invasion of Iraq in 2003, al-Baghdadi helped to found the militant group,
Jamaat Jaysh Ahl al-Sunnah wa-l-Jamaah (JJASJ), in which he served as head of the group's sharia committee. Al-Baghdadi and his group joined
the Mujahideen Shura Council (MSC) in 2006, in which he served as a member of the MSC's sharia committee. Following the renaming of the
MSC as the Islamic State of Iraq (ISI) in 2006, al-Baghdadi became the general supervisor of the ISI's sharia committee and a member of the
group's senior consultative council. According to US Department of Defense records, al-Baghdadi was held at Camp Bucca as a "civilian internee"
by US Forces-Iraq from February until December 2004, when he was released. A Combined Review and Release Board recommended an
"unconditional release" of al-Baghdadi and there is no record of him being held at any other time. A number of newspapers, in contrast, have
stated that al-Baghdadi was interned from 2005 to 2009. The Islamic State of Iraq (ISI)—also known as Al-Qaeda in Iraq or AQI—was the Iraqi
division of the international Islamist militant organization al-Qaeda. Al-Baghdadi was announced as leader of the ISI on May 16, 2010, following
the death of his predecessor Abu Omar al-Baghdadi in a raid the month before. As leader of the ISI, al-Baghdadi was responsible for managing
and directing large-scale operations such as the August 28, 2011 attack on the Umm al-Qura mosque in Baghdad which killed prominent Sunni
lawmaker Khalid al-Fahdawi. Between March and April 2011, the ISI claimed 23 attacks south of Baghdad, all of which were alleged to have
been carried out under al-Baghdadi's command. Following the US commando raid on May 2, 2011 in Abbottabad, Pakistan that killed al-Qaeda
supreme leader Osama bin Laden, al-Baghdadi released a statement eulogizing bin Laden and threatened violent retaliation for his death. On
May 5, 2011, al-Baghdadi claimed responsibility for an attack in Hilla that killed 24 policemen and wounded 72 others. On August 15, 2011, a
wave of ISI suicide attacks beginning in Mosul resulted in 70 deaths. Shortly thereafter, the ISI pledged on its website to carry out 100 attacks
across Iraq in retaliation for bin Laden's death. It stated that this campaign would feature various methods of attack, including raids, suicide
attacks, roadside bombs and small arms attacks, in all cities and rural areas across the country. On December 22, 2011, a series of coordinated car
bombings and IED attacks struck over a dozen neighborhoods across Baghdad, killing at least 63 people and wounding 180; the assault came just
days after the US completed its troop withdrawal from the country. On December 26, 2011 the ISI released a statement on jihadist internet
forums claiming credit for the operation, stating that the targets of the Baghdad attack were "accurately surveyed and explored" and that the
"operations were distributed between targeting security headquarters, military patrols and gatherings of the filthy ones of the al-Dajjal Army",
referring to the Mahdi Army of Shia warlord Muqtada al-Sadr. On December 2, 2012, Iraqi officials claimed that they had captured al-Baghdadi
in Baghdad following a two-month tracking operation. Officials claimed that they had also seized a list containing the names and locations of
other al-Qaeda operatives. However, this claim was rejected by the ISI. In an interview with Al Jazeera on December 7, 2012, Iraq's Acting
Interior Minister said that the arrested man was not al-Baghdadi, but rather a section commander in charge of an area stretching from the
northern outskirts of Baghdad to Taji. Al-Baghdadi remained leader of the ISI until its formal expansion into Syria in 2013, when in a statement
on April 8, 2013, he announced the formation of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL)—alternatively translated from the Arabic as the
Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS). As the leader of ISIS, al-Baghdadi took charge of running all ISIS activity in Iraq and Syria. When
announcing the formation of ISIS, al-Baghdadi stated that the Syrian Civil War jihadist faction, Jabhat al-Nusra—also known as Al-Nusra
Front—had been an extension of the ISI in Syria and was now to be merged with ISIS.[29][30] The leader of Jabhat al-Nusra, Abu Mohammad al-
Jawlani, disputed this merging of the two groups and appealed to al-Qaeda emir Ayman al-Zawahiri, who issued a statement that ISIS should be
abolished and that al-Baghdadi should confine his group's activities to Iraq. Al-Baghdadi, however, dismissed al-Zawahiri's ruling and took
control of a reported 80% of Jabhat al-Nusra's foreign fighters. In January 2014, ISIS expelled Jabhat al-Nusra from the Syrian city of Raqqa, and
in the same month clashes between the two in Syria's Deir ez-Zor Governorate killed hundreds of fighters and displaced tens of thousands of
civilians. In February 2014, al-Qaeda disavowed any relations with ISIS. According to several Western sources, al-Baghdadi and ISIS have
received private financing from citizens in Saudi Arabia and Qatar and enlisted fighters from recruitment drives in Saudi Arabia in particular.
On June 29, 2014, ISIS announced the establishment of a caliphate, al-Baghdadi was named its caliph, to be known as Caliph Ibrahim, and the
Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant was renamed the Islamic State (IS). There has been much debate across the Muslim world about the
legitimacy of these moves. The declaration of a caliphate has been heavily criticized by Middle Eastern governments and other jihadist groups,
and by Sunni Muslim theologians and historians. Yusuf al-Qaradawi, a prominent scholar living in Qatar stated: "[The] declaration issued by the
Islamic State is void under sharia and has dangerous consequences for the Sunnis in Iraq and for the revolt in Syria", adding that the title of
caliph can "only be given by the entire Muslim nation", not by a single group. In an audio-taped message, al-Baghdadi announced that ISIS
would march on Rome in its quest to establish an Islamic State from the Middle East across Europe, saying that he would conquer both Rome
and Spain in this endeavor. He also urged Muslims across the world to emigrate to the new Islamic State. On July 5, 2014, a video was released
apparently showing al-Baghdadi making a speech at the Great Mosque of al-Nuri in Mosul, northern Iraq. A representative of the Iraqi
government denied that the video was of al-Baghdadi, calling it a "farce". However, both the BBC and the Associated Press quoted unnamed Iraqi
officials as saying that the man in the video was believed to be al-Baghdadi. In the video, al-Baghdadi declared himself the world leader of
Muslims and called on Muslims everywhere to support him. On July 8, 2014, ISIL launched its online magazine Dabiq. The title appears to have
been selected for its eschatological connections with the Islamic version of theEnd times, or Malahim.According to a report in October 2014,
after suffering serious injuries, al-Baghdadi fled ISIL's capital city Ar-Raqqah due to the intense bombing campaign launched by Coalition
forces, and sought refuge in the Iraqi city of Mosul, the largest city under ISIL control. On November 5, 2014, al-Baghdadi sent a message to al-
Qaeda Emir Ayman al-Zawahiri requesting him to sever his allegiance to Taliban commander Mullah Mohammed Omar. Al-Bagdahdi allegedly
called the Taliban leader "an ignorant, illiterate warlord, unworthy of spiritual or political respect". He then urged al-Zawahiri to swear
allegiance to him as Caliph, in return for a position in the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. The source of this information was a senior
Taliban intelligence officer. Al-Zawahiri did not reply, and instead reassured the Taliban of his loyalty to Mullah Omar. On November 7, 2014,
there were unconfirmed reports of al-Baghdadi's death after an airstrike in Mosul, while other reports said that he was only wounded. On
November 13, 2014, ISIL released an audiotaped message, claiming it to be in the voice of al-Baghdadi. In the 17-minute recording, released via
social media, the speaker said that ISIL fighters would never cease fighting "even if only one soldier remains". The speaker urged supporters of
the Islamic State to "erupt volcanoes of jihad" across the world. He called for attacks to be mounted in Saudi Arabia—describing Saudi leaders as
"the head of the snake" and said that the US-led military campaign in Syria and Iraq was failing. He also said that ISIL would keep on marching
and would "break the borders" of Jordan and Lebanon and "free Palestine." Al-Baghdadi also claimed in 2014 that Islamic jihadists would never
hesitate to eliminate Israel just because it has the United States support. On January 20, 2015, the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights reported
that al-Baghdadi had been wounded in an airstrike in Al-Qa'im, an Iraqi border town held by ISIL, and as a result, withdrew to Syria. Through his
forename, he is rumored to be styling himself after the first ever Caliph, Abu Bakr, who led the so-called "Rightly Guided" or the Rashidun. One
of the distinctive comportments that the original Abu Bakr was distinguished by was the Sunnistic tradition recalling him
replacing Muhammad as prayer leader when he was suffering from illnesses. Another feature of the original Rashidun was what some historians
dub as the firstSunnist Shiist discord during the Battle of Siffin. Some publishers have drawn a correlation between those ancient events and
modern events under Baghdadi's reign. Due to relative stationary nature of Islamic State control, the elevation of religious clergy and the
scripture-themed legal system, some analysts have declared Baghdadi a theocrat and IS a theocracy. Other indications of the decline of
secularism includes the evisceration of secular institutions and its replacement with strict sharià law as well as the gradual caliphization of
regions under their control. In July 2015, Baghdadi was described by a reporter as exhibiting a kinder and gentler side after he banned slaughter

or execution videos. Little is known about al-Baghdadi's family and sources provide conflicting information. Reuters, quoting tribal sources in
Iraq, reports Baghdadi has three wives, two Iraqis and one Syrian. The Iraqi Interior Ministry has said, "There is no wife named Saja al-Dulaimi"
and that al-Baghdadi has two wives, Asma Fawzi Mohammed al-Dulaimi and Israa Rajab Mahal A-Qaisi. According to many sources, Saja al-
Dulaimi is or was al-Baghdadi's wife. The couple met and fell in love online. Some sources prefix her name with caliphess orcalipha in
recognition of her status as the wife of a caliph. She was arrested in Syria in late 2013 or early 2014, and was released from a Syrian jail in March
2014 as part of a prisoner swap involving 150 women, in exchange for 13 nuns taken captive by al-Qaeda-linked militants. Also released in
March were her two sons and her younger brother. Al-Dulaimi's family allegedly all adhere to ISIL's ideology. Her father, Ibrahim Dulaimi, a so-
called ISIL emir in Syria, was reportedly killed in September 2013 during an operation against the Syrian Army in Deir Attiyeh. Her sister, Duaa,
was allegedly behind a suicide attack that targeted a Kurdish gathering in Erbil. The Iraq Interior Ministry has said that her brother is facing
execution in Iraq for a series of bombings in southern Iraq. The Iraq government, however, said that al-Dulaimi is the daughter of an active
member of al-Qaeda's affiliate in Syria, al-Nusra Front. In late November 2014, al-Dulaimi was arrested and held for questioning by Lebanese
authorities, along with two sons and a young daughter. They were traveling on false documents.The children are being held in a care center
while Dulaimi is interrogated. The capture was a joint intelligence operation by Lebanon, Syria and Iraq, with the US assisting Iraq. Al-Dulaimi's
potential intelligence value is unknown. An unnamed intelligence source told The New York Times that during the Iraq war, when the
Americans captured a wife of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, the leader of al-Qaeda in Iraq, "We got little out of her, and when we sent her back, Zarqawi
killed her." Al-Baghdadi's family members are seen by the Lebanese authorities as potential bargaining chips in prisoner exchanges.In the
clearest explanation yet of al-Dulaimi's connection to al-Baghdadi, Lebanese Interior Minister Nohad Machnouk told Lebanon's MTV channel
that "Dulaimi is not Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi's wife currently. She has been married three times: first to a man from the former Iraqi regime, with
whom she had two sons." Other sources identify her first husband as Fallah Ismail Jassem, a member of the Rashideen Army, who was killed in a
battle with the Iraqi Army in 2010. Machnouk continued, "Six years ago she married Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi for three months, and she had a
daughter with him. Now, she is married to a Palestinian and she is pregnant with his child." The Minister added, "We conducted DNA tests on her
and the daughter, which showed she was the mother of the girl, and that the girl is [Baghdadi's] daughter, based on DNA from Baghdadi from
Iraq." Al-Monitor reported a Lebanese security source as saying that al-Dulaimi had been under scrutiny since early 2014. He said, "[Jabhat al-
Nusra] insisted back in March on including her in the swap that ended the kidnapping of the Maaloula nuns. The negotiators said on their behalf
that she was very important, and they were ready to cancel the whole deal for her sake," adding, "It was later revealed by Abu Malik al-Talli, one
of al-Nusra's leaders, that she was Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi's wife." On December 9, 2014, al-Dulaimi and her current Palestinian husband Kamal
Khalaf were formally arrested after the Lebanese Military Court issued warrants and filed charges for belonging to a terrorist group, holding
contacts with terrorist organizations, and planning to carry out terrorist acts. Her freedom was offered in a hostage swap deal. According to a
source interviewed by The Guardian, al-Baghdadi married in Iraq in around 2000 after finishing his doctorate. He had a son soon after, aged 11
years old in 2014. A four- to six-year-old girl who was detained in Lebanon in 2014 is allegedly al-Baghdadi's daughter. According to media
reports, al-Baghdadi was wounded in a March 18, 2015 coalition airstrike at the al-Baaj District, in the Nineveh Governorate, near the Syrian
border. His wounds were so serious that the top ISIL leaders had a meeting to discuss who would replace him if he died. Three days later, on 21
April, al-Baghdadi had not yet recovered enough from his injuries to resume daily control of ISIL.The Pentagon said that al-Baghdadi had not
been the target of the airstrikes and that "we have no reason to believe it was Baghdadi." On April 22, 2015, Iraqi government sources reported
that Abu Ala al-Afri, the self-proclaimed Caliph's deputy and a former Iraqi physics teacher, had been installed as the stand-in leader while
Baghdadi recuperates from his injuries. On May 3, 2015, the Guardian further reported that al-Baghdadi was recovering from severe injuries he
received from a March 18, 2015 airstrike, in a part of Mosul. It was also reported that al-Baghdadi's spinal injury, which left him paralyzed and
incapacitated, means that he may never be able to fully resume direct command of ISIL. By May 13, ISIL fighters had warned they would
retaliate for al-Baghdadi's injury, which the Iraqi Defense Ministry believed would be carried out through attacks in Europe. On May 14, ISIL
released an audio message that it claimed was from al-Baghdadi. In the recording, al-Baghdadi urged Muslims to emigrate to the "Islamic State",
and to join the fight in Iraq and Syria. In the recording, he also condemned the Saudi involvement in Yemen, and claimed that the conflict
would lead to the end of the Saudi royal family's rule. He also claimed that Islam was never a religion of peace, that it was "the religion of
fighting."Assessment was made that this statement proved that al-Baghdadi remained in control or influencing ISIL. On July 20, the New York
Times wrote that rumors al-Baghdadi had been killed or injured earlier in the year had been "dispelled".
Ethel Ana Del Rosario Jara Velásquez (born May 11, 1968) is a Peruvian lawyer and politician who was been
Prime Minister from July 22, 2014 until April 2, 2015. In 2011, she was elected congresswoman, representing to the
Peruvian Nationalist Party. She was Minister of Women and Vulnerable Populations from 2011 to 2014. Currently she is
the President of Council of Ministers of Peru, from July 22, 2014. Ana Jara was born in Ica. She studied law and political
science at the Saint Aloysius Gonzaga National University located in the same city. In the Graduate School of the
university studies culminated LL.M., majoring in civil and commercial matters, and started her PhD in Law. In 1998, he
began working as a notary public in Ica. In 2011, she was elected Congresswoman of the Republic of Peru, representing
the Peruvian Nationalist Party in Ica, the same party won the presidential election. On December 11, 2011 Ana Jara was
sworn as Minister of Women and Social Development. She remained in front of this Ministry until February 24, 2014, when sworn in as Minister
of Labour and Employment Promotion. Following the resignation of Premier René Cornejo went on to chair the Council of Ministers. Her
swearing ceremony was held on July 22, 2014. On March 31, 2015 The Peruvian Congress voted 72 to 42 to censure Jara for spying against
lawmakers, reporters, business leaders and other citizens, which removes Jara as Prime Minister.
Anastase Murekezi(born 1961) is a Rwandan politician and Prime Minister of Rwanda since July 24, 2014. He
studied in Groupe Scolaire Officiel de Butare (GSOB) and went on to Louvain-La-Neuve University in Belgium to
study agriculture. He was the minister of Public service and labor until 23 July 2014 when he was nominated by
President Paul Kagame as the Prime Minister of Rwanda.
Aguila Saleh Issa (Arabic : ‫لة‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ق‬ ‫ع‬ ‫ح‬ ‫صعد‬ ‫مى‬ ‫ي‬ ‫;ع‬ born 1944) is a Libyan
jurist and politician who has been President of the Libyan House of Representatives since August 5,
2014. He is also a representative of the town of Al Qubbah, in the east of the country. On
February 20, 2015, Aguila Saleh Issa's residence was target of bombing by ISIL militants in the town

of Al Qubbah. What became known as Al Qubbah bombings, bombs also targeted a petrol station and a police station as well. It was one of the
deadliest attack in Libya since the end of the 2011 civil war rsulting in a total of at least 40 people although it was not clear how many died on
the attack on his residence. ISIL said that the attacks were carried out in retaliation to the 2015 Egyptian military intervention in Libya.
Georgi Bliznashki (Bulgarian: Георги Близнашки; born October 4, 1956 in Skravena, Sofia Oblast) is
a Bulgarian politician, former Member of the European Parliament and Acting Prime Minister of
Bulgaria from August 6 until November 7, 2014. He was a member of the Coalition for Bulgaria, part of
the Party of European Socialists, and became and was an MEP from January 1, 2007 to June 2007 with the
accession of Bulgaria to the European Union. He was expelled from BSP in the March 2014. On August
6, 2014 he was appointed to serve as a caretaker Prime Minister of Bulgaria and currently holds this
position.
Mahamat Kamoun (born November 13, 1961)is a Central African politician who is the Acting Prime
Minister of the Central African Republic since August 10, 2014. He is the country's first Muslim Prime
Minister. A specialist in finance, Kamoun previously served as the Director-General of the Treasury under
President Francois Bozize. He subsequently served as the head of the cabinet of President Michel Djotodia
and served as an advisor to interim President Catherine Samba-Panza before his appointment as Prime
Minister. Kamoun's appointment as Prime Minister sparked discontent and astonishment among the
Muslim Séléka rebel group, as the group does not consider Kamoun as a member of Séléka, despite
Kamoun being a Muslim. The group subsequently boycotted the National Unity Government as they were
not consulted about the choice of Prime Minister, and even threatened to withdraw from the ceasefire
agreement signed in Brazzaville last month as a result of Kamoun's appointment.
Miroslav Cerar Jr. (known as Miro Cerar; born on August 25, 1963 in Ljubljana) is a Slovenian lawyer, politician and
Prime Minister of Slovenia since September 18, 2014. Cerar is the son of Miroslav Cerar Sr., Olympic gymnastics
champion and lawyer, and Zdenka Cerar, former Minister of Justice and chief prosecutor. Cerar was a professor at the
Faculty of Law of the University of Ljubljana and a legal adviser to parliament. Following the resignation of Alenka
Bratušek’s government in May 2014, Cerar announced that he would enter national politics. On June 2, 2014, he formed a
new political party called Stranka Mira Cerarja (Party of Miro Cerar). In the July election, Cerar's party won a leading total
36 of 90 seats in the parliament.
Ashraf Ghani Ahmadzai (Pashto: ‫شرف‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ني‬ ‫غ‬ ‫,يحسدحا‬ Persian: ‫شرف‬ ‫ي‬ ‫نی‬ ‫غ‬ ‫,يحسدحا‬ born May 19, 1949) is
current President of Afghanistan since September 29, 2014 and an anthropologist by education. He is usually
referred to as Ashraf Ghani, while ahmadzai is the name of his tribe. Ghani previously served as Finance Minister
and as a chancellor of Kabul University. Before returning to Afghanistan in 2002, Ghani was a leading scholar of
political science and anthropology. He worked at the World Bank working on international development
assistance. As Finance Minister of Afghanistan from July 2, 2002 until December 14, 2004, he led Afghanistan's
attempted economic recovery after the collapse of the Taliban government. He is the co-founder of the Institute
for State Effectiveness, an organization set up in 2005 to improve the ability of states to serve their citizens. He was
also Chancellor of Kabul University from December 22, 2004 until December 21, 2008. In 2005 he gave a TED talk,
in which he discussed how to rebuild a broken state such as Afghanistan. Ghani is a member of the Commission on
Legal Empowerment of the Poor, an independent initiative hosted by the United Nations Development
Programme. In 2013 he was ranked second in an online poll to name the world's top 100 intellectuals conducted by
Foreign Policy and Prospect magazines, ranking just behind Richard Dawkins. He previously was named in the
same poll in 2010. Ghani came in fourth in the 2009 presidential election, behind Hamid Karzai, Abdullah Abdullah, and Ramazan Bashardost.
In the 2014 presidential election, Ghani placed second in the first round, qualifying for the run-off election against Abdullah. The official run-off
results show Ghani in the lead, though accused of mass fraud in which President Karzai was allegedly complicit in and the UNAMA has warned
it would be "premature" for either side to claim victory. His brother is Hashmat Ghani Ahmadzai, Grand Council Chieftain of the Kuchis. Ghani
was born in 1949 in the Logar Province of Afghanistan. He completed his primary and secondary education in Habibia High School in Kabul.
He escaped to Lebanon to attend the American University in Beirut, getting a degree in 1973, where he also met his future wife, Rula Ghani. He
returned to Afghanistan in 1977 to teach anthropology at Kabul University before being given a scholarship by the government in 1977 to study
for a Master's degree in anthropology at Columbia University in the United States. When the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA)
communist party came to power in 1978, most of the male members of his family were imprisoned and Ghani was stranded in the United States.
He stayed at Columbia University and earned his PhD in Cultural Anthropology. He was invited to teach at University of California, Berkeley in
1983, and then at Johns Hopkins University from 1983 to 1991. During this period he became a frequent commentator on the BBC Farsi/Persian

and Pashto services, broadcast in Afghanistan. He has also attended the Harvard-INSEAD and World Bank-Stanford Graduate School of
Business's leadership training program. He served on the faculty of Kabul University (1973–77), Aarhus University in Denmark (1977),
University of California, Berkeley (1983), and Johns Hopkins University (1983–1991). His academic research was on state-building and social
transformation. In 1985 he completed a year of fieldwork researching Pakistani Madrasas as a Fulbright Scholar. He also studied comparative
religion. He joined the World Bank in 1991, working on projects in East and South Asia through the mid-1990s. In 1996, he pioneered the
application of institutional and organizational analysis to macro processes of change and reform, working directly on the adjustment program of
the Russian coal industry and carrying out reviews of the Bank’s country assistance strategies and structural adjustment programs globally. He
spent five years each in China, India, and Russia managing large-scale development and institutional transformation projects. He worked
intensively with the media during the first Gulf War, commenting on radio and television and in newspaper interviews. After the September 11
attacks in the United States in 2001, he took leave without pay from the World Bank and engaged in intensive interaction with the media,
appearing regularly on PBS's NewsHour, BBC, CNN, US National Public Radio, and other broadcasters, and writing for major newspapers. In
November 2002, he accepted an appointment as a Special Advisor to the United Nations and assisted Lakhdar Brahimi, the Special
Representative of the Secretary General to Afghanistan, to prepare the Bonn Agreement, the process and document that provided the basis of
transfer of power to the people of Afghanistan. Returning after 24 years to Afghanistan in December 2001, he resigned from his posts at the UN
and World Bank to join the Afghan government as the chief advisor to President Hamid Karzai on February 1, 2002. He worked "pro bono" and
was among the first officials to disclose his assets. In this capacity, he worked on the preparation of the Loya Jirgas (grand assemblies) that
elected Karzai and approved the Constitution of Afghanistan. After the 2004 election, Ghani declined to join the cabinet and asked to be
appointed as Chancellor of Kabul University. As Chancellor he instituted participatory governance among the faculty, students and staff,
training both men and women with skills and commitment to lead their country. After leaving the university, Ghani co-founded the Institute for
State Effectiveness with Clare Lockhart, of which he is Chairman. The Institute put forward a framework proposing that the state should
perform ten functions in order to serve its citizens. This framework was discussed by leaders and managers of post-conflict transitions at a
meeting sponsored by the UN and World Bank in September 2005. The program proposed that double compacts between the international
community, government and the population of a country could be used as a basis for organizing aid and other interventions, and that an annual
sovereignty index to measure state effectiveness be compiled. Ghani was tipped as a candidate to succeed Kofi Annan as Secretary General of the
United Nations at the end of 2006 in a front page report in The Financial Times (September 18, 2006) that quoted him as saying, “I hope to win,
through ideas.” Two distinguished experts on international relations told the paper that "the UN would be very lucky indeed to have him" and
praised his "tremendous intellect, talent and capacity." In 2005 Ghani gave keynote speeches for meetings including the American Bar
Association’s International Rule of Law Symposium, the Trans-Atlantic Policy Network, the annual meeting of the Norwegian Government’s
development staff, CSIS’ meeting on UN reform, the UN-OECD-World Bank’s meeting on Fragile States and TEDGlobal. He contributed to the
Financial Times, International Herald Tribune, Los Angeles Times, New York Times, the Wall Street Journal, and the Washington Post. Ghani
was recognized as the best finance minister of Asia in 2003 by Emerging Markets. He carried extensive reforms, including issuing a new
currency, computerizing treasury operations, instituting a single treasury account, adopting a policy of balanced budgets and using budgets as
the central policy instrument, centralizing revenue collection, tariff reform and overhauling customs. He instituted regular reporting to the
cabinet the public and international stakeholders as a tool of transparency and accountability, and required donors to focus their interventions
on three sectors, improving accountability with government counterparts and preparing a development strategy that held Afghans more
accountable for their own future development. On March 31, 2004, he presented a seven-year program of public investment called Securing
Afghanistan’s Future[8] to an international conference in Berlin attended by 65 finance and foreign ministers. Described as the most
comprehensive program ever prepared and presented by a poor country to the international community, Securing Afghanistan’s Future was
prepared by a team of 100 experts working under a committee chaired by Ghani. The concept of a double-compact, between the donors and the
government of Afghanistan on the one hand and between the government and people of Afghanistan on the other, underpinned the investment
program. The donors pledged $8.2 billion at the conference for the first three years of the program—the exact amount requested by the
government—and agreed that the government’s request for a total seven-year package of assistance of $27.5 billion was justified. Poverty
eradication through wealth creation and the establishment of citizens' rights is the heart of Ghani’s development approach. In Afghanistan, he is
credited with designing the National Solidarity Program,[9] that offers block grants to villages with priorities and implementation defined by
elected village councils. The program covers 13,000 of the country's estimated 20,000 villages. He partnered with the Ministry of
Communication to ensure that telecom licenses were granted on a fully transparent basis. As a result, the number of mobile phones in the
country has jumped to over a million at the end of 2005. Private investment in the sector exceeded $200 million and the telecom sector emerged
as one of the major providers of tax revenue. In January 2009 an article by Ahmad Majidyar of the American Enterprise Institute included Ghani
on a list of fifteen possible candidates in the 2009 Afghan presidential election. On May 7, 2009, Ashraf Ghani registered as a candidate in the
Afghan presidential election, 2009. Ghani's campaign emphasized the importance of: a representative administration; good governance; a
dynamic economy and employment opportunities for the Afghan people. Unlike other major candidates, Ghani asked the Afghan diaspora to
support his campaign and provide financial support. He appointed Mohammed Ayub Rafiqi as one of his vice president candidate deputies, and
hired noted Clinton-campaign chief strategist James Carville as a campaign advisor. Preliminary results placed Ghani fourth in a field of 38,
securing roughly 3% of the votes. On January 28, 2010, Ghani attended the International Conference on Afghanistan in London, pledging his
support to help rebuild their country. Ghani presented his ideas to Karzai as an example of the importance of cooperation among Afghans and
with the international community, supporting Karzai's reconciliation strategy. Ghani said hearing Karzai's second inaugural address in
November 2009 and his pledges to fight corruption, promote reconciliation and replace international security forces persuaded him to help.
Ghani is on the Board of Directors of the World Justice Project, which works to lead a global, multidisciplinary effort to strengthen the Rule of
Law in developing countries. Ghani is one of the main and leading candidates in the 2014 presidential election. His running mates are Abdul
Rashid Dostum, Sarwar Danish and Ahmad Zia Massoud. It was reported that Ghani secured roughly 56% of the total votes. After challenger
Abdullah Abdullah becoming unsatisfied with the result, a complete auditing of votes was initiated under the watch eyes of the international
community. Ghani's campaign emphasized the importance of: a representative administration; good governance; a dynamic economy and
employment opportunities for the Afghan people. Unlike other major candidates, Ghani asked the Afghan diaspora to support his campaign and
provide financial support. He appointed Mohammed Ayub Rafiqi as one of his vice president candidate deputies, and paid for the noted Clinton-
campaign chief strategist James Carville as a campaign advisor. Preliminary results placed Ghani fourth in a field of 38, securing roughly 3% of
the votes. On January 28, 2010, Ghani attended the International Conference on Afghanistan in London, pledging his support to help rebuild
their country. Ghani presented his ideas to Karzai as an example of the importance of cooperation among Afghans and with the international
community, supporting Karzai's reconciliation strategy. Ghani said hearing Karzai's second inaugural address in November 2009 and his pledges
to fight corruption, promote reconciliation and replace international security forces persuaded him to help. After announcing his candidacy for
the 2014 elections, Ghani tapped General Abdul Rashid Dostum, a prominent Uzbek politician and former military official in Karzai's
government and Sarwar Danish, an ethnic Hazara, who also served as the Justice Minister in Karzai's cabinet as his pick for vice presidential
candidates. This Ghani-Dostum pairing is the most remarkable in today's race. In an article for the London Times on August 20, 2009, when

Ghani received three percent of the votes in the presidential elections, he called Dostum a "killer" and lashed out against Karzai for calling
Dostum back from Turkey to lend him his support. Now, Ghani has invited the very same Dostum to be his closest partner in the hope that this
new alliance will bring him victory. "Politics is not a love marriage, politics is a product of historic necessities," he explained to Agence France
Presse a few days after he had chosen Dostum. After none of the candidates managed to win more than 50% of the vote in the first round of the
election, Ghani and Dr. Abdullah Abdullah, the two front runners from the first round contested in a run-off election, which was held on June
14, 2014. Initial results from the run-off elections showed Ghani as the overwhelming favourite to win the elections. However, allegations of
electoral fraud resulted in a stalemate, threats of violence and the formation of a parallel government by his opponent Dr. Abdullah Abdullah
camp. On August 7, 2014 US Secretary of State John Kerry flew to Kabul to broker a deal that outlined an extensive audit of nearly 8 million
votes and formation of a national unity government with a new role for a chief executive who would serve as a prime-minister. After a three
month audit process, which was supervised by the United Nations with financial support from the U.S. government, the Independent Election
Commission announced Ghani as the President of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan after Ghani agreed to a national unity deal. Initially the
election commission said it would not formally announce specific results, it later released a statement that said Ghani managed to secure 55.4%
and Abdullah Abdullah secured 43.5% of the vote. Although it declined to release the individual vote results. Ghani is on the Board of Directors
of the World Justice Project, which works to lead a global, multidisciplinary effort to strengthen the Rule of Law in developing countries. Ashraf
Ghani is married to Rula Saade, a citizen with dual Lebanese and American nationality. Rula Saade Ghani was born in a
Lebanese Christian family. The couple married after they met during their studies at the American University of Beirut, Lebanon during the
1970s. Mrs. Ghani is reportedly fluent in English, French, Arabic, Pashto, Persian and Urdu. Ashraf and Rula Ghani have two children, a
daughter, Mariam Ghani, a Brooklyn-based visual artist, and a son, Tariq. Both were born in United States and carry US citizenship and passports.
In an unusual move for a politician in Afghanistan, Mr. Ghani at his presidential inauguration in 2014 publicly thanked his wife, acknowledging
her with an Afghan name, Bibi Gul. "I want to thank my partner, Bibi Gul, for supporting me and Afghanistan," said Mr. Ghani, looking
emotional. "She has always supported Afghan women and I hope she continues to do so."
Grand Pensionery of the United Provinces
The grand pensionary (Dutch: raad(s)pensionaris) was the most important Dutch official during the time of the United Provinces. In theory he
was only a civil servant of the Estates of the dominant province among the Seven United Provinces: the county of Holland. In practice the grand
pensionary of Holland was the political leader of the entire Dutch Republic when there was no stadtholder (in practice the Prince of Orange) at
the centre of power. The Dutch name raad(s)pensionaris literally translates as "pensionary of council". Indeed, other provinces could also have a
raadspensionaris, e.g. Zeeland, but only the one of Holland was considered by foreign powers to be of any importance, so they called him the
grand pensionary. The position of the grand pensionary was in many ways similar to what through later political and constitutional
developments came to be a prime minister. The office started in 1619 and replaced the title of land's advocate. When there was a stadtholder,
then the grand pensionary was often the second leader of the republic. Being the raadspensionaris of Holland, the grand pensionary acted as the
chairman of States of Holland. He was appointed by the Estates and could be fired instantly by the Estates. A decision of the Estates was made by
a summarizing of all the statements of the delegates by the grand pensionary, with an implicit conclusion about what collective decision had
been made. He had the first say on a subject during a meeting of the Estates and controlled the agenda. This way, if he was a competent man, he
could control the entire decision-making process, especially as one of his "duties" was to represent the ten members of the nobility delegates (the
ridderschap) in their absence and phrase the single opinion they as a body had the right to express. The office existed because all delegates of
the States were, although ranked according to ancient feudal hierarchy, still basically equal (pares) and none among them could thus act as a
head. The Batavian Republic first abolished the office but in its last year, 1805–1806, the title had to be reinstituted on orders of Napoleon as part
of a number of measures to strengthen the executive power; Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck thus acted for a short time as the last grand
pensionary. He officially functioned as a president of the entire Republic, not just of Holland.
List of Grand Pensionaries of Zeeland
Christoffel Roels was Grand Pensionary of Zeeland from 1578 until 1597.
Johan van de Warck was Grand Pensionary of Zeeland from 1599 until 1614.
Bonifacius de Jonge was Grand Pensionary of Zeeland from 1615 until 1625.
Johan Boreel was Grand Pensionary of Zeeland from 1625 until 1629.
Boudewijn de Witte was Grand Pensionary of Zeeland from 1630 until 1641.
Cornelis Adriaansz. Stavenisse was Grand Pensionary of Zeeland from 1641 until 1649.
Johan de Brune (May 29, 1588 - November 7, 1658) was Grand Pensionary of Zeeland from 1649 until his death on
November 7, 1658.

Adriaan Veth was Grand Pensionary of Zeeland from 1658 until 1663.
Pieter de Huybert was Grand Pensionary of Zeeland from 1664 until 1687.
Jacob Verheije (August 7, 1640 - August 16, 1718) was Grand Pensionary of Zeeland from 1687 until his death on August 16, 1718.
Caspar van Citters (January 22, 1674 - September 28, 1734) was Grand Pensionary of Zeeland from 1718 until his death on
September 28, 1734.
Johan Pieter Recxstoot was Grand Pensionary of Zeeland from 1751 until 1756.
Jacob du Bon was Grand Pensionary of Zeeland from 1757 until 1760.
Wilhem van Citters (May 25, 1723 - August 17, 1802) was Grand Pensionary of Zeeland from 1760 until 1766.
Adriaan Steengracht was Grand Pensionary of Zeeland from 1766 until 1770.
Johan Marinus Chalmers was Grand Pensionary of Zeeland from 1770 until 1785.
Laurens Pieter van de Spiegel (January 19, 1736 in Middelburg - May 7, 1800 in Lingen) was Grand Pensionary of
Zeeland from 1785 until 1787 and Grand Pensionary of Holland from November 9, 1787 until February 4, 1795. He was an
Orangist, which means that he was a supporter of Prince William V of Orange. He became grand pensionary of Holland
when the Prussian army had reinstated William V in power in 1787. He fled to Germany in 1795, when the French defeated
the Dutch army and an anti-orangist revolution broke out. He died in Lingen, Prussia. Van de Spiegel was the last Grand
Pensionary of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands, which was replaced with the Batavian Republic modelled after
the French revolutionary state. Laurens Pieter van de Spiegel was married to Digna Johanna Ossewaarde (1841-1813). The
couple had eight children, one of them, jonkheer Cornelis Duvelaer van de Spiegel (1771-1829), was a member of parliament
(1815-1829) after the French era. Cornelis was ennobled by King William I in 1815.
Willem Aarnoud van Citters (January 28, 1741 - September 22, 1811) was Grand Pensionary of Zeeland from 1788 until 1795.
Advocate (Dutch: landsadvocaat) of Holland
The Land's Advocate (Dutch: landsadvocaat) of Holland acted as the chairman of the States of Holland. The office started in the early 14th
century and ended in 1619, when the title was renamed into Grand Pensionary. He was the speaker of the nobility of Holland and had the first
say on a subject during a meeting of the Estates. A decision of the Estates was made by a summarizing of all the statements of the other
delegates by the Land's Advocate. The Land's Advocate of Holland was the most powerful man of the United Provinces when there was no
Stadtholder in Holland (because two-thirds of the tax income of the republic came from the county of Holland). The most powerful land's
advocates of Holland were the last two, Paulus Buys (1572–1584) and Johan van Oldebarnevelt (1586–1619).
List of Advocates (Dutch: landsadvocaat) of Holland
Barthout van Assendelft (ca. 1440 -1502) was Land's Advocate (Dutch: landsadvocaat) of Holland from 1480 until 1489 and from 1494
until 1497.
Jan Bouwensz (ca. 1452 - March 11, 1514) was Land's Advocate (Dutch: landsadvocaat) of Holland from 1489 until 1494.

Frans Coebel van der Loo (ca. 1470 - September 12, 1532) was Land's Advocate (Dutch: landsadvocaat) of Holland from 1500 until 1513.
Albrecht van Loo (ca. 1472 - January 5, 1525) was Land's Advocate (Dutch: landsadvocaat) of Holland from 1513 until 1524.
Aert van der Goes (1475 - November 1, 1545) was a member of the House of Goes and Land's Advocate (Dutch:
landsadvocaat) of Holland from 1525 until 1544. He studied at the University of Leuven. Aert van der Goes was born in Delft, and
was a lawyer and pensionary of Delft from 1508–1525. From May 1525 until January 1544 he was State Attorney (Grand
Pensionary) of the States of Holland. He wrote the Register of Dachvaerden's Lands of the States of Holland in which the events
during the meetings of the States captured. Aert van der Goes was a son of Witte van der Goes. His first marriage was to Barbara
Herwijnen. After her death he married Margaret of Banchem. From his first marriage son Aert van der Goes the young born.
This Aert was attorney for the Great Council of Malines. From the marriage with Margaret of Banchem was a son, Adriaen van
Der Goes and a daughter, Geneviève. Adriaen succeeded him as Grand Pensionary of Holland. Daughter Geneviève married Everhard Nicolai,
who later became President of the Grand Council of Mechelen. Through his son Adrian he is an ancestor of the American Rachael Clawson, who
married prominent farmer George John Debolt. The Arms of the Van der Goes family consisted of black three gold-silver horned goats heads,
and the crest a silver bokkenkop between two silver pheasant feathers.
Adriaen van der Goes (1505 - November 5, 1560) was Land's Advocate (Dutch: landsadvocaat) of Holland from 1544 until his
death on November 5, 1560.
Jacob van den Eynde (1515 - 1570) was Land's Advocate (Dutch: landsadvocaat) of Holland from 1560 until 1568.
Paulus Buys, heer van Zevenhoven and (from 1592) Capelle ter Vliet (Amersfoort, 1531 – IJsselstein, Manor house
Capelle ter Vliet, May 4, 1594) was Land's Advocate (Dutch: landsadvocaat) of Holland from 1572 until 1584. Buys was
born in a wealthy family in Amersfoort in the province of Utrecht. He studied law in France and worked as lawyer at the
court of Holland for a few years. In 1561, he became pensionary of Leiden. Later on he also became 'hoogheemraad' (the
chief official) of the 'Hoogheemraadschap van Rijnland' (Dutch constitutional body for the security of dikes and polders
against the sea and the rivers) of Rhineland (the area around Leiden). Pensionaries were well paid. His task was to advise
the city council on legal affairs and serve as the representative of Leiden at the estates of Holland. Paulus Buys was
appointed as land's advocate of Holland in 1572 before Calvinists took the county. As representative of Holland, he vetoed
the decision of the duke of Alva to raise taxes at the estates general of the Netherlands in Brussels. Because of this, he had
to flee from the Netherlands and joined Prince William of Orange in Arnstadt. Paulus Buys was Roman Catholic, but he, like many moderate
Catholics, joined the rebels (Protestantism was a minority faith in Holland at that time) and secretly helped raising armies for the cause of the
prince when he came back to Leiden in the same year. He refused to admit a Spanish garrison in Leiden. Leiden became a part of rebel territory
still in 1572. Buys became the head of the rebel 'Raad van State' (one of the constitutional bodies of the Netherlands) in 1573, which would make
him the rebel leader if William of Orange died at the siege of Haarlem. The prince did not go to Haarlem, which fell to the Spanish. Buys was
the leader of the inundations (opening of dikes to let the water of the sea in) during the siege of Leiden in 1574. The water drowned the Spanish
cannons, so the Spanish had to lift the siege. He was the leader of the reconstruction of Leiden and appealed to the prince of Orange to establish
the Leiden University. He was curator of the university. In 1575, he went to England to try to convince Elizabeth I of England to ally with rebel
Holland and the prince of Orange. Elizabeth refused. Paulus Buys was one of the founders of the Union of Utrecht in 1579, which made an end
to the Union of Brussels, which was founded by the prince of Orange. Prince William of Orange was killed in 1584. Paulus Buys lost his mainstay
and left the estates of Holland, probably because he thought that they were overly supportive of France. Buys was an advocate of the English,
and he became the chief adviser of the Earl of Leicester, when the latter was sent to the Netherlands to aid the rebels with an English army.
Leicester first supported Buys against political rivals, but within two months fell out with him. As Elizabeth I seemed to drawback her support
for the Dutch, Leicester was convinced that Buys intrigued against him behind his back. Buys was arrested in July 1586 by the town of Utrecht, to
Leicester's contentment. Many cities asked for his release, but he remained imprisoned for half a year and was released after the payment of a
very large amount of money as ransom. This was the end of his political career. He lost his last profession as curator of Leiden university in
1591, because of his authoritarian behaviour. He sold his possessions in Leiden and moved to IJsselstein, where he died in 1594. His son is most
likely Cornelis Buys (*1559), who inherited the manors Capelle ter Vliet and Zevenhoven in 1592 - the year Paulus Buys died. Cornelis Buys was
a member of the General Chamber of Auditors of the County Holland and also a court clerk there. It is not known when Cornelis Buys died.
Johan van Oldenbarnevelt (Dutch pronunciation: [joɑŋ vɑŋ oldə(n)bɑrnəvəlt] ), Lord of Berkel en Rodenrijs
(1600), Gunterstein (1611) and Bakkum (1613) (September 14, 1547 - May 13, 1619) was Land's Advocate (Dutch:
landsadvocaat) of Holland from 1586 until his death on May 13, 1619. He was a Dutch statesman who played an
important role in the Dutch struggle for independence from Spain. Van Oldenbarnevelt was born in Amersfoort. He
studied law at Leuven, Bourges, Heidelberg and Padua, and traveled in France and Italy before settling in The Hague. He
was a supporter of the Arminians, who also supported William the Silent in his revolt against Spain, and fought in
William's army. He served as a volunteer for the relief of Haarlem (1573) and again at Leiden (1574). Oldenbarnevelt was
married in 1575 to Maria van Utrecht. In 1576 he obtained the important post of pensionary of Rotterdam, an office
which carried with it official membership of the States of Holland. In this capacity his industry, singular grasp of affairs,
and persuasive powers of speech speedily gained for him a position of influence. He was active in promoting the Union of Utrecht (1579) and
the offer of the countship of Holland and Zeeland by William (prevented by Williams death in 1584). He was a fierce opponent of the policies of
the Earl of Leicester, the governor‐general at the time, and instead favoured Maurice of Nassau, a son of William. Leicester left in 1587, leaving
the military power in the Netherlands to Maurice. During the governorship of Leicester, Van Oldenbarnevelt was the leader of the strenuous
opposition offered by the States of Holland to the centralizing policy of the governor. On March 16, 1586, Van Oldenbarnevelt, in succession to
Paulus Buys, became Land's Advocate of Holland for the States of Holland, an office he held for 32 years. This great office, given to a man of
commanding ability and industry, offered unbounded influence in a multi-headed republic without any central executive authority. Though

nominally the servant of the States of Holland, Oldenbarnevelt made himself the political personification of the province which bore more than
half the entire charge of the union. As mouthpiece of the States-General, he practically dominated the assembly. In a brief period, he became
entrusted with such large and far-reaching authority in all details of administration, that he became the virtual Prime minister of the Dutch
republic. During the two critical years following the withdrawal of Leicester, the Advocate's statesmanship kept the United Provinces from
collapsing under their own inherent separatist tendencies. This prevented the United Provinces from becoming an easy conquest for the
formidable army of Alexander of Parma. Also of good fortune for the Netherlands, the attention of Philip II of Spain was at its greatest
weakness, instead focused on a contemplated invasion of England. Spain's lack of attention coupled with the United Province's lack of central,
organized government allowed Oldenbarnevelt to gain control of administrative affairs. His task was made easier by receiving whole-hearted
support from Maurice of Nassau, who, after 1589, held the office of Stadholderate of five provinces. He was also Captain-General and Admiral of
the Union. The interests and ambitions of Oldenbarnevelt and Maurice did not clash. Indeed, Maurice's thoughts were centered on training and
leading armies, and he had no special capacity as a statesman or desire for politics. Their first rift between came in 1600, when Maurice was
forced against his will by the States-General, under the Advocate's influence, to undertake a military expedition to Flanders. The expedition was
saved from disaster by desperate efforts that ended in victory at the Nieuwpoort. In 1598, Oldenbarnevelt took part in special diplomatic
missions to King Henry IV of France and Queen Elizabeth I of England, and again in 1605 in a special mission sent to congratulate King James I
of England on his accession. The opening of negotiations by Albert and Isabel in 1606 for a peace or long truce led to a great division of opinion
in the Netherlands. The archdukes having consented to treat with the United Provinces as free provinces and states over which they had no
pretensions, Van Oldenbarnevelt, who had with him the States of Holland and the majority of the Regenten patriciate throughout the county,
was for peace, provided that liberty of trading was conceded. Maurice and his cousin William Louis, stadholder of Friesland, with the military
and naval leaders and the Calvinist clergy, were opposed to it, on the ground that the Spanish king was merely seeking a repose to recuperate his
strength for a renewed attack on the independence of the Netherlands. For some three years the negotiations went on, but at last after endless
parleying, on April 9, 1609, a truce for twelve years was concluded. All the Dutch demands were directly or indirectly granted, and Maurice felt
obliged to give a reluctant and somewhat sullen assent to the favorable conditions obtained by the firm and skillful diplomacy of the Advocate.
The immediate effect of the truce was a strengthening of Van Oldenbarnevelt's influence in the government of the Dutch Republic, now
recognized as a free and independent state; external peace, however, was to bring with it internal strife. For some years there had been a war of
words between the religious parties, the strict Calvinist Gomarists (or Contra-Remonstrants) and the Arminians. In 1610 the Arminians,
henceforth known as Remonstrants, drew up a petition, known as the Remonstrance, in which they asked that their tenets (defined in the Five
Articles of Remonstrance) should be submitted to a national synod, summoned by the civil government. It was no secret that this action of the
Arminians was taken with the approval and connivance of Van Oldenbarnevelt, who was an upholder of the principle of toleration in religious
opinions. The Gomarists in reply drew up a Contra-Remonstrance in seven articles, and called for a purely church synod. The whole land was
henceforth divided into Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants; the States of Holland under the influence of Van Oldenbarnevelt supported the
former (Remonstrants), and refused to sanction the summoning of a purely church synod (1613). They likewise (1614) forbade the preachers in
the Province of Holland to treat the disputed subjects from their pulpits. Obedience was difficult to enforce without military help. Riots broke
out in certain towns, and when Maurice was appealed to, as Captain‐General, he declined to act. Though in no sense a theologian, he then
declared himself on the side of the Contra-Remonstrants, and established a preacher of that persuasion in a church in The Hague (1617). The
Advocate now took a bold step. He proposed that the States of Holland should, on their own authority, as a sovereign province, raise a local force
of 4000 men (waardgelders) to keep the peace. The States-General, meanwhile, by a bare majority (4 provinces to 3) agreed to the summoning of
a national church synod. The States of Holland, also by a narrow majority, refused their assent to this, and passed on August 4, 1617 a strong
resolution (Scherpe Resolutie) by which all magistrates, officials and soldiers in the pay of the province were on pain of dismissal required to
take an oath of obedience to the States of Holland, and were to be held accountable not to the ordinary tribunals, but to the States of Holland.
The States‐General of the Republic saw this as a declaration of sovereign independence on the part of Holland, and decided to take action. A
commission was appointed, with Maurice at its head, to compel the disbanding of the waardgelders. On July 31, 1618 the Stadholder, at the head
of a body of troops, appeared at Utrecht, which had thrown in its lot with Holland. At his order the local militias laid down their arms. His
progress through the towns of Holland met with no military opposition. The States' sovereignty party was crushed without a battle being fought.
On August 23, 1618, by order of the States-General, Van Oldenbarnevelt and his chief supporters, Hugo Grotius, Gilles van Ledenberg, Rombout
Hogerbeets and Jacob Dircksz de Graeff, were arrested or lost their political positions in government. Van Oldenbarnevelt was, with his friends,
kept in strict confinement until November of that year, and then brought for examination before a commission appointed by the States-General.
He appeared more than 60 times before the commissioners and the whole course of his official life was severely examined. During the period of
inquest, he was neither allowed to consult papers nor put his defense in writing. On February 20, 1619, Van Oldenbarnevelt was arraigned before
a special court of twenty-four members, only half of whom were Hollanders, and nearly all of whom were personal enemies. This ad hoc judicial
commission was necessary, because, unlike in the individual provinces, the federal government did not have a judicial branch. Normally the
accused would be brought before the Hof van Holland or the Hoge Raad van Holland en Zeeland, the highest courts in the provinces of Holland
and Zeeland; however, in this case, the alleged crime was against the Generaliteit, or federal government, and required adjudication by the
States-General, acting as highest court in the land. As was customary in similar cases (for instance, the later trial of the judges in the case of the
Amboyna massacre), the trial was delegated to a commission. Of course, the accused contested the competence of the court, as they contested
the residual sovereignty of the States-General, but their protest was disregarded. It was in fact a kangaroo court, and the stacked bench of judges
on Sunday, May 12, 1619, pronounced a death sentence on Van Oldenbarnevelt. On the following day, the old statesman, at the age of seventy-
one, was beheaded in the Binnenhof, in The Hague. Van Oldenbarnevelt's last words to the executioner were purportedly: "Make it short, make it
short." He was buried in a family grave under the Court Chapel (Hofkapel) at the Binnenhof. The States of Holland noted in their Resolution
book on May 13, that Van Oldenbarnevelt had been: "…a man of great business, activity, memory and wisdom – yes, extra-ordinary in every
respect." They added the sentence Die staet siet toe dat hij niet en valle, which is a quotation of 1 Cor 10: 12 which probably should be
understood as referring to both how Oldenbarnevelt ended after holding one of the highest offices in the Republic and for choosing the side of
the Arminians, whom were ruled to be standing outside the Dutch Reformed Church and the Reformed Faith by the Synod of Dort. Van
Oldenbarnevelt left two sons; Reinier van Oldenbarnevelt, lord of Groeneveld and Willem van Oldenbarnevelt, lord of Stoutenburg, and two
daughters. A conspiracy against the life of Maurice, in which both sons of Van Oldenbarnevelt took part, was discovered in 1623. Stoutenburg,
who was the chief accomplice, made his escape and entered the service of Spain; Groeneveld was executed. The Nederland Line ship Johan van
Oldenbarnevelt carried his name from 1930 to 1963.
List of Grand Pensionaries (Dutch: raad(s)pensionaris) of Holland
Andries de Witt (June 16, 1573, Dordrecht - November 26, 1637, Dordrecht) was Grand Pensionary of Holland from 1619 until 1621. He was
the successor of Johan van Oldebarnevelt, who had been executed in 1619. Andries de Witt was a member of the old Dutch patrician family De

Witt. He was the oldest son of Johanna Heijmans and Cornelis Fransz de Witt (1545-1622), 16-fold burgomaster of Dordrecht. He was the uncle
of Cornelis de Witt and Johan de Witt, Grand Pensionary from 1652 to 1672, who were sons of his youngest brother Jacob de Witt. Andries
married Elizabeth van den Honert in 1604, with whom he had 10 children.
Anthonie Duyck (c. 1560 - September 13, 1629) was Grand Pensionary of Holland from 1621 until his death on September 13, 1629.
Anthonie Duyck was a descendant of a notable hollandic family which was founded in the 13th century. Anthonie was the son of Gijsbert Duyck,
lord of Oud Karspel, who was appointed schout of Hoorn in 1580.[2] Anthonie was born in The Hague and studied law in Leiden. In 1588, he
became advocaat-fiscaal (public prosecutor) at the Raad van State. This was, next to the States-General of the Netherlands, the central
constitutional body of the United Provinces. As official of the Raad van State, he accompanied Prince Maurice of Orange on his military
campaigns between 1591 and 1602. He wrote long reports about these military campaigns for his superiors in The Hague. In 1602, he became
griffier at the court of Holland. In 1619 even a justice in the Hoge Raad van Holland en Zeeland. He was named as one of the public prosecutors
against his will for the special court which tried Johan van Oldebarnevelt. This court pronounced the death penalty in 1619. Duyck became
Grand Pensionary of Holland in 1621. His tasks were moderate compared to the tasks of Oldebarnevelt. Oldebarnevelt was an important political
leader, while Duyck was more an official. Anthonie married twice, and his first wife, Elisabeth de Michely, gave him three children, all
daughters. From 1591 until 1602, Anthonie kept a journal, detailing his activities and events of the Eighty years war, in which the Dutch
Republic was embroiled at that time. This journal was edited and published by the Dutch department of war in 1862, though of the seven books,
one, book four, was lost.
Jacob Cats (November 10, 1577 - September 12, 1660) was a Dutch poet, humorist, jurist and Grand Pensionary of
Holland from 1629 until 1631 and from 1636 until 1651. He is most famous for his emblem books. Having lost his
mother at an early age, and being adopted with his three brothers by an uncle, Cats was sent to school at Breda. He then
studied law at Rotterdam and at Paris, and, returning to Holland, he settled at the Hague, where he began to practise as
an advocate. His pleading in defence of a person accused of witchcraft brought him many clients and some reputation.
He had a serious love affair about this time, which was broken off on the very eve of marriage by his catching a tertian
fever which defied all attempts at cure for some two years. For medical advice and change of air Cats went to England,
where he consulted the highest authorities in vain. He returned to Zeeland to die, but was cured mysteriously with the
powder of a travelling doctor (later sources claim he was a quack). He married in 1602 a lady of some property, Elisabeth
van Valkenburg, and thenceforward lived at Grijpskerke in Zeeland, where he devoted himself to farming and poetry. In
1621, on the expiration of the twelve-year truce with Spain, the breaking of the dykes drove him from his farm. He was made pensionary
(stipendiary magistrate) of Middelburg; and two years afterwards of Dordrecht. In 1627 Cats came to England on a mission to Charles I, who
made him a knight. In 1636 he was made Grand Pensionary of Holland, and in 1648 keeper of the great seal; in 1651 he resigned his offices, but
in 1657 he was sent a second time to England on what proved to be an unsuccessful mission to Oliver Cromwell. In the seclusion of his villa of
Sorgvliet (near the Hague), he lived from this time till his death, occupied in the composition of his autobiography (Eighty-two Years of My Life,
first printed at Leiden in 1734) and of his poems. He became famous in his own lifetime from his moralistic Emblem books, most notably Sinne
en Minnebeelden, for which Adrian van der Venne cut the plates. He died on September 12, 1660, and was buried by torchlight, and with great
ceremony, in the Klooster-Kerk at the Hague. He is still spoken of as Father Cats by his countrymen. Cats was contemporary with Hooft and
Vondel and other distinguished Dutch writers in the golden age of Dutch literature, but his Orangist and Calvinistic opinions separated him
from the liberal school of Amsterdam poets. He was, however, intimate with Constantijn Huygens, whose political opinions were more nearly in
agreement with his own. Hardly known outside of Holland, among his own people for nearly two centuries he enjoyed an enormous popularity.
His diffuseness and the antiquated character of his matter and diction, have, however, come to be regarded as difficulties in the way of study, and
he is more renowned than read. A statue to him was erected at Brouwershaven in 1829. He wrote the following works: Jacob Cats, Complete
Works (1790–1800, 19 vols.), later editions by van Vloten (Zwolle, 1858–1866; and at Schiedam, 1869–1870): Pigott, Moral Emblems, with
Aphorisms, etc., from Jacob Cats (1860); and P. C. Witsen Geijsbeek, Het Leven en de Verdiensten van Jacob Cats (1829). Southey has a very
complimentary reference to Cats in his Epistle to Allan Cunningham, Emblemata or Minnebeelden with Maegdenplicht (1618), Selfstryt (1620),
Houwelick (1625), Proteus Ofte Minne-Beelden Verandert In Sinne-Beelden. (1627), Spiegel van den ouden en nieuwen Tyt (1632), Ouderdom,
Buytenleven en Hofgedachten op Sorgvliet (1664) and Gedachten op slapelooze nachten (1660). Cats' moralistic poems were told and retold like
nursery rhymes over several generations. Even today many of his coined phrases are still colloquialisms in everyday Dutch. Many of Cats' moral
poems were set to music. A selection of these, Klagende Maeghden en andere liederen, was recorded in 2008 by the Utrecht ensemble Camerata
Trajectina.
Adriaan Pauw, knight, heer van Heemstede, Bennebroek, Nieuwerkerk etc. ( November 1, 1585 - February 21, 1653) was
Grand Pensionary of Holland from 1631 until 1636 and from 1651 until his death on February 21, 1653. He was born in
Amsterdam in a rich merchant family - his father, Reinier Pauw (1564–1636) wasn't only a merchant, but also a Mayor of
Amsterdam - and studied law in Leiden. He was the pensionary of Amsterdam from 1611 to 1627. In 1620 he bought the town of
Heemstede and was called 'Lord of Heemstede'. He was appointed grand pensionary in 1631. Pauw, Holland and Amsterdam
wanted an alliance with Spain, but Prince Frederick Henry of Orange wanted an alliance with France. Frederick Henry sent
Pauw to France to start an alliance against Spain. Pauw accepted this assignment and allied with France. He resigned in 1636 as
grand pensionary. After the Peace of Münster (1648) for which he was instrumental as ambassador for Holland Pauw became grand pensionary
again in 1651 although there was much opposition against him. He tried to stop a war with England in 1652. He died in 1653. Adriaan Pauw was
married to Anna van Ruytenburgh (1589–1648), daughter of Pieter van Ruytenburgh, heer van Vlaardingen, Vlaardingerambacht en Ter Horst
(1562–1627), a wealthy merchant. Her mother was Aleyda Huybrechts van Duyvendrecht.
Johan de Witt or Jan de Witt, heer van Zuid- en Noord-Linschoten, Snelrewaard, Hekendorp and IJsselveere
(September 24, 1625 - August 20, 1672) was Grand Pensionary of Holland from July 30, 1653 until his death on
Auguat 20, 1672. was a key figure in Dutch politics in the mid-17th century, when its flourishing sea trade in a
period of globalization made the United Provinces a leading European power during the Dutch Golden Age. De
Witt controlled the Netherlands political system from around 1650 until shortly before his death in 1672 working
with various factions from nearly all the major cities, especially his hometown, Dordrecht, and the city of birth of
his wife, Amsterdam. As a republican he opposed the House of Orange and, along with his brother Cornelis de
Witt, was murdered by Orangists. Johan de Witt was a member of the old Dutch patrician family De Witt. His father
was Jacob de Witt, an influential regent and burgher from the patrician class in the city of Dordrecht, which in the

seventeenth century, was one of the most important cities of the dominating province of Holland. Johan and his older brother, Cornelis de Witt,
grew up in a privileged social environment in terms of education, his father having as good acquaintances important scholars and scientists,
such as Isaac Beeckman, Jacob Cats, Gerhard Vossius and Andreas Colvius. Johan and Cornelis both attended the Latin school in Dordrecht,
which imbued both brothers with the values of the Roman Republic. Johan de Witt married on February 16, 1655 Wendela Bicker (1635–1668),
the daughter of Jan Bicker (1591–1653), an influential patrician from Amsterdam, and Agneta de Graeff van Polsbroek (1603–1656). Jan Bicker
served as mayor of Amsterdam in 1653. De Witt became a relative to the strong republican-minded brothers Cornelis and Andries de Graeff, and
to Andries Bicker. The couple had four children, three daughters and one son: Anna de Witt (1655–1725), married to Herman van den Honert,
Agnes de Witt (1658–1688), married to Simon Teresteyn van Halewijn, Maria de Witt (1660–1689), married to Willem Hooft and Johan de Witt
Jr. (1662–1701), heer van Zuid- en Noord-Linschoten, Snelrewaard and IJsselveere, married to Wilhelmina de Witt. He was secretary of the city of
Dordrecht. After De Witt's death, his brother in law Pieter de Graeff became a guardian over his children. After having attended the Latin school
in Dordrecht, he studied at the University of Leiden, where he excelled at mathematics and law. He received his doctorate from the University of
Angers in 1645. He practiced law as an attorney in The Hague as an associate with the firm of Frans van Schooten. In 1650 (the year that
stadtholder William II of Orange died) he was appointed leader of the deputation of Dordrecht to the States of Holland. In December of 1650, De
Witt became the pensionary of Dordrecht. Once during the year 1652 in the city of Flushing, Johan De Witt found himself faced with a mob of
angry demonstrators of sailers and fishermen. An ugly situation was developing. However, even at the young age of 27 years, it was Johan's cool
headedness calmed the situation. Many people older than Johan began to see greatness in Johan dating from that experience. In 1653, Johan De
Witt's uncle, Cornelis De Graeff, made De Witt 'Grand Pensionary' of the States of Holland. Since Holland was the Republic's most powerful
province, he was effectively the political leader of the United Provinces as a whole—especially during periods when no stadholder had been
elected by the States-General of the United Provinces. That is why the raadpensionaris of Holland was also referred to as the Grand Pensionary
— in many way similar to a modern Prime Minister. Representing the province of Holland, Johan De Witt tended to identify with the economic
interests of the shipping and trading interests in the United Provinces. These interests were largely concentrated in the province of Holland and
to a lesser degree in the province of Zeeland.[6] In the religious conflict between the Calvinists and the more moderate members of the Dutch
Reform Church which arose in 1618, Holland tended to belong to the more tolerant Dutch Reform faction in the United Provinces. Not
surprisingly, Johan de Witt also held views of toleration of religious beliefs. Together with his uncle, Cornelis De Graeff, Johan De Witt brought
about peace with England after the First Anglo-Dutch War with the Treaty of Westminster in May of 1654. The peace treaty had a secret annex,
the Act of Seclusion, forbidding the Dutch ever to appoint William II's posthumous son, the infant William, as stadholder. This annex had been
attached on instigation of Cromwell, who felt that since William III was a grandson of the executed Charles I, it was not in the interests of his
own republican regime to see William ever gain political power. On September 25, 1660 the States of Holland under the prime movers of De
Witt, Cornelis De Graeff, his younger brother Andries de Graeff and Gillis Valckenier resolved to take charge of William's education to ensure
he would acquire the skills to serve in a future—though undetermined—state function. Influenced by the values of the Roman republic, De Witt
did his utmost anyway to prevent any member of the House of Orange from gaining power, convincing many provinces to abolish the
stadtholderate entirely. He bolstered his policy by publicly endorsing the theory of republicanism. He is supposed to have contributed personally
to the Interest of Holland, a radical republican textbook published in 1662 by his supporter Pieter de la Court. De Witt's power base was the
wealthy merchant class into which he was born. This class broadly coincided politically with the "States faction", stressing Protestant religious
moderation and pragmatic foreign policy defending commercial interests. The "Orange faction", consisting of the middle class, preferred a
strong leader from the Dutch Royal House of Orange as a counterweight against the rich upper-classes in economic and religious matters alike.
Although leaders that did emerge from the House of Orange rarely were strict Calvinists themselves, they tended to identify with Calvinism,
which was popular among the middle classes in the United Provinces during this time. William II of Orange was a prime example of this
tendency among the leaders of the House of Orange to support Calvinism. William II was elected Stadholder by the States-General in 1625 and
continued to serve until his death in November, 1650. Eight days after his death, William II wife delivered a male heir--William III of Orange.
Many citizens of the United Provinces urged the election of the infant William III as stadholder under a regency until he came of age. However,
the States-General, under the dominance of the province of Holland did not fill the office of Stadholder. The United Provinces were to remain
"stadholderless" until crucial year of 1672. During this stadholderless period Jacob De Witt reached the apex of his power in the United Provinces.
In the period following the Treaty of Westminster, the Republic grew in wealth and influence under De Witt's leadership. De Witt created a
strong navy, appointing one of his political allies, Lieutenant-Admiral Jacob van Wassenaer Obdam, as supreme commander of the confederate
fleet. Later De Witt became a personal friend of Lieutenant-Admiral Michiel de Ruyter. The Second Anglo-Dutch War began in 1665, lasting
until 1667 when it ended with the Treaty of Breda, in which De Witt negotiated very favorable agreements for the Republic after the partial
destruction of the British fleet in the Raid on the Medway, initiated by De Witt himself and executed in 1666 by De Ruyter. At about the time the
Treaty of Breda was concluded, De Witt made another attempt at pacification of the quarrel between States Party and Orangists over the position
of the Prince of Orange. He proposed to have William appointed captain-general of the Union on reaching the age of majority (23); on condition,
however, that this office would be declared incompatible with that of stadtholder in all of the provinces. For good measure the stadtholderate
was abolished in Holland itself. This Perpetual Edict (1667) was enacted by the States of Holland on August 5, 1667, and recognized by the
States-General on a four-to-three vote in January, 1668. This edict was added by Gaspar Fagel, then Pensionary of Haarlem, Gillis Valckenier and
Free Imperial Knight Andries de Graeff, two prominent Amsterdam regents, which abolished the stadtholderate in Holland "for ever". During
1672, which the Dutch refer to as the "year of disaster" or rampjaar, France and England attacked the Republic during the Franco-Dutch War and
the Orangists took power by force and deposed de Witt. Recovering from an earlier attempt on his life in June, he was lynched by an organized
mob after visiting his brother Cornelis in prison. After the arrival of Johan de Witt, the city guard was sent away on a pretext to stop farmers who
were supposedly engaged in pilfering. Without any protection against the assembled mob, the brothers were dragged out of the prison and killed
next to a nearby scaffold. Immediately after their deaths, the bodies were mutilated and fingers, toes, and other parts of their bodies were cut off.
Other parts of their bodies were allegedly eaten by the mob (or taken elsewhere, cooked and then allegedly eaten). The heart of Cornelis de Witt
was exhibited for many years next to his brother's by one of the ringleaders, the silversmith Hendrik Verhoeff. Today some historians believe
that his adversary and successor as leader of the government, stadtholder William III of Orange, was involved in the de Witt brothers' deaths. At
the very least he protected and rewarded their killers. The ringleaders were Johan Kievit, his brother-in-law Cornelius Tromp and Johan van
Banchem. Besides being a statesman Johan de Witt, also was an accomplished mathematician. In 1659 he wrote "Elementa Curvarum Linearum"
as an appendix to Frans van Schooten's translation of René Descartes' "La Géométrie". In this, De Witt derived the basic properties of quadratic
forms, an important step in the field of linear algebra. In 1671 his Waardije van Lyf-renten naer Proportie van Los-renten was published ('The
Worth of Life Annuities Compared to Redemption Bonds'). This work combined the interests of the statesman and the mathematician. Ever since
the Middle Ages, a Life Annuity was a way to "buy" someone a regular income from a reliable source. The state, for instance, could provide a
widow with a regular income until her death, in exchange for a 'lump sum' up front. There were also Redemption Bonds that were more like a
regular state loan. De Witt showed - by using probability mathematics - that for the same amount of money a bond of 4% would result in the
same profit as a Life Annuity of 6% (1 in 17). But the 'Staten' at the time were paying over 7% (1 in 14). The publication about Life Annuities is
seen as the first mathematical approach of chance and probability.[citation needed] After the violent deaths of the brothers the 'Staten' issued

new Life Annuities in 1673 for the old rate of 1 in 14. In 1671 De Witt conceived of a life annuity as a weighted average of annuities certain
where the weights were mortality probabilities (that sum to one), thereby producing the expected value of the present value of a life annuity.
Edmond Halley’s (of comet fame) representation of the life annuity dates to 1693, when he re-expressed a life annuity as the discounted value of
each annual payment multiplied by the probability of surviving long enough to receive the payment and summed until there are no survivors.
De Witt's approach was especially insightful and ahead of its time. In modern terminology, De Witt treats a life annuity as a random variable and
its expected value is what we call the value of a life annuity. Also in modern terminology, De Witt's approach allows one to readily understand
other properties of this random variable such as its standard deviation, skewness, kurtosis, or any other characteristic of interest. The lynching of
the De Witt brothers is depicted with a dramatic intensity in the first four chapters of The Black Tulip, a historical fiction novel written by
Alexandre Dumas, père in 1850, and this event has implications for the whole plot line of the book. In its time, Dumas's book helped make this
tragedy known to a French readership (and a readership in other countries into whose languages the book was translated) who were otherwise
ignorant of Dutch history.
Gaspar Fagel (January 25, 1634, The Hague - December 5, 1688) was Grand Pensionary of Holland from August 20,
1672 until his death on December 5, 1688. He was a Dutch statesman, writer and quasi-diplomat who authored
correspondence from and on behalf of William III, Prince of Orange during the English Revolution of 1688. Fagel was
born into a distinguished patrician family. Little is known of his early life, but in 1663 he was elected Pensionary of
Haarlem and as such was also a member representative of the States of Holland. In 1667 Fagel was one of the signers
(the other signers where Grand Pensionary Jan de Witt, Gillis Valckenier and Andries de Graeff) of the Perpetual Edict,
that was a resolution of the States of Holland in which they abolished the office of Stadtholder in the province of
Holland. At approximately the same time a majority of provinces in the States-General of the Netherlands agreed to
declare the office of stadtholder (in any of the provinces) incompatible with the office of Captain general of the Dutch
Republic. In 1670, he was made Greffier (secretary) of the Staten-Generaal and in 1672 after the resignation and
subsequent murder of Jan and Cornelis de Witt. He was distinguished for his integrity and the firmness with which he repelled the attempts of
Louis XIV of France against his country, and for his zeal in supporting the claims of the William III, Prince of Orange to the English throne.
Fagel was responsible for writing several letters on instruction from William III and several letters purported to be from William III himself
(with William's permission). In 1687, Fagel wrote an open letter to the English people, as Pensionary of Netherlands, deploring the religious
policy of James. The letter was generally interpreted as a covert bid, by William II, for the English throne. In 1688, in preparation for the English
Revolution during which William III landed in England, Fagel wrote to English advocate James Stewart[2] calling on public figures there to not
use the various anti-Catholic Test Oaths and associated legislation to restrict the liberties of Catholic citizens. While his correspondence called
for liberty and freedom of religion, Fagel also suggested that the Dutch would support the softening of some laws only if: “...those Laws remain
still in their full vigour by which the Roman Catholics are shut out of both Houses of Parliament, and out of all public employment;
Ecclesiastical, Civil and Military: as likewise all those others, which confirm the Protestant Religion and which secures it against all the attempts
of the Roman Catholic.”The effect of this letter, and others, was to assure the Parliament that William III would not stand in the way of the
Parliament's legislative agenda which manifested itself in the form of the Bill of Rights of 1689.
Michiel ten Hove (February 24, 1640, The Hague - March 24, 1689, The Hague) was ad interim Grand Pensionary of
Holland from December 5, 1688 until his death on March 24, 1689. He was a lawyer for the Dutch West Indies Company
since 1664 and from 1672 pensionary of Haarlem. He was son of Nicolaas ten Hove and Cornelia Fagel, and nephew of
Gaspar Fagel, who preceded him as Grand Pensionary and died in 1688. He was well appreciated by William III of Orange
and probably would have succeeded his uncle formally, had he not died in office the next year.
Anthonie (Antonius) Heinsius (November 23, 1641, Delft - August 3, 1720, The Hague) was a Dutch statesman who
served as Grand Pensionary of Holland from May 27, 1689 to his death on August 3, 1720. Heinsius was born at Delft on
November 23, 1641, son of a wealthy merchant and patrician. In 1679 he became pensionary for Delft in the States of Holland
and in 1687 he became a member of the board of the Delft chamber of the Dutch East India Company (VOC). In 1682 he was
appointed special negotiator to France by stadholder William III of Orange. His mission was to see if anything could be done
about the occupation of the Principality of Orange by Louis XIV. The mission was a failure but he made a favourable
impression on William III. He became Grand Pensionary of the States of Holland, and thereby the most powerful man in the
Estates-General of the Netherlands, on May 27, 1689, when William III became king of England and had to move to London.
He was the confidant and correspondent of William, who left the guidance of Dutch affairs largely in his hands. Heinsius was a tough negotiator
and one of the greatest and most obstinate opponents of the expansionist policies of France. He was one of the driving forces behind the anti-
France coalitions of the Nine Years' War (1688–97) and the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14). After the death of William III in 1702,
Heinsius' hold on the States General diminished, but he remained Grand Pensionary of Holland until his own death in 1720.
Isaäc van Hoornbeek (December 9, 1655 - June 17, 1727) was Grand Pensionary of Holland from September 12, 1720
until his death on June 17, 1727. Hoornbeek was born in Leiden. He served as pensionary of Rotterdam before 1720. He died,
aged 71, in The Hague.

Simon van Slingelandt, Lord of the manor of Patijnenburg (January 14, 1664, Dordrecht - December 1, 1736, The
Hague) was Grand Pensionary of Holland from July 17, 1727 until his death on December 1, 1736. He was also Treasurer-
General of the United Provinces from 1725 until 1727. Simon van Slingelandt was the son of Govert van Slingelandt, Lord of
Dubbeldam (1623-1690), pensionary of Rotterdam and ambassador to Prussia, Sweden, Poland (1656) and Denmark (1659).
He was also the secretary of the Council of State in 1664. Before becoming grand pensionary Van Slingelandt wrote several
reports as preparation for the second Great Assembly (Dutch Tweede Grote Vergadering , a kind of Constitutional
Convention to reform the constitution of the Dutch Republic, November 28, 1716 - September 14, 1717), in which he
proposed to give the Council of State ("Raad van State") more power. He was convinced of the necessity to restrict the power
of the cities and the provinces in order to strengthen the central power of the republic. The Great Assembly however ended in failure when
nothing came from Van Slingelandts proposed reforms. He was powerful in the United Provinces, being the grand pensionary of Holland, which
contributed sixty percent of the tax income of the republic. Van Slingelandt was a staunch republican, who wanted to keep the House of Orange
out of the centre of power. He was a strong advocate of an alliance with Great Britain; otherwise, he thought, the United Provinces wouldn't
survive. He mediated peace between Great Britain and Austria in 1732 and between France and Austria in 1736. Simon van Slingelandt, a Master
of Laws, was married to Susanna de Wildt (1666-1722) and Johanna Margaretha van Coesvelt, his housemaid (1726-1736).
Anthonie van der Heim (November 28, 1693, The Hague - July 16, 1746, 's-Hertogenbosch) was Grand Pensionary of Holland from April
4, 1737 until July 7, 1746. He was also Treasurer-General of the United Provinces from 1727 until 1737.
Willem Buys (1661 - February 18, 1749) was acting Grand Pensionary of Holland from July 7 until September 23, 1746.
He was pensionary of Amsterdam (1693–1725) and first secretary of the estates of Holland (1726–1749). He had successes as
negotiator of the United Provinces. He improved the diplomatic relationship with England in 1705 and 1706 and he was one
of the Dutch negotiators during the peace negotiations in 1710 in Geertruidenberg and 1713 in Utrecht.
Jacob Gilles (ca. 1691 in Kollum - September 10, 1765 in Ypenburg manor near Rijswijk) was Grand Pensionary of Holland
from September 23, 1746 until June 18, 1749.
Pieter Steyn (October 6, 1706 in Haarlem - November 5, 1772) was Grand Pensionary of Holland from June 18, 1749 until his death on
November 5, 1772. He was the son of Johanna Patijn and Adriaan Steyn, burgomaster of Haarlem and studied Law in Leiden between 1724 and
1726. Both his marriages (of 1736 and 1740) were without issue. He was survived by his second wife, Cornelia Schellinger.
Pieter van Bleiswijk (1724, Delft - October 29, 1790, The Hague) was Grand pensionary of Holland from December 1, 1772
until November 1787. He was an opponent of Duke Louis Ernest of Brunswick-Lüneburg, the main adviser of Prince William V
of Orange. He was deposed during the Prussian invasion of the United Provinces in 1787.
Batavian Republic
The Batavian Republic (Dutch: Bataafse Republiek; French: République Batave), was the successor of the Republic of the United Netherlands. It
was proclaimed on January 19, 1795, and ended on June 5, 1806, with the accession of Louis I to the throne of Holland. The new Republic
enjoyed widespread support from the Dutch population and was the product of a genuine popular revolution. Nevertheless, it clearly was
founded with the armed support of the revolutionary French Republic. The Batavian Republic became a client state, first of that "sister-republic",
and later of the French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte, and its politics were deeply influenced by the French who supported no fewer than three
coups d'état to bring the different political factions to power that France favored at different moments in her own historical development.
Nevertheless, the process of creating a written Dutch constitution was mainly driven by internal political factors, not by French influence —
until Napoleon forced the Dutch government to accept his brother as monarch. The political, economic and social reforms that were brought
about during the relatively short duration of the Batavian Republic have had a lasting impact. The confederal structure of the old Dutch
Republic was permanently replaced by a unitary state. For the first time in Dutch history, the constitution that was adopted in 1798 had a
genuinely democratic character, despite the fact that it was pushed through after a coup d'état. For a while the Republic was governed
democratically, although the coup d'état of 1801 put an authoritarian regime in power, after another change in constitution. Nevertheless, the
memory of this brief experiment with democracy helped smooth the transition to a more democratic government in 1848 (the constitutional

revision by Thorbecke, limiting the power of the king). A type of ministerial government was introduced for the first time in Dutch history and
many of the current government departments date their history back to this period. Though the Batavian Republic was a client state, its
successive governments tried their best to maintain a modicum of independence and to serve Dutch interests even where those clashed with
those of their French overseers. This perceived obduracy led to the eventual demise of the Republic when the short-lived experiment with the
(again authoritarian) regime of "Grand Pensionary" Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck produced insufficient docility in the eyes of Napoleon. The
new king, Louis Bonaparte – Napoleon's own brother – surprisingly did not slavishly follow French dictates either, leading to his downfall.
Revolutionary Committee of the Batavian Republic
The Revolutionary Committee of the Batavian Republic was formed on January 17,1795, when revolution broke out in the Netherlands against
the regime of prince William V of Orange. The French army defeated William's army and he fled to Great Britain. Many refugees, who had fled
the Netherlands after the Prussian invasion on behalf of prince William V in 1787, could now return. The presidents of the Revolutionary
Committee acted as heads of state of the Netherlands (only recognized by France).
List of Members of the Revolutionary Committee of the Batavian Republic
Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck (October 31, 1761 - February 15, 1825), Lord of Nyenhuis, Peckedam and
Gellicum, was a Dutch jurist, ambassador and politician who served as Grand Pensionary of the Batavian Republic
from April 29, 1805 until June 4, 1806. He was Member of the Revolutionary Committee of the Batavian Republic
together with Pieter Paulus and Wijbo Fijnje from January 17 until February 6, 1795 and President of the National
Assembly of the Batavian Republic from May 17 until May 30, 1796 and from May 15 until May 29, 1797.
Schimmelpenninck van der Oye in Deventer, Overijssel on October 31, 1761. His father, Gerrit Schimmelpenninck,
was a wine trader who had no rights in the Dutch Republic because of his commitment to the Mennonite Church.
Schimmelpenninck attended Athenaeum Illustre of Deventer, and started studying Roman and Contemporary Law at
Leiden University in 1781. He received his doctorate in 1784 with his essay De imperio populari rite temporato, in
which he defended Rousseau's doctrine of popular sovereignty, although in which this is limited to the wealthy
bourgeoisie. He also spoke positively of the Constitution of the United States with its dominating president in this
thesis. The wealthy bourgeoisie, to which Schimmelpenninck belonged, was devoid of any power, particularly in the
east of the Netherlands. This frustrated him and others who enjoyed a good education but weren't assigned influential
positions in government because of their background and religion, since these were reserved to scions from the nobility and patricians, and
limited to followers of the Reformed Church in the eastern provinces. He was one of the first Patriots as a student in Leiden. As the leader of a
vrijkorps, he surpressed a insurrection of Orangist students in June 1784. After receiving his doctorate, on December 11, 1784,
Schimmelpenninck left for Amsterdam to become a lawyer. In 1788, he married Catharina Nahuys, a scion of a wealthy family who provided
him with a lot of money and the necessary connections in the capital. Together with these connections, he established the Patriotic
Vaderlandsche Sociëteit. The society was short-lived; it was disbanded in 1787 due to Prussian intervention. The Prussians restored the power of
the stadtholder, William V, and his Prussian consort Wilhelmina. The Patriots were thwarted since, and a portion fled to France.
Schimmelpenninck and his friends decided to established a "scientific" society, the Kunst- en letterlievend Genootschap Doctrina et Amicitia,
which included several other prominent Patriots, including Cornelis Rudolphus Theodorus Krayenhoff, Alexander Gogel, Samuel Iperusz.
Wiselius and Nicolaas van Staphorst. In 1789, Schimmelpenninck, together with the Van Staphorst brothers, participated in the Holland Land
Company, a company investing in northern New York. After the French invasion in the Batavian Revolution on January 19, 1795,
Schimmelpenninck ended up in the temporary city government of Amsterdam. On March 1, 1796, he was elected into the 1st National Assembly
for the electoral district Amsterdam-XIV. He seated with the Moderates, who opposed the Federalists and the Unitarians. The Federalists were
conservative; they were satisfied with the departure of the stadtholder but opposed further reforms. They were proponents of provincial
autonomy. The Unitarians, however, were radical, and wished to replace the provinces with departments and establish a powerful, democratic
and centralised government for the Batavian Republic. Schimmelpenninck's Moderates took a central stance. They also wanted a centralised
government like the Unitarians, but had no desire for profound broadening of electoral law. Schimmelpenninck presided the National Assembly
from May 17 until May 30, 1796, and again from May 15 until May 29, 1797. In 1797, he was re-elected into the 2nd National Assembly, but
immediately resigned when rumours spread that the "ultrademocrats" attempted to seize control with the aid of France. After the coup d'était of
Herman Willem Daendels on June 12, 1798, Schimmelpenninck returned to the foreground. Although Daendels was an irascible Unitarian, he
followed the line of "cautious tempering" and was supported by Schimmelpenninck. On June 14, 1798, Schimmelpenninck was appointed
Batavian ambassador to Paris. After Napoleon's coup d'était on November 9, 1799, Schimmelpenninck became captivated with his personality. In
1801 and 1802 he took part in the negotiations preceding the Treaty of Amiens. He saw himself as an independent negotiator between the
French and English plenipotentiaries, Napoleon's brother Joseph Bonaparte and Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis respectively. In
practice, the Batavian Republic had no independent foreign politics anymore, and had to comply to the wishes of France. On December 8, 1802,
Schimmelpenninck was transferred to London, but he returned half a year later, on June 14, 1803, at the request of France. The battle between
Great Britain and France and its allies, including the Batavian Republic which had endured another coup d'était in 1801, continued. He returned
to his office as ambassador to France on September 15, 1803, where he was noticed by Napoleon. In 1804, Schimmelpenninck was asked to write
a new constitution for the Batavian Republic by Napoleon. When he finished this constitution a year later, he returned to the Netherlands to
assume power from the Uitvoerend Bewind, being appointed Grand Pensionary of the Batavian Republic on April 29, 1805. In practice,
Schimmelpenninck had become a puppet to Napoleon. It is not clear whether he felt a much desire to hold this office, but since Napoleon more
or less forced him to, he accepted. As Grand Pensionary, he was assisted by a legislative body of nineteen men which would assemble every six
months to express its opinion on the policy. A kind of cabinet of secretaries of state was introduced. One of the most important secretaries of
state was Alexander Gogel, who managed the department of Finance. In the short period of time in which Schimmelpenninck was Grand
Pensionary he, assisted by Gogel, implemented several major reforms. Gogel managed to implement a new tax system. Excise on salt, soap, peat,
alcoholic beverages, grain, flour and meat was introduced, as well as land tax, a cadastre, personal tax on clerks, horses, furniture, etc.
Schimmelpenninck's secretary of Education, Hendrik van Stralen, implemented a new education act introducing subsidised public education. On
June 4, 1806, Schimmelpenninck was replaced by Napoleon's brother Louis Bonaparte, who would be crowned king of the newly formed French
puppet state, the Kingdom of Holland. Schimmelpenninck was knighted into French nobility in 1807. He was further elevated to Count by
Napoleon himself on April 10, 1811. After his resignation as Grand Pensionary, he was unemployed for five years, until he became senator in the
Imperial Senate of France on December 30, 1811. The Netherlands had since been annexed by France. When Napoleon was defeated and the
United Kingdom of the Netherlands was established in 1815, Schimmelpenninck took up a seat in the First Chamber of the States General on

September 21, 1815. Due to an eye decease, he was forced to give up his seat in 1820, and retreat from public life. He died in Amsterdam on
February 15, 1825. He had following titles and honours: Netherlands: Grand Cross of the Order of the Union (February 16, 1807), France: Grand
Cross of the Order of the Reunion ( February 22, 1812) and France: Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honour (November 8, 1813).
Wybo Fijnje (Zwolle, January 24, 1750 - Amsterdam, October 2, 1809) was Member of the Revolutionary
Committee of the Batavian Republic together with Pieter Paulus and Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck from
January 17 until February 6, 1795 and Head of Uitvoerend Bewind (Dutch for Executive Authority),
Government of the Batavian Republic from January 23 until June 12, 1798. He was a Dutch Mennonite minister,
publisher in Delft, Patriot, exile, coup perpetrator, politician and - during the French era - manager of the state
newspaper. Fijnje grew up in Haarlem, where his father Jan Fijnje, originally from Harlingen, was also a
minister. His parents died in 1763. He studied in Amsterdam, but moved in 1771 to Leiden and came in contact
with the Collegiants in Rijnsburg. Fijnje began his career as a Mennonite preacher in Deventer (1774). Then he
was called to Delft, where he had already (c.1775) taken up an office on the "Hollandsche Historische Courant".
Fijnje was probably inspired by these publishing activities and the internationally praised paper of his wife's
family in Leiden, for in November 1775 he had married with Emilie Luzac, the publisher's daughter. Johan
Luzac, writing under the pseudonym Attica in Fijnje's Dutch-language paper, warned his brother-in-law to
practice more moderation in dealing with his co-worker, the journalist Gerrit Paape, that fairly took in anti-orangist viewpoints. In 1783 Fijnje
was involved in the foundation of the exercitiegenootschappen; in 1785 by the setting up of the "Leids Ontwerp", together with Pieter Vreede and
Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck. On 21 August Fijnje - as a delegate - read a revolutionary explanation in the council hall. Eleven members of the
vroedschap were requested to leave, after which eight patriots could be installed. All this happened without the stadholder's knowledge or
consent, but with the assent of the population, although they apparently remained outside, silent, watching the flying column under the
leadership of Adam Gerard Mappa, a letter-setter. A baker that sold orange cakes was court-martialled and put under house arrest. The
excercitiegenootschap took over Delft's large ammunition and weapons store in de Republiek, now the army museum. Their example was
followed in Leiden, Dordrecht, Alkmaar, Hoorn and Monnikendam, even under the threat of a Prussian ultimatum and raid. Wijbo Fijnje was
one of the convinced and militant patriots who were forced to leave the city on September 19, 1787, when the Prussian army occuptied Delft. The
population of Delft was revenged on the exercitiegenootschap by smashing up a room full of Delftware painted with symbols of freedom, and
throwing its inventory into a canal. The Fijnje family went to Antwerp, later to Brussels and finally to Watten (French-Flanders). Johan
Valckenaer, Herman Willem Daendels and Mappa rented - on Fijnje's initiative - a castle, on top of a hill. The four husbands and three bachelors
ordered the rooms, grew vegetables and played billiards. Wijbo Fijnje remarried with a Frenchwoman, Marie Françoise Constance Ténar, after
Emilie died in 1788. When the members of the association were accused by the local population of growing and selling grain, the commune was
dissolved in 1792. Mappa emigrated to the U.S. and began the first printer in New York; Valckenaer moved to Paris. In 1795 Fijnje returned to
the Republic, after which he became a member of the committee of vigilance (a kind of purification commission), chaired the provisional
assembly of representatives and - together with Samuel Iperusz Wiselius and professor Theodorus van Kooten - served on the committee for
dismantling the VOC. In all these posts he took radical viewpoints, but he also amused himself. On 22 January 1798, he committed a coup with
Pieter Vreede and Van Langen to guarantee "the unity and indivisibility" of the new republic. The radical and omnipresent Fijnje represented the
Executive Government and set up the "Binnenlandse Bataafse Courant" (Interior Batavian Courier). Langen and the other controversial unifiers
did not long remain in power, for on 12 June 1798 Herman Willem Daendels led a new coup. For the old-exiles with a marked character, there
was no longer any place even for democratically elected aristocrats. Fijnje and Van Langen were locked up until the end of the year in the
Gevangenpoort, accused of embezzling state money through the then public prosecutor Van Maanen, but never tried. Fijnje became a private
citizen and busied himself with an old hobby, higher mathematics, and stayed indoors for weeks at a time. On advise of Rutger Jan
Schimmelpenninck, Alexander Gogel and Hendrik van Rays Fijnje became in 1805 editor in chief of the "Bataafse Staatscourant" (Batavian state
courier). He got the domain "het Kleine Loo" to disposition. When the editing was moved to Amsterdam, Jonas Daniel Meijer was appointed
editor in chief. Fijnje seems to have been unable through illness to keep up the job, but kept on as a de facto manager. He has writtes the
following works: 1774 - Theoriae Systematis Universi specimen philosophicum (dissertations), 1783 - Beknopte tijdrekenkundig begrip der
algemeene geschiedenis; 2 delen, waarvan het tweede deel verloren is gegaan. (Brief summary of the general history; 2 parts, of which the
second part is lost.).
Pieter Paulus(April 9, 1754 - March 17, 1796) was Member of the Revolutionary Committee of the Batavian Republic
together with Wijbo Fijnje and Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck from January 17 until February 6, 1795. He was also State
General of the Batavian Republic in May and in September 1795 and President of the National Assembly of the Batavian
Republic from March 1 until his death on March 17, 1796. He was a Dutch jurist, admiral-fiscal and politician. He was
one of the ideologues of the Patriot movement and is considered by many Dutch as the founder of their democracy and
political unity Paulus was born in Axel, Zeelandic Flanders. His father was Axel's mill-builder, schepen and mayor. He
came, perhaps, from a family of lapsed Huguenots. After an education in 's-Hertogenbosch, he received his training
from the Vlissingen rector Van Cruysselenbergen, in whose house he lived. He became a student in Utrecht in 1770.
Paul became known nationwide through his bestselling book on the stadholder system, in which he opposed both the
stadholder system and the duke of Brunswijk. In 1774, he became a student at Leiden and he graduated on 12 December
1775, with his dissertation a second publishing success. He established himself in 1776 as a lawyer at the Court of
Holland in the Hague. In 1780, he was involved in the controversy over the expansion of the fleet, defended by Admiral Jan Hendrik van
Kinsbergen. In 1781, he married the very rich Françoise Vockestaert and bought the country house "Pasgeld" near Delft. He again became
nationally known in 1783 through his apologia for the city of Alkmaar, that was one of the first cities (after Schoonhoven) to pass a resolution to
limit the influence of the stadholder. Paul was approached, meanwhile, to be one of the leaders of the Patriots, with whom he began to negotiate.
He was invited to come to consult for the Zeekantoor of the Admiralty of Amsterdam with princess Wilhelmina of Prussia and Joan Cornelis van
der Hoop. In April 1785, he became Darn public- prosecutor (advocaat-fiscaal) for the Admiralty of the Maze, taking the initiative in its
reorganisations. After the events in Hattem, Paul refused to come to Het Loo, but probably was in friendly negotiations with the French ministry
of Foreign Affairs. Paul was banished in 1788 and left with his brother-in-law for Paris. He spoke with Mattheus Lestevenon, friendly between the
quarrelling old-regents Valckenaer and Van Beyma. The French politicians and ministers received him with much regard. Convinced of the
ideals of the French Revolution, he turned against slavery and published a Dissertation on the question: In which senses can men be said to be?
And which are the rights and duties that result? (In welken zin kunnen de menschen gezegd worden gelijk te zijn? En welke zijn de regten en
pligten die daaruit voortvloeien?) In 1793 he was named "apostle of the mankind" (apostel der mensheid). In 1795, he was one of the foremost
men of the revolution. The next year he was appointed unanimously to become chairman of the Batavian Republic's National Assembly. At the

inauguration, he caught a serious cold from which he died, in 's-Gravenhage, aged 41. He has written two works: Het nut der stadhouderlijke
regeering aangetoond (1773) and Verklaring van de Unie van Utrecht (4 dln., 1775–1779), dedicated to Joachim Rendorp.
The States General of the Batavian Republic
The States General of the Batavian Republic was the name for the Dutch government between January, 1795 and March 1796. It was nominally
the same as the States-General of the Dutch Republic, the predecessor of the Batavian Republic, as the old constitution, the Union of Utrecht
remained in place till a new National Assembly of the Batavian Republic was seated after general election, under universal manhood suffrage.
In practice, however, the places of the members of the previous Orangist regime as representatives of the Seven Provinces were now taken by
members of the Patriot party. The presidents of the States-General, both under the old and the new Republic, were acting as head of state for
their term in office as president (usually a month). It is a common misunderstanding that the Stadtholder was the head of state in the Dutch
Republic. However, since 1588 the States-General had been the Sovereign power in the Republic. The stadtholder (when one was in office as for
long periods of time, the so-called First Stadtholderless Period and Second Stadtholderless Period, the Republic dispensed with their services) was
just their "first servant."
List of State Generals of the Batavian Republic
Johannes Lambertus Huber (August 7, 1750 - June 30, 1826) was the State General of the Batavian Republic from
March 30 until April 6, 1795 and from December 1795 until 1796.
Jacob George Hieronymus Hahn (September 17, 1761 - November 22, 1822) was the State General of the Batavian
Republic from May 19 until June 2, 1795.
Willem Aernout de Beveren (December 4, 1749 - June 17, 1820) was the State General of the Batavian Republic from July 6 until
September 1795.
Gerrit David Jordens (February 19, 1734 - February 6, 1803) was the State General of the Batavian Republic from September until
November 25, 1795.
Pieter Pijpers (December 14, 1749 - June 20, 1805) was the State General of the Batavian Republic from November 25 until
December 1795. He has written the following books: Het mislukt verraad op Amersfoort (1776), Vaderlandse gedichten (1784-
1787), Stephanus (1790), Neptha (1794), Eemlands tempe (1803) and Spartacus (1805).
National Assembly of the Batavian Republic
The National Assembly of the Batavian Republic was the name for the Dutch parliament between 1796 and 1801. The National assembly was
founded in 1796 after general elections. It replaced the States-General of the Batavian Republic. The President of the National Assembly was the
head of state of the Batavian Republic between 1796 and 1798, during his term in office (usually half a month). A number of members of the
second National Assembly (elected in 1797) were expelled after the coup d'état of 25 January 1798 by Pieter Vreede, with the help of general
Daendels. This rump-Assembly was itself dissolved after a second coup on June 12, 1798, again by Daendels. A new Representative Assembly
came into being after the elections of 1798, that were then held under a new constitution. Under that new constitution the head of state of the
Batavian Republic was a member of the Uitvoerend Bewind.
List of Presidents of the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic
Pieter Leonard van de Kasteele (August 13, 1748 - April 7, 1810) was President of the National Assembly of the Batavian
Republic from March 18 until April 1, 1796.
Albert Johan de Sitter (September 1, 1748 - June 17, 1814) was President of the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic from April 1
until April 17, 1796.

Jan Bernd Bicker (August 27, 1746, Amsterdam - December 16, 1812, Wassenaar) was President of the National Assembly
of the Batavian Republic from April 17 until May 3, 1796. He was also Member of the Batavian Republic's executive organ, the
Staatsbewind, from February 1 until April 29, 1805. He was a Dutch merchant, politician and a very powerful member of the
Bicker family.
Daniël Cornelis de Leeuw (1747 - 1834) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic from May 3 until May 17,
1796.
Joan Arend de Vos van Steenwijk (March 26, 1746 - March 8, 1813) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic
from May 30 until June 13, 1796.
Paulus Hartog(June 23, 1735 - February 15, 1805) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic from June 27 until
July 11, 1796.
Ludovicus Timon de Kempenaer (August 9, 1752 - September 22, 1812) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian
Republic from July 25 until August 8, 1796.
Jan Pieter van Wickevoort Crommelin (July 14, 1763 - May 6, 1837) was the President of the National Assembly of the
Batavian Republic from August 8 until August 22, 1796.
Paulus Emmanuel Anthonie de la Court (December 24, 1760 - April 5, 1848) was the President of the National
Assembly of the Batavian Republic from August 22 until September 5, 1796.
Jacob Jan Cambier (June 29, 1856 - October 4, 1831) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic from
September 5 until September 19, 1796.
Jacobus Kantelaar (August 22, 1759 - July 7, 1821) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic
from September 19 until October 3, 1796. He was publish the following works: De invloed der ware verlichting op het lot der
vrouwen en het huwelijksgeluk (uitgeg. door 't Nut) (Amsterdam 1793) Bijdr. tot bevordering der Schoone kunsten en
wetensch. (avec Rhijnvis Feith, 3 volumes, Amsterdam 1793-96), Lofreden op H.A. Schultens (Amsterdam 1794), Ode aan
Schimmelpenninck (avec Rhijnvis Feith, Amsterdam 1805), Euterpe, een tijdschr. ter bevordering van fraaije kunsten en
wetensch. (avec Matthijs Siegenbeek, 2 volumes, Amsterdam 1810) and Verh. over het Herdersdicht (La Haye 1813).
Tammo Adriaan ten Berge (1756 - October 22, 1830) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic from October 3
until October 17, 1796.
Bernardus Blok(April 10, 1753 - July 29, 1818) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic from October 17 until
October 31, 1796.
Abraham Gijsbertus Verster (January 31, 1751 - October 7, 1848) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic
from November 14 until November 28, 1796.
IJsbrand van Hamelsveld (February 7, 1743 - May 19, 1812) was the President of the National Assembly of the
Batavian Republic from November 28 until December 12, 1796.

Cornelis van Lennep (February 21, 1751 - February 1, 1813) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian
Republic from December 12 until December 26, 1796.
Jan Hendrik Stoffenberg (March 30, 1749 - March 8, 1838) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic from
December 26, 1796 until Januaty 9, 1797.
Lambert Engelbert van Eck (1754 - 1803) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic from January 9 until
January 23, 1797.
Willem Queysen (May 30, 1754 - August 12, 1817) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic from January 23
until February 6, 1797.
Carel de Vos van Steenwijk (March 11, 1759 - January 2, 1830) was the President of the National Assembly of the
Batavian Republic from February 6 until February 20, 1797.
Hendrik van Castrop (October 1838 - July 31, 1806) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic from February 20
until March 6, 1797.
Meinardus Siderius (November 20, 1754 - December 19, 1829) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic from
March 6 until March 20, 1797.
Cornelis Wilhelmus de Rhoer (1751 - 1821) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic from
March 20 until April 3, 1797.
Jan Couperus (October 6, 1755 - November 16, 1833) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic
from April 3 until April 17, 1797.
Jacob Abraham Uitenhage de Mist (April 20, 1749 - August 3, 1823) was the President of the National Assembly
of the Batavian Republic from April 17 until May 1, 1797 and Commissioner-General of the Cape Colony during the
interregnum from February 21, 1803 until September 25, 1804 in accordance with the short-lived Treaty of Amiens. The
Cape Colony had been under Dutch control from 1652. In 1795 it was occupied by the British following the Battle of
Muizenberg but under the final terms of peace between Great Britain, France and the Netherlands – then the Batavian
Republic – in 1802, the colony was restored to the Batavian Republic. Born in Zaltbommel on April 20, 1749, de Mist
studied Roman Dutch law at the University of Leiden, from September 17, 1766 until July 1, 1768. He practised law in
Kampen from 1768 to 1769 and held the following positions thereafter: Chief Administrative Officer of Leiden from 1769
to 1795, Member of the Council for Regional Representation for the People of Overijssel, from 1795 to October 1795,
Member of the Committee for the Affairs and Possessions of the Batavian Republic in America and on the Coast of Guinea, from October 1795
to May 1796, Member of the First National Council for the district of Deventer, from May 17, 1796 to September 1, 1797, Chairman of the First
National Council, from April 17, 1797 to May 1, 1797, Member of the Second National Council for the district of Deventer, from September 1,
1797 to January 22, 1798, Imprisonment in the Hague, from January 22, 1798 to July 1798 for his political statements, Member of the
Department of Justice for Amstel, from April 6, 1799 to April 1, 1802, Member of the Board of Asiatic Possessions and Establishments, from
August 1800 to 1802, Commissioner-General for the Cape of Good Hope, Cape Town from 1802 to 1804, Member of the Board for Asiatic
Possessions and Establishments, from March 23, 1804 to 1806, Secretary-General of the Ministry of Commerce and the Colonies, from 1806 to
1807, Member of the State Board for Foreign Service, in the Department of Commerce and the Colonies, from July 16, 1806 to February 14, 1807,
Member of the State Board for Commerce and the Colonies, from February 14, 1807 to December 4, 1807, Landdrost of Maasland, from May 8,
1807 to December 2, 1807, Member of the State Board for Foreign Service, president of the department for commerce and the colonies, from

December 4, 1807 to January 1, 1809, the First President of the Court of Accounts for the Kingdom of Holland, from May 27, 1809 to December
1, 1812, President of the Interim Committee, Court of Accounts, from January 1, 1812 to November 30, 1813, President of the provisional Court
of Audit for the United Netherlands, from November 30, 1813 to August 1, 1814, Member of the Council of Notables for the département of
Monden van de Maas, March 29 and 30, 1814, Member of the Board of Vommerce and the Colonies, from 1814 to 1820 and Member of the First
Chamber of the States-General, from September 27, 1820 to August 3, 1823. The States-General resolved that the executive and legislative
authority of the Cape Colony should be committed to a governor and a council of four members, of whom one at least should be, by birth or
long residence, a colonist. The governor was to be also commander of the troops. The high court of justice was to be independent of the other
branches of the government, and was to consist of a president and six members, all of them versed in the law. Trade with the possessions of the
Batavian Republic everywhere was to be subject only to a very small duty. With these principles as a basis, the task of drawing up a plan of
administration was entrusted to De Mist, an advocate of high standing and a member of the council for the Asiatic possessions and
establishments. The document prepared by De Mist gave such satisfaction that he was sent out to receive the colony from the English, install the
Dutch officials, and make such regulations as he might find necessary. A very able military officer and man of high moral worth – Lieutenant-
General Jan Willem Janssens – was appointed governor and was also commander-in-chief of the garrison for which three thousand one hundred
and fifty soldiers were provided, and councillors and judges were selected. De Mist reached Cape Town on 23 December, and next morning went
to reside in the Castle of Good Hope. On the 30th, General Dundas issued a proclamation absolving the inhabitants of the colony from the oath
of allegiance to His Britannic Majesty (George III) on and after January 1, 1803. After a temporary withdrawal of the order to hand over control,
at sunset on the evening of Sunday February 20, 1803 the English guards were relieved by Dutch soldiers, and next morning the Batavian flag
was hoisted on the castle. De Mist announced that after making himself acquainted with the condition of the county, it would be his duty to
prepare a charter which, however, would require ratification by the States-General. In February 1804, De Mist issued a proclamation which
formed several wards of the colony into a new district which General Janssens named Uitenhage after a title in De Mist's family. He also
reorganised other areas, creating Tulbagh in the same year. This was intended to ease administration by dividing the colony into less disparate
geographic areas. The settlement was previously divided for magisterial and fiscal purposes into four districts – the Cape, Stellenbosch,
Swellendam and Graaff-Reinet, – this reorganisation divided it into six of smaller size and he stantioned landdrosts in the two new districts. In
July 1804 a proclamation was published by De Mist declaring that all religious societies that worshipped an Almighty Being were to enjoy equal
protection under the law, and that no civil privileges were to be attached to any creed. This ordinance also provided for the establishment of
schools under control of the government and not belonging to any religious body. Another ordinance of De Mist had reference to marriage and
ended the need to travel to Cape Town to obtain a marriage licence and be married by a clergyman. The ordinance permitted couples to be
married by a landdrost and two heemraden. When the colony was reoccupied by the British in 1806 at the end of the interregnum, the provisions
of the proclamation were annulled and not re-established until 1820. In September 1804 De Mist laid down his authority as commissioner-
general so that the governor would have greater freedom to act with vigour. The great question of the time was how to place the colony in a
condition for defence, as no one doubted that sooner or later it would be attacked by the British. De Mist professed to know nothing of military
matters and thought that the governor, upon whom the responsibility would fall, should have sole authority, although they had worked together
in perfect concord. De Mist was the son of a clergyman, Arnoldus de Mist, and Geertruida Verstrinck. He was married three times. His first
marriage was to Amalia Strubberg on September 20, 1772 in Cleves. They were divorced on December 10, 1783. His second marriage was to
Elisabeth Morré on May 8, 1796 in Beverwijk. They were divorced on January 8, 1800. His third marriage was to Magdalena de Jonge on
December 20, 1808 in The Hague. He had four sons and two daughters by his first marriage. He died on August 3, 1823, in Voorburg. He had
honour Knight of the Order of the Union (February 13, 1807). He has writte "Advys van het ontwerp voor eene constitutie voor het volk van
Nederland." (Notice of a plan for a constitution for the people of the Netherlands.) (1796).
Gerard Willem van Marle (1752 - May 29, 1799) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic from May 29 until
June 12, 1797.
Herman Hendrik Vitringa (September 22, 1757 - May 19, 1801) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian
Republic from June 12 until June 26, 1797.
Johan Herman de Lange (January 24, 1759 - February 11, 1818) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic from
June 26 until July 10, 1797.
Ambrosius Justus Zubli (October 4, 1751 - October 9, 1820) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic from July
10 until July 24, 1797.
Willem Hendrik Teding van Berkhout (January 7, 1745 - June 4, 1809) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian
Republic from July 24 until August 7, 1797.
Scato Trip (February 21, 1742 - June 29, 1822) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic from
August 7 until August 21, 1797.
Jan David Pasteur(May 23, 1753 - January 8, 1804) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic from September 1
until September 18, 1797.
Adrianus Ploos van Amstel (February 13, 1749 - July 7, 1816) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic from
September 18 until October 2, 1797.

Joachim Nuhout van der Veen (January 23, 1756 - April 13, 1833) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic
from October 2 until October 16, 1797.
Hugo Gevers(October 26, 1765 - January 9, 1852) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic from October 16 until
October 30, 1797.
Jacob van Manen (1752 - 1822) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic from October 30 until November 13,
1797.
Pieter Vreede (October 8, 1750 - September 21, 1837) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian
Republic from November 13 until November 27, 1797. Vreede was born in Leiden and died in Heusden. He was a
prominent critic of stadholderian misrule and of the urban patriciate. In Leiden, Vreede worked as a cloth and wool
manufacturer, as his father had. Pieter Vreede was member of the Maatschappij der Nederlandsche Letterkunde
(organization of writers and readers) and published some writings about the bad shape of the Dutch society. The patriotic
revolution broke out in the 1780s in the Netherlands and Pieter Vreede was one of the enthusiastic participants. Pieter
and his friend Wijbo Fijnje made a constitution for Leiden, a founder of the local exercitiegenootschap, a drill society and
drafted the celebrated Programme which proposed transforming the United Provinces into a unitary democratic
Republic. In 1786, he became a member of the revolutionary town council of Leiden. The infamous Vreede joined in a diplomatic expedition in
Woerden in 1786. The revolution came to an end, when the Prussian army invaded the Netherlands in 1787. Pieter lost his business in Prussian
Emmerich, so his business was reverted to Lier in the Austrian Netherlands. Revolution broke out in the Austrian Netherlands as well in 1790,
when the United States of Belgium were proclaimed. Pieter left Leiden, stopped his business in Lier and settled in Brabant of the States in the
city Tilburg, where he continued his business as cloth and wool manufacturer until 1800. France conquered Brabant in 1794 and Pieter Vreede
immediately sided with the French. The French were very popular in the Netherlands. Many regarded the orangist regime as wrong due to the
events of 1787. In 1794, he became a member of Batavian committee of Den Bosch. The same year, he became a member of the revolutionary
committee of Brabant. The French continued their advance into the Netherlands and Pieter Vreede became a member of the administration of
the conquered areas of the Netherlands in January 1795. Revolution broke out in the Netherlands and William V, Prince of Orange had to flee to
England. The Batavian Republic was proclaimed. Pieter Vreede became a member of the municipality of Tilburg in April 1795. He became a
member of the provisional government council of North Brabant in June 1795. He was chosen in the first democratically elected parliament of
the Netherlands, the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic in 1796 for the district of Bergen op Zoom. He was chairman of the parliament
from November 13, until November 27, 1797. Vreede was the most outspoken spokesman of the unitarian democratic parliament members. The
unitarion democrats were in favour of a centralized government and of general elections for all adult men. The majority in the parliament was
in favour of federalism and semi-democratic elections for property owners. Pieter Vreede and Wijbo Fijnje did a coupe d'état in 1798 and ruled
for a few months, alienating both enemies and friends. A coupe d'état made an end to his rule and Vreede had to flee from the Netherlands to
Lier, which was French territory at that time. He came back to the Netherlands in the same year and settled in Tilburg where his manufactury
was. He stopped his business in 1800 and settled in Waalre. His political career continued in 1815, when the French were gone and the United
Kingdom of the Netherlands was proclaimed. He was a member of the provincial council of North Brabant from 1815 onwards. He worked as
commissionary of the customs office first local and then on a national level until his death in 1837. Pieter Vreede married three times and two of
his wives died. He got 12 children.
Stefanus Jacobus van Langen (April 2, 1758 - March 27, 1847) was the President of the National Assembly of the
Batavian Republic from November 27 until December 11, 1797.
Jacobus Blaauw (1759 - 1829) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic from December 11 until
December 25, 1797.
Joan Bernard Auffmorth (November 9, 1744 - March 9, 1831) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic from
December 25, 1797 until January 8, 1798.
Joannes Franciscus Rudolphus van Hooff (August 26, 1755 - June 13, 1816) was the President of the National
Assembly of the Batavian Republic from January 8 until January 19, 1798.
Johannes Henricus Midderigh (July 6, 1753 - April 30, 1800) was the President of the National Assembly of the Batavian
Republic from January 19 until January 25, 1798.

Uitvoerend Bewind (Dutch for Executive Authority) of the government of the Batavian Republic
The Uitvoerend Bewind (Dutch for Executive Authority) was the name of the government of the Batavian Republic between 1798 and 1801. The
president of the Uitvoerend Bewind was head of state of the Batavian Republic. The political group of unitarian democrats was dissatisfied with
the slowness of the progress of the Dutch parliament, the National Assembly of the Batavian Republic. They were in favour of a central
authority, opposed federalism, and wanted general elections. Conservatives and moderates stood against such demands, and the country had
become un-governable, without prospects of drafting a constitution. Under the leadership of Pieter Vreede, the unitarian democrats engineered a
coup d'état on January 25, 1798, with the help of general Herman Willem Daendels, and began to rule as the Uitvoerend Bewind, which soon
became highly unpopular among their own supporters in the country. A second coup followed on June 12, 1798, with the goal of removing the
impopular rule. An interim government was installed, which would reign until new elections would bring a new Representative Assembly, still
under universal suffrage (This was replaced by census suffrage after the coup d'état of 1801). Between 1798 and 1801, the president of the
Uitvoerend Bewind was the head of state of the Batavian Republic, and not as previously, the president of the Assembly.
List of Heads of Uitvoerend Bewind (Dutch for Executive Authority), Government of the Batavian Republic
Berend Wildrik was Head of Uitvoerend Bewind (Dutch for Executive Authority), Government of the Batavian Republic from February 2
until June 12, 1798.
Johan Pieter Fokker(October 9, 1755 - October 30, 1831) was Head of Uitvoerend Bewind (Dutch for Executive Authority), Government of
the Batavian Republic from January 25 until June 12, 1798 and Head of Interim Uitvoerend Bewind (Dutch for Executive Authority), Interim
Government of the Batavian Republic from June 13 until July 30, 1798.
Jacobus Spoors (September 14, 1751 - April 3, 1833) was Head of Interim Uitvoerend Bewind (Dutch for Executive Authority), Interim
Government of the Batavian Republic from June 12 until August 14, 1798.
Gerrit Jan Pijman (January 31, 1750 - June 9, 1839) was Head of Interim Uitvoerend Bewind (Dutch for Executive
Authority), Interim Government of the Batavian Republic from June 12 until August 14, 1798 and Head of Uitvoerend Bewind
(Dutch for Executive Authority), Government of the Batavian Republic from July 17 until August 16, 1801.
Isaac Jan Alexander Gogel (December 10, 1765, Vught - June 13, 1821, Overveen) was Head of Interim
Uitvoerend Bewind (Dutch for Executive Authority), Interim Government of the Batavian Republic from June 12 until
August 14, 1798. He was also the first Minister of Finance of the Batavian Republic and the Kingdom of Holland (from
May 1, 1805 until June 5, 1806 : Secretary of State for Finance; from June 5, 1806 until May 27, 1809 : Minister of
Finance). He married Catharina van Hasselt in 1800, and had three children. Gogel was the son of Johan Martin Gogel,
a German officer in the service of the army of the Dutch Republic, and of Alexandrina Crul. He had only a limited
formal education and went to Amsterdam to apprentice for a career as a merchant at age 16, at the merchant house of
Godart Kappel en Zoon. He started his own firm (Gogel, Pluvinot en Gildemeester) in 1791. Gogel was a typical "self-
made man", a product of the petty-broking and merchandising world of Amsterdam. Though later one of the most
prominent pioneering Dutch economists, he did not receive a formal education in this field. As a typical self-taught
man he tended to borrow his ideas from all the great texts from the day, from Adam Smith to the Physiocrats. He became an adherent of the
Patriot party in these years, because of the corruption he saw in the government of Stadtholder William V, and the steep decline of the country,
especially in economic terms, that he held that government responsible for. This caused a lifelong enmity toward the rivals of the Patriot party,
the Orangists. Even before the Batavian revolution of 1795 and the proclamation of the Batavian Republic he became involved in revolutionary
politics, on a local and later national, level. After the January 22, 1798 coup d'état by general Herman Willem Daendels, he was appointed agent
for finance and foreign affairs (pro tem) under the new Uitvoerend Bewind. However, the contraventions of the new, democratic, constitution of
1798 by the Vreede regime disaffected him, and he conspired with the other agents and again general Daendels to overthrow that regime in
June, 1798. He then became a member of the Uitvoerend Bewind himself for a short while, till elections had been held for a new Representative
Assembly. He was again appointed Agent, this time for Finance, by the new Uitvoerend Bewind. He now started on the reform of the Dutch
system of public finance that was long overdue. He attempted to reorganize the tax system, but because this entailed abolition of the old, federal
arrangements, he met strong resistance. He tried to attain three main objectives with his imposing General Tax Plan: construction of a system of
regularly levied taxes, instead of the hodge-podge of ad hoc taxes and forced loans that the Republic had to rely on to make ends meet; a shift
away from regressive, indirect taxes toward direct income taxes; and an equalization of the tax burden between different parts of the country.
Besides, he proposed to form a new, national organisation to collect the taxes. His General-Taxation-Plan legislation was first proposed in 1799,
but only enacted on March 25, 1801. By that time the political winds had changed again. The unitarian Constitution of 1798, on whose tenets the
plan was based, was being undermined by the Uitvoerend Bewind itself. The new Constitution of 1801, that came into force after another coup in
the Fall of that year, entailed a re-federalization of the state. Gogel courageously fulminated against the financial chapters of that Constitution
before the referendum that was set up to approve it. Soon afterward he lost his job, because the central Agencies were abolished, together with
the Uitvoerend Bewind. In May, 1802, another of his reform plans, the founding of a National Bank, was discarded by the new regime (to be
revived only in 1814). Gogel now became a private citizen again, forming a new commercial firm Gogel en d'Arripe. During his years in the
wilderness he remained in touch with politics, however. In the Spring of 1804 he approached the then commander-in-chief of the French army of
occupation Marmont, a confidant of Napoleon's, with information critical of the Staatsbewind of the Batavian Republic, and a project for a new
constitution. At the same time, Marmont happened to be fishing around for information of other discontented Dutch politicians, on the orders of
Napoleon. Soon a coalition was formed around the Batavian envoy to Paris, Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck that openly worked to drive out the
Staatsbewind-regime. Gogel played an important role in this coalition, even though he (as a convinced unitarist) and Schimmelpenninck (as the
leader of the federalists) did not see eye to eye on many things. However, Napoleon made clear that he preferred the unitarist vision of Gogel,
and his opinion of course prevailed, when the Staatsbewind was replaced by the regime of Grand Pensionary Schimmelpenninck in May, 1805.

Gogel now was appointed Secretary of State for Finance. Now he was able to push through his old General Taxation Plan, in slightly modified
form. This was made easier by the fact that under the new constitution of 1805 the often-obstructionist Wetgevend Lichaam (Legislative Corps)
had been made toothless. Though Gogel was a lifelong democrat, never making concessions on his belief that the franchise should be universal
(unlike other Patriot politicians, who in the course of events changed their views in a more authoritarian direction), as a technocrat he saw the
advantage of being able to make his views prevail. His tax reforms were enacted in June, 1805, and put into operation on January 1, 1806.
However, the final days of the Batavian Republic were passing rapidly. Gogel was a member of the Groot Besogne (Grand Commission) that
helped to negotiate the transition to the Kingdom of Holland under king Louis Napoleon, however reluctantly.In 1806 this title was changed to
Minister under the new kingdom. As such he had to deal with attempts of the old elites to water down his new system of taxation that had been
implemented only a few months before over much opposition. However, at first he gained the support of the new king, who had been impressed
by his warnings about the dire state of the Dutch economy at the time. Revenues under the new system were falling short of expectations, and
the kingdom therefore had to rely even more than before on deficit financing. The credit of the Dutch state had now suffered so much, that it
was no longer possible to float bond loans without the assistance of the Amsterdam merchant bankers that had previously only served foreign
governments, like that of the U.S.A., as intermediaries. Fortunately, the Dutch system for financing sovereign debt, foreign or domestic, was still
unparalleled at the time. A few years later, however, the first benefits of the new system (enhanced revenues, reduced administrative costs,
formation of a national fiscal bureaucracy) had finally been realized. Some of those reforms were of lasting importance. As the verponding (land
tax) was an important new element of the system a kadaster had to be implemented. This had important beneficial effects in the sphere of Dutch
civil law, also. Other persisting reforms: in 1807 he was able to enact a law to reform the Dutch coinage. He also was instrumental in the
abolition of the guilds and other econonomic reforms, like the abolition of internal tariffs and other obstructions to trade. He was the first
director of the predecessor of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences under the Kingdom of Holland. Like king Louis, Gogel had a
difficult character. This led increasingly to personal conflicts. He resigned in 1809 because of a conflict with the king over a commission for
further tax reform. After the annexation of the Netherlands in 1810, Gogel took up the duties of finance minister again, but now as intendant
des finances in the part of the imperial government that was devoted to the Dutch departments of the French Empire. He did this in the illusion
that he might be able to shield his compatriots from the worst excesses of the imperial administration. Legion were his attempts to persuade the
government in Paris that certain allowances had to be made for special Dutch circumstances. But, these proved mostly in vain.[15] When the
French lost their grip on the Netherlands in 1813, after the accession of William I of the Netherlands, Gogel fled to France. He was allowed to
return to the Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1814, but he refused to take office under the new regime, which he viewed as a restoration of the
pre-1795 Orangist clique that he despised (though he relented shortly before his death to become a member of the new Raad van State). He
returned to private life, and started a small factory. He died soon after in 1821. He had following Titles and Decorations: Grootkruis Orde van de
Unie, Februari 17, 1807, Grootkruis Orde van de Reünie, Februari 22, 1812, Commandeur in de Orde van de Nederlandse Leeuw, Commandeur
de la Légion d'honneur, June 30, 1811 and Chévalier de l'Empire, 1811 He has writtes two works: "Over de nadeelen der buitenlandsche
geldlichtingen", in: De Democraten, Aug. 17, 1796 and "Memoriën en correspondentiën betrekkelijk den staat van 's rijk's geldmiddelen in den
jaren 1820" (posthumously; edited by his son, J.M. Gogel, 1844).
Reinier Willem Tadama (December 9, 1771 - March 20, 1831) was Head of Interim Uitvoerend Bewind (Dutch for Executive Authority),
Interim Government of the Batavian Republic from June 12 until August 14, 1798.
Abraham Jacques la Pierre (February 20, 1750 - December 12, 1837) was Head of Interim Uitvoerend Bewind (Dutch for Executive
Authority), Interim Government of the Batavian Republic from June 12 until August 14, 1798.
Albert Willem Hoeth (July 13, 1758 - July 27, 1827) was Head of Uitvoerend Bewind (Dutch for Executive Authority), Government of the
Batavian Republic from August 17 until September 16, 1798 and from January 17 until February 16, 1799, from June 17 until July 16, 1799, from
November 17 until December 16, 1799, from April 17 until May 16, 1800, from Seeptember 17 until October 16, 1800 and from February 17 until
March 16, 1801.
Johannes Willem van Hasselt (May 1, 1752 - May 3, 1834) was Head of Uitvoerend Bewind (Dutch for Executive Authority), Government
of the Batavian Republic from September 17 until October 16, 1798, from February 17 until March 16, 1799.
François Ermerins (September 13, 1753 - March 19, 1840) was Head of Uitvoerend Bewind (Dutch for Executive Authority), Government of
the Batavian Republic from October 17 until November 16, 1798, from March 17 until April 16, 1799, from January 17 until February 16, 1800,
from November 17 until December 16, 1800, from April 17 until May 16, 1801 and from September 17 until October 16, 1801.
Anthonie Frederik Robbert Evert van Haersolte, Lord van Staverden (August 19, 1756 - July 14, 1830) was Head of Uitvoerend
Bewind (Dutch for Executive Authority), Government of the Batavian Republic from November 17 until December 16, 1798, from April 17 until
May 16, 1799, from September 17 until October 16, 1799, from February 17 until March 16, 1800, from July 17 until August 16, 1800, from
December 17, 1800 until January 16, 1801, from May 17 until June 16, 1801 and on October 17, 1801.
Augustijn Gerhard Besier(May 19, 1756 - March 13, 1829) was Head of Uitvoerend Bewind (Dutch for Executive Authority), Government
of the Batavian Republic from July 17 until August 16, 1798, from December 17, 1799 until January 16, 1800, from May 17 until June 16, 1800,
from October 17 until November 16, 1800, from March 17 until April 16, 1801 and from August 17 until September 16, 1801.
Jean Henri van Swinden (The Hague, June 8, 1746 – Amsterdam, March 9, 1823) was Head of Uitvoerend Bewind
(Dutch for Executive Authority), Government of the Batavian Republic from August 17 until September 16, 1800, from
January 17 until February 16, 1801 and from June 17 until July 16, 1801. He was also Dutch mathematician and physicist who
taught in Franeker and Amsterdam. His parents were the lawyer Phillippe van Swinden and Marie Anne Tollosan. He was
trained 1763-1766 at the University of Leiden, where he became doctor of philosophy on June 12, 1766 with the thesis "Natural
power of attraction". He became professor at the University of Franeker the same year, where he continued to study and
conduct research as well as teach. In 1776 he won a prize from the Académie Royale des Sciences along with Charles-Augustin
de Coulomb for his work on earth's magnetic field, and the relationship between magnetism and electricity. A year later he won a prize from the
Academie van Beieren. His description of Eise Eisinga's planetarium in 1780 was later republished. In 1785 he moved to Amsterdam where he
became professor at the Athenaeum Illustre of Amsterdam. There he was instrumental in introducing a house numbering system (usefulfor the

postal service) and in 1795 he directed the first census. In 1798 he led a commission to report on the state of the health of the inhabitants of
Amsterdam, based on the results of the census. He was part of an international commission to determine the length of the meter, as a first step
to introducing the metric system in the Netherlands. His lectures at Felix Meritis from 1777 onwards on this subject were bundled and published
as Verhandeling over volmaakte maaten en gewigten in 1802. His international good name led him to be appointed as representative during the
French occupation. He was one of the founders appointed by Louis Bonaparte in 1808 for the Koninklijk Instituut van Wetenschappen along
with Martinus van Marum, Martinus Stuart, and Jeronimo de Bosch. The Van Swinden Laboratorium, today the Nederlands Meetinstituut, was
named after him in 1971 and several streets in Amsterdam are named after him.
Staatsbewind (translated into English as "state council" or "state authority"), governing council of the Batavian
Republic
The Staatsbewind (translated into English as "state council" or "state authority") was a governing council of the Batavian Republic between 1801
and 1805. The presidents of the Staatsbewind were acting heads of state of the Batavian Republic. The Staatsbewind came into power after a coup
d'état against the Uitvoerend Bewind on October 17, 1801. The reign of the Staatsbewind ended on 29 April 1805, when emperor Napoleon of
France appointed Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck as grand pensionary of the Batavian Republic.
List of Heads of the Staatsbewind (translated into English as "state council" or "state authority"), governing council of the Batavian
Republic
Egbert Sjuck Gerrold Juckema van Burmania Rengers (March 21, 1745 - February 24, 1806) was Head of the
Staatsbewind (translated into English as "state council" or "state authority"), governing council of the Batavian Republic from
February 1 until April 30, 1802.
Samuel van Hoogstraten (May 31, 1756 - May 2, 1830) was Head of the Staatsbewind (translated into English as "state council" or "state
authority"), governing council of the Batavian Republic from May 1 until July 31, 1802.
Johannes Baptista Verheyen was Head of the Staatsbewind (translated into English as "state council" or "state authority"), governing
council of the Batavian Republic from November 1, 1802 until January 31, 1803.
Campegius Hermannus Gockinga (February 14, 1748 - January 8, 1823) was Head of the Staatsbewind (translated into English as "state
council" or "state authority"), governing council of the Batavian Republic from May 1 until July 31, 1803.
Gerard Brantsen (1734 or January 10, 1735, Arnhem - December 21, 1809, Arnhem) was Head of the Staatsbewind
(translated into English as "state council" or "state authority"), governing council of the Batavian Republic from May 1
until July 31, 1804. He was a Dutch politician and diplomat. He was one of the Dutch signatories to the treaty ending
the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War in 1783.
Lusitania
Lusitania (/ˌluːsɪˈteɪniə/, Portuguese: Lusitânia, Spanish: Lusitania) or Hispania Lusitania was an ancient Iberian Roman province including
approximately all of modern Portugal south of the Douro river and part of modern Spain (the present autonomous community of Extremadura
and a small part of the province of Salamanca). It was named after the Lusitani or Lusitanian people (an Indo-European people). Its capital was
Emerita Augusta (currently Mérida, Spain), and it was initially part of the Roman Republic province of Hispania Ulterior, before becoming a
province of its own in the Roman Empire. Romans first came to the territory around the mid 2nd century BC. A war with Lusitanian tribes
followed, from 155 to 139 BC. In 27 BC, the province was created.
List of Lusitanian Chiefs
Kaukainos (or Caucenus) was important Lusitanian chief before the Roman conquest. He ruled the Lusitanians (before Viriathus) for some
time, leading the tribes in the resistance against Carthaginian attempts of conquest, and was successful.
Viriatus (also spelled Viriathus; known as Viriato in Portuguese and Spanish) (died 139 BC) was the most important
leader of the Lusitanian people that resisted Roman expansion into the regions of western Hispania (Roman naming) or
western Iberia (Greek naming), where the Roman province of Lusitania would be established (in the areas comprising
most of Portugal and Galicia). Viriatus led the Lusitanians to several victories over the Romans between 147 BC and 139
BC before he was betrayed to the Romans and killed. Of him, Theodor Mommsen said "It seemed as if, in that thoroughly
prosaic age, one of the Homeric heroes had reappeared." There are several possible etymologies for the name Viriatus. The

name can be composed of two elements: Viri and Athus. Viri may come from: the Indo-European root *uiros, "man", relating to strength and
virility; the Celtic *uiro- 'man'; and the older forms viros, viri, viro, viron from which derived the Old Irish word for man, fir; from *uei-, as in the
viriae or Celtiberian "twisted armbands" used by warriors (Pliny XXIII, 39); the Latin viri (pronounced "wee-ree", coming from the Indo-European
root above) meaning man, hero, person of courage, honor, and nobility. The Celtiberian elite called themselves uiros ueramos meaning the
'highest man' and the Latin equivalent would be summus vir. According to the historian Schulten Viriatus had a Celtic name: “For he was, as is
agreed by all, valiant in dangers, prudent and careful in providing whatever was necessary, and that which was most considerable of all was, that
whilst he commanded he was more beloved than ever any was before him.” Little is known about Viriatus. The only reference to the location of
his native tribe was made by the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus who claims he was from the Lusitanian tribes of the ocean side. He belonged
to the class of warriors, the occupation of the minority ruling elites. He was known to the Romans as the dux of the Lusitanian army, as the
adsertor (protector) of Hispania, or as an imperator, probably of the confederated Lusitanian and Celtiberian tribes. Livy described him as a
shepherd who became a hunter, then a soldier, thus following the path of most young warriors, the iuventus, who devoted themselves to cattle
raiding, hunting and war. According to Appian, Viriatus was one of the few who escaped when Galba, the Roman consul, massacred the flos
iuventutis, the flower of the young Lusitanian warriors, in 150 BC. Two years after the massacre, in 148 BC, Viriatus became the leader of a
Lusitanian army. Viriatus was thought by some to have a very obscure origin,[13] although Diodorus Siculus also says that Viriatus "approved
himself to be a prince" and that he said he was "lord and owner of all". His family was unknown to the Romans who were familiar with the native
aristocratic warrior society. His personality and his physical and intellectual abilities as well as his skills as a warrior were described by several
authors. He was a man of great physical strength, probably in the very prime of life, an excellent strategist, owner of a brilliant mind. Some
authors claim that the ancient authors described Viriatus with the precise features of a Celtic king. He was described as a man who followed the
principles of honesty and fair dealing and was acknowledged for being exact and faithful to his word on the treaties and leagues he made. Livy
gives him the title of vir duxque magnus with the implied qualities that were nothing more than the ideals of the ancient virtues. A more
modern current claims Viriatus belonged to an aristocratic Lusitanian clan who were owners of cattle. For Cassius Dio, he did not pursue power
or wealth, but carried on the war for the sake of military glory. His aims could then be compared to pure Roman aristocratic ideals of that time:
to serve and gain military glory and honor. Viriatus did not fight for war spoils or material gain, like common soldiers. The Lusitanians honored
Viriatus as their Benefactor, (Greek: euergetes), and Savior (Greek: soter), typically Hellenistic honorifics used by kings like the Ptolemies. Some
authors defend he probably was from the Herminius Mons (Serra da Estrela) - in the heart of Lusitania, (in central Portugal) or Beira Alta
region. Most of his life and his war against the Romans are part of legend and Viriatus is considered the earliest Portuguese national hero, given
the fact that he was the leader of the confederate tribes of Iberia who resisted Rome. The historian Appianus of Alexandria in his book about
Iberia (in the section Historia Romana, Roman History), commented that Viriatus "killed numerous Romans and showed great skill". It has been
argued that Silius Italicus, in his epic poem entitled Punica, mentions a former Viriatus who would have been a contemporary of Hannibal. He is
referenced as primo Viriatus in aeuo, and was a leader of the Gallaeci and of the Lusitanians. The historical Viriatus would be the one who
received the title of regnator Hiberae magnanimus terrae, the "most magnanimous king of the Iberian land". In the 3rd century BC, Rome
started its conquest of the Iberian Peninsula. The Roman conquest of Iberia began during the Second Punic War, when the senate sent an army
to Iberia to block Carthaginian reinforcements from helping Hannibal in the Italian Peninsula. This began Roman involvement in 250 years of
subsequent fighting throughout the Iberia resulting in its eventual conquest in 19 BC with the end of the Cantabrian Wars. The Lusitanian War
is one of the most well documented episodes of the conquest. However Rome's dominion of Iberia met with much opposition. In 197 BC, Rome
divided south eastern coast of Iberia into two provinces, Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior, and two elected praetors were assigned to
command the legions. Like in many other tribes of Iberia, the inhabitants of the Lusitanian castros, or citanias, would have been granted
peregrina stipendiaria. but remaining an autonomous (Greek: αὐτονόμων) country through treaties (foedus). Lusitania's rich land was praised by
ancient authors. Polybius in his Histories "speaking of the natural wealth of Lusitania [...], tells us that owing to the favorable climate both men
and animals are very prolific, and the land is constantly productive." The Romans charged the native tribes with heavy taxes: a fixed vectigal or
land-tax, the tributum and a certain quantity of cereals. Taxes were not the only source of income, mine exploitation and peace treaties were a
source of denarius as well as war spoils and war prisoners that were sold as slaves. The indigenous towns had to deliver their own treasures to the
Romans, which left them only with the yearly earnings to pay the taxes. Between 209 and 169 BC, the Roman army collected 4 tons of gold and
800 tons of silver looting the native tribes of the Iberian peninsula. The governors extorted as much as they could from the tribes. In 174 BC,
when Publius Furius Philus was accused of paying very little for the cereals that Iberia was compelled to deliver to Rome, Cato defended the
interests of the native tribes. The exploitation and extortion reached such an extreme degree in the provinces that Rome had to create a special
tribunal and laws, like the Lex Calpurnia created in 149 BC. Also as part of the payment, it was required a certain number of men to serve in the
Roman army. The Lusitanians revolted first in 194 BC against the Romans. Iberia was divided between the tribes that supported the Roman rule
and the tribes that revolted against the Roman rule, as they had been divided before by those who supported the Carthaginian or the Romans.
This period was marked by a number of broken treaties either by the Roman generals, or their senate, that would not ratify the treaties, or by the
native people. In 152 BC the Lusitanians made a peace agreement with Marcus Atilius, after he conquered Oxthracae, Lusitania's biggest city. In
the Roman law, peregrini dediticii was the designation given to the peoples who had surrendered themselves after taking up arms against the
Romans. The terms offered were such, that as soon as Atilius returned to Rome, they rebelled and broke the treaty. Then they attacked the tribes
that were Roman subjects and had sided with the Romans helping to attack and plunder the Lusitanian towns. Possibly the Lusitanians
recovered some of the booty the Romans divided with those tribes. In 151 BC the Celtiberians who had become Roman allies, fearing the
revenge of the rebels who considered them traitors, asked the Romans to punish the rebellious tribes who had broken out into war and that the
legions remained in Iberia to protect them. The praetor to Hispania Ulterior, Servius Sulpicius Galba commanded the Roman troops in Iberia c.
150 BC at the same time Lucius Licinius Lucullus was also appointed Governor of the Hispania Citerior and commander of an army. In the year
151 BC, Lucullus "being greedy of fame and needing money", made a peace treaty with the Caucaei, of the Vaccaei tribe, after which he ordered
to kill all the adult males of which, it is said, only a few out of 30,000 escaped. Servius Sulpicius Galba joined forces with Lucius Licinius
Lucullus and together started to depopulate Lusitania. While Lucullus invaded the country from the east, Galba attacked it from the south.
Unable to sustain a war in two fronts, the Lusitanian troops suffered several losses in engagements with the Romans. Fearing a long siege and
the destruction the Roman siege engines caused in their towns, the Lusitanians sent an embassy to Galba to negotiate a peace treaty, although
for the Romans it would be perceived as the Deditio in dicionem , the surrender. The Lusitanians hoped they could at least renew the former
treaty made with Atilius. Galba received the Lusitanian embassy politely, and a peace treaty was agreed on the terms proposed by him. He
commanded them to leave their homes and remain in an open country. The Lusitanians probably lost their city and possessions and their land
would have become Ager Publicus.[38] The conquest of a territory, unless it had been given special conditions, could imply the acquisition, by
the Romans, of the conquered territory and all that it contained. The treaty turned out to be a trap, like the one Lucullus had prepared for the
Caucaei. When the unarmed Lusitanians, among them Viriatus, were gathered together by Galba to hand over their weapons and be split into
three groups (two of the points of the treaty that had been negotiated) and allocated to new lands, the trap was sprung. With the promise they
would be given new lands they waited unaware while Galba's army surrounded them with a ditch, to prevent them from escaping. Afterwards,
Roman soldiers were sent in and began to massacre all the males of military age. The survivors are said to have been sold into slavery in Gaul.

The relocation of an entire tribe, to slaughter or to reduce them to the status of slaves were some of the types of punishment inflicted to the
native population who took part in revolts. Galba distributed a little of the plunder to the army and a little to his friends, the native tribes that
sided with him, and kept the rest. This incited a massive rebellion, with the entire Lusitanian tribe mustering as they waged war for 3 years
against Rome, but met with many failures. Three Years after the Massacre, the massive rebellion was nearly at defeat until Viriatus appeared and
offered himself as leader. Through understanding of Roman military methods he saved the rebel Lusitanians through a simple, though clever
escape plan. Viriatus became the leader of Lusitanians and caused much grief to the Romans as a result of the past massacre of his people. “And,
in fine, he carried on the war not for the sake of personal gain or power nor through anger, but for the sake of warlike deeds in themselves;
hence he was accounted at once a lover of war and a master of war. ~ Cassius Dio.” The war with Viriatus was called "War of Fire" by the Greek
historian Polybius of Megalopolis. Two types of war were carried on by Viriatus, bellum, when he used a regular army, and latrocinium, when
the fighting involved small groups of combatants and the use of guerrilla tactics. For many authors Viriatus is seen as the model of the guerrilla
fighter. Nothing is known about Viriatus until his first feat of war in 149 BC. He was with an army of ten thousand men that invaded southern
Turdetania. Rome sent the praetor Caius Vetilius to fight the rebellion. He attacked a group of Lusitanian warriors who were out foraging, and
after killing several of them, the survivors took refuge in a place that was surrounded by the Roman army. They were about to make a new
agreement with the Romans when Viriatus, mistrusting the Romans, proposed an escape plan. The Lusitanians inflamed by his speech made
him their new commander. His first act was to rescue the currently trapped resisting Lusitanians whom he took over command of. First by
lining up for battle with the Romans, then scattering the army as they charged. As each way broke apart and fled in different directions to meet
up at a later location, Viriatus with 1,000 chosen men held the army of 10,000 Romans in check by being in a position to attack. Once the rest of
the army had fled, he and the thousand men escaped as well. Having effectively saved all of the Lusitanians soldiers immediately fortified the
loyalty of the people around Viriatus. Viriatus organized an attack against Caius Vetilius in Tribola. Since the Romans were better armed, he
organized guerrilla tactics and sprung imaginative ambushes. Charging with iron spears, tridents and roars, the Lusitanians defeated Vetilius by
killing 4,000 out of 10,000 Troops including Vetilius himself. As a response, the Celtiberians were hired to attack the Lusitanians, but were
destroyed. After that incident, the Lusitanians clashed with the armies of Gaius Plautius, Claudius Unimanus and Gaius Negidius, all of whom
were defeated. During this period Viriatus inspired and convinced the Numantine and some Gauls to rebel against Roman rule. To complete the
subjugation of Lusitania, Rome sent Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus, with 15,000 soldiers and 2,000 cavalry to strengthen Gaius Laelius
Sapiens who was a personal friend of Scipio Aemilianus Africanus. The Romans lost most of these reinforcements in Ossuma. When Quintus
Fabius risked combat again, he was totally defeated near what is today the city of Beja in Alentejo. This defeat gave the Lusitanians access to
today's Spanish territory, modern Granada and Murcia. The results of Viriatus's effects as well as that of the Numantine War caused many
problems in Rome, including a drop in Legion recruitment rates being the most notable. Learning of these events, Rome sent one of its best
generals, Quintus Fabius Maximus Servilianus, to Iberia. Near Sierra Morena, the Romans fell into a Lusitanian ambush. Viriatus did not harm
the Romans and let the soldiers and Servilianus go. Servilianus made a peace term that recognized the Lusitanian rule over the land they
conquered. This agreement was ratified by the Roman Senate and Viriatus was declared "amicus populi Romani", (Greek: Rhômaiôn philos), an
ally of the Roman people. However, the peace brought by the treaty displeased Quintus Servilius Caepio, who got himself appointed successor of
his brother, Q. Fabius Maximus Servilianus, in the command of the army and administration of affairs in Iberia. In his reports to the Roman
Senate he sustained that the treaty was in the highest degree dishonorable to Rome. Livy seemed to have a different opinion as he said it was a
stain in Servilianus' military career but comments that the treaty was, aequis, fair. The senate authorized Q. Servilius Caepio, on his request, to
distress Viriatus as long as it was done secretly. The treaty was in effect for one year. During that time Q. Servilius Caepio harassed Viriatus and
kept making pressure with his reports until he was authorized to publicly declare war. Knowing that the Lusitanian resistance was largely due to
Viriatus' leadership, Quintus Servilius Caepio bribed Audax, Ditalcus and Minurus, who had been sent by Viriatus as an embassy to establish
peace (Appian). These ambassadors returned to their camp and killed Viriatus while he was sleeping. Eutropius claims that when Viriatus'
assassins asked Q. Servilius Caepio for their payment he answered that "it was never pleasing to the Romans, that a general should be killed by
his own soldiers.", or in another version more common in modern Portugal and Spain, "Rome does not pay traitors who kill their chief". Quintus
Servilius Caepio was refused his Triumph by the Senate. After the death of Viriatus, the Lusitanians kept fighting under the leadership of
Tautalus (Greek: Τάυταλος). Laenas would finally give the Lusitanians the land they originally had asked for before the massacre. Nevertheless
total pacification of Lusitania was only achieved under Augustus. Under Roman rule, Lusitania and its people gradually acquired Roman culture
and language. Viriatus stands as the most successful leader in Iberia that ever opposed the Roman conquest. During the course of his campaigns
he was only defeated in battle against the Romans once, and from a military standpoint can be said to have been one of the most successful
generals to ever have opposed Rome's expansion anywhere in the world. Ultimately even the Romans recognized that it was more prudent to use
treachery rather than open confrontation to defeat the Lusitanian uprising. Some fifty years later, the renegade Roman general, Quintus
Sertorius, at the head of another insurrection in Iberia, would meet a similar fate. Viriatus became an enduring symbol of Portuguese nationality
and independence, portrayed by artists and celebrated by its people throughout the centuries. In 1572, Luís Vaz de Camões epic poem Os
Lusiadas, the author exalts Viriatus' great deeds. The popular Spanish television series Hispania: La Leyenda which began in 2010 and ended in
2012, is based on his life and exploits.
Tantalus was the leader of the Lusitanian people around 139 BC. Viriathus was replaced by Tantalus, who was immediately defeated by
Quintus Servilius Caepio, Roman proconsul to Hispania.
Belli
The Belli, also designated ‘Beli’ or ‘Belaiscos’ were an ancient pre-Roman Celtic. Celtiberian people that lived in the modern Spanish province of
Zaragoza from the 3rd Century BC. Example of a bronze hospitality token in the Celtiberian Celtic language. The Belli were of Celtic origin and
part of the Celtiberians. There is an overwhelming amount of evidence that the ancestors of the Celtiberian groups were installed in the Meseta
area of the Iberian peninsula from at least 1000 BC and probably much earlier. The most complete Celtiberian text we have on the bronze
'hospitality tokens' that acted as a sort of identity card is from the Belli and reads lubos alisokum aualoske kontebias belaiskas meaning 'Lubos of
the Aliso family, son of Aualos, from Contrebia Belaisca' showing the self-description of this man, by paternity, extended family and territory
which is characteristically Celtic.
Leader of the Belli Tribe

Caros was the Leader of the Belli Tribe during 150 BCs. During the 3rd-2nd centuries BC, the Belli joined the Celtiberian confederacy
alongside the Arevaci, Lusones and Titii, with whom they developed close political and military ties – in 153 BC the Numantines even elected
the Belli General Caros as leader of the Celtiberian coalition army that ambushed the Consul Quintus Fulvius Nobilior at the battle of
Ribarroya, at the Baldano river valley in the beginning of the first Numantine War.
Duchy of Cantabria
The Duchy of Cantabria (Spanish: Ducado de Cantabria, Cantabrian: Ducau de Cantabria) was a march created by the Visigoths in northern
Spain to watch their border with the Cantabrians and Basques. Its precise extension is unclear in the different periods, but seems likely that it
included Cantabria, parts of Northern Castile, La Rioja, and probably western areas of Biscay and Álava. The two main towns of Cantabria before
its conquest by the Goths were Amaya (in northern Burgos) and the City of Cantabria, believed to have been near modern Logroño. Both towns
were destroyed in 574 by Liuvigild, who massacred many of their inhabitants. The legend of this destruction remained for long in the memory
of the affected peoples. Bishop Braulio of Zaragoza (631-651) wrote in his Life of St. Emilianus how the saint prophesied the destruction of
Cantabria because of their alleged sins. It is held in popular belief that the converted refugees from the City of Cantabria founded the monastery
of Our Lady of Codés in Navarre. A Senate of Cantabria mentioned in the Saint Aemilianus' work bears witness to a local nobility and a
governing diet. Some names are provided too, such as autochthonous Sicorius or Tuentius, with no clear ethnic affiliation, and Latin names
Honorius and Nepotianus. In 581, right before major Frankish expeditions against the Basques and the establishment of the Duchy of Vasconia,
count of Bordeaux Galactorius is cited by the poet Venantius Fortunatus as fighting both the Basques and the Cantabrians, while the Chronicle
of Fredegar brings up a shadowy Francio duke of Cantabria ruling for a long period some time before Sisebut's successful campaigns against
Basques and Cantabrians. In the late Visigothic period, at a second stage after the 6th century Cantabrian defeat, the Duchy of Cantabria is
attested as being a buffer zone bearing witness to continuous fighting between Visigoths and Basques. In 670, the Visigothic king Wamba was
campaigning there against the Basques when he heard of a rebellion in Septimania. Notice of a certain duke Peter of Cantabria, father of
Alfonso I of Asturias, is attested on 9th century Asturian documents for the first years of the Umayyad conquest of Hispania.
List of Dukes of Cantabria
Peter(Latin: Petrus, Spanish: Pedro; died 730) was the Duke of Cantabria in the first half 8th century. While various writers have attempted to
name his parentage, (for example, making him son or brother of King Erwig), early sources say nothing more specific than the chronicle of
'Pseudo-Alfonso': that he was "ex semine Leuvigildi et Reccaredi progenitus" (descended from the bloodline of Liuvigild and Reccared I). He was
the father of King Alfonso I and of Fruela of Cantabria, father of Kings Aurelius and Bermudo I. According to the Muslim chroniclers, in the
year 714, Musa ibn Nusair sacked Amaya, capital of Cantabria, for the second time. Peter, the provincial dux, led his people into refuge in the
mountains and then joined with Pelayo of Asturias against the invaders. After the Battle of Covadonga, in which Pelayo defeated an invading
force, it seems likely that Peter sent his son to the court of Pelayo at Cangas de Onís. It had been a Visigothic practice to send noble children to
the royal court, this was thus a tacit admission of Pelayo's regality. According to the Crónica Albeldense, the territories of the two leaders were
united by marriage between Peter's son Alfonso and Pelayo's daughter Ermesinda: Adefonsus, Pelagi gener, reg. an. XVIIII. Iste Petri Cantabriae
ducis filius fuit; et dum Asturias venir Ermesindam Pelagii filiam Pelagio proecipiente, accepit. Alfonso later succeeded to the Asturian throne
and was the first to use the title of king. While Iberian Muslim scholars would call his descendants the Beni Alfons (Arabic: ‫ن‬ ‫ب‬ ‫إنفنإ‬ (Beni
Iḍfunš)) after his son, some modern authors refer to the family as the Pérez Dynasty for Peter.
Fruela de Cantabria or Fruela Pérez (died c. 758) was the Duke of Cantabria during 740s and 750s. He was the second son of Duke Peter of
Cantabria and brother of King Alfonso I of Asturias. According to the Rotensis and Sebastianense versions of the Chronicle of Alfonso III, he
accompanied his brother King Alfonso in the incursions against the Muslim invaders and succeeded in conquering several cities, including
Lugo, Tui, Oporto, Braga, Viseu, Chaves, Ledesma, and other places. The name of the mother of his children is not known. These were: Bermudo
I of Asturias and Aurelius of Asturias. A daughter whose name is unknown who married a noble from Álava named Lope with whom she had at
least one daughter, Munia of Álava, the wife of King Fruela I of Asturias.
Lordship of Biscay
The Lordship of Biscay (Basque: Bizkaiko jaurerria) was a period of feudal rule in the region of Biscay in the Iberian Peninsula between 1072 and
1876 and ruled by a political figure known as Lord of Biscay. It was a territory with its own political organization, with its own naval ensign,
consulate in Bruges and customs offices in Balmaseda and Urduña, from the 11th Century until 1876, when the Juntas Generales were
abolished. Since 1379, when John I of Castile became the Lord of Biscay, the lordship got integrated into the Crown of Castile, and eventually the
Kingdom of Spain.The first known Lord of Biscay (11th century), Íñigo López "Ezkerra" was a lieutenant of the Kingdom of Pamplona (later
known as Navarre); this feudal relationship was intermittently held to by his successors until the definitive Castilian conquest of Gipuzkoa in
1200. The relations of the lords with the kings of Castille made them the landlords of Haro, La Rioja because they had favored the Castilian
interests in the conflicts with Pamplona/Navarre. The Lords had limited powers and had, like the Navarrese monarchs before them, to give oath
at Gernika of respecting the fuero (Basque: forua), which in this context means a compilation of laws, when inheriting the honor. After the
Lordship was inherited by the Castilian dynasty in 1370, the Kings of Castile (and later, of Spain) still had to give oath in equal manner and so
they did, until the Biscayan fueros were unilaterally supplanted at the end of 19th century, as a retaliatory measure from the government of
Madrid for the support of the provinces to the Carlist pretender to the Crown. They haven't done it since the second restoration of Alfonso XII.
List of Lords of Lordship of Biscay
Jaun Zuria (Basque for "the White Lord") is the mythical first Lord, and founder, of the Lordship of Biscay, who defeated the Leonese and
Asturian troops in the also mythical Battle of Padura, where he chased off the invasors to the Malato Tree, where he established the borders of

Biscay. There are three accounts of its legend, one by the Portuguese count Pedro Barcelos and two by the chronicler Lope García de Salazar.
According to the legend, Jaun Zuria had been born from a Scottish or English princess that had been visited by the Basque deity Sugaar in the
village of Mundaka. It has been suggested that Jaun Zuria might have the same origin or be the same mythical figure as Olaf the White, an Irish
Viking sea-king from the 9th Century. The Basque chronicler Lope García de Salazar (1399-1476) mentions the Jaun Zuria on his Bienandanzas e
Fortunas, book that he begins to write in 1471. He speaks of the daughter of a Scottish king, who arrives by ship to Mundaka and gives birth to a
son in the village. Afterward, both mother and son move to Busturia, where the boy spends most of his childhood. When the son is 22 years old,
the Biscayans choose him to be captain of their troops to stop the progress of the army of a Leonese king's son. He is chosen because of his royal
blood, as it had been a requirement of the Leonese prince, in order to engage in a formal battle. The Leonese prince and his army are defeated in
Arrigorriaga on the Battle of Padura or Arrigorriaga. Thus, the Biscayans choose him to be the first Lord of Biscay and Lord of Durangaldea, and
give him the Basque name of Jaun Zuria, that is the White Lord, because of the whiteness of his skin and hair. The Portuguese Count of Barcelos
Pedro Alfonso speaks about a similar story on a similar background, on his Libro dos Linhagems ("Book of the Lineages"). According to him,
Biscay was a Lordship before even Castile had kings, but for many time it remained without a lord. An Asturian count named don Moñino knew
about this situation, and thus forced the Biscayans to give him as a tribute a cow, an ox and a white horse every year. Soon thereafter, arrived by
ship a brother of the king of England named From. He came with one of his sons, named Fortun Froes, and they settled in the village of
Busturia. From, being told about the tribute, promised to defend the Biscayans as long as they called him Lord. The Asturian count then,
engaged in battle against From and the Biscayans, and was defeated near Arrigorriaga. After From's passing, Fortun Froes became the Lord of
Biscay.
Munio López (909-920) was Lord of the Lordship of Biscay from 909 until his death in 920. He was the son of Jaun Zuria, who married
Belasquita, daughter of Sancho I of Pamplona.
Íñigo López Esquira (died 965) was Lord of the Lordship of Biscay from 920 until his death in 965. He was the step-brother of Munio López
and called "the left-handed".
Lope II Íñiguez (died 1011) was Lord of the Lordship of Biscay from 965 until his death in 1011.
Sancho López (died 1016) was Lord of the Lordship of Biscay from 1011 until his death in 1016.
House of Haro
Íñigo López (floruit 1040–1076; dead by 1079) was the first historical Lord of Biscay. Although the date is not known precisely, Íñigo's
government of Biscay began between 1040 and 1043 at the latest until his death around 1079. It was certainly by appointment of the king, García
Sánchez III of Navarre, and not a hereditary right. At some point he received the rank of count (comes in Latin) and the style "by the grace of
God" (gratia Dei). Íñigo's origins are obscure, but he may have been a son of Lope Velázquez de Ayala, a lord in Álava, Cantabria and nearby
parts of Biscay. He married Toda Ortiz (Fortúnez), probably a daughter of Fortún Sánchez, the godfather of García Sánchez. His father-in-law and
García Sánchez both died in the Battle of Atapuerca in 1054 and Íñigo may have succeeded the former as tenente (lord "holding" the
government on behalf of the king) in Nájera. Documents place his rule in Nájera between 1063 and 1075, often through a vicar. Besides Biscay
and Nájera, Íñigo also ruled Durango. In 1051, when García Sánchez granted fueros to Biscay, he officially associated Íñigo with him in the
decree, as the head of the local aristocracy (omnes milites), recognising the rights and privileges of the monasteries. Íñigo is further associated
with monastic renovation by his making or confirming the donations of the churches (monasteria) of San Juan de Gaztelugatxe, Santa María de
Mundaca, and Bermeo to San Juan de la Peña, and of Axpe de Busturia and San Martín de Yurreta to San Millán de la Cogolla. In 1076, after the
assassination of Sancho Garcés IV and the division of Navarre by the armies of his cousins, Sancho I of Aragon and Alfonso VI of León and
Castile, Íñigo accepted the overlordship of the Leonese-Castilian monarch. In the surviving text of the fuero given to Nájera that year Íñigo's
eldest son, Lope, appears swearing fealty to Alfonso, but he is not recorded in documents as count in Biscay until 1079. These dates being the
termini ad et post quem of his death. He is last recorded in a donation he made to San Millán on behalf of his late wife. In the donation he
names as their children, beside Lope: García, Galindo, Mencía, and Sancho, who died young.
Lope Íñiguez (c. 1050 - 1093) succeeded his father Íñigo López to become the second Lord of the Lordship of Biscay from 1076 until his death
in 1093. Íñigo died shortly after the assassination of his overlord Sancho IV of Navarre and the subsequent takeover of Biscay, Álava, part of
Guipúzcoa and La Rioja by Alfonso VI of Castile. He accepted Alfonso as his lord and his son followed suit, although after Íñigo's death the
tenencia of Nájera, the most important in La Rioja, which he had held was given to García Ordóñez, husband of Urraca, sister of the deceased
Navarrese king. Nevertheless, it was Lope and Diego Álvarez de Oca whom the king had swear to uphold and guarantee the fuero of Nájera
which he had granted (1076). For the loss of Nájera, Lope was compensated with the tenencias of Álava (1081) and Guipúzcoa (1082) and he was
thus the first to unite the Basque provinces under one lord. The first record of his simultaneous rule in all three provinces comes from a charter
of donation he made to the monastery of San Millán de la Cogolla in 1082, which he signed as "I, lord Lope Íñiguez, governing Biscay,
Guipúzcoa and Álava". This concentration of political authority led to the suppression of the Diocese of Álava and the consignment of its
province to the Diocese of Calahorra in 1087. In 1089 Lope received the title of count, the highest rank in the kingdom, from Alfonso. Lope's
importance continued to grow, for in 1091, at his instigation, Alfonso VI donated the monastery of San Andrés de Astigarribia, which lay on the
border between Biscay and Guipúzcoa, to San Millán. Lope was a regular participant in Alfonso VI's Reconquista. He probably took part in the
conquest of Toledo in 1085. Forces from Álava are known to have participated in the Battle of Sagrajas in 1086, probably under his leadership. In
the spring of 1092 he probably joined with García Ordóñez in defending the Rioja from the depredations of from the exile and freebooter
Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar. Lope married Ticlo (Tecla) Díaz, daughter of a certain Diego Álvarez, possibly Diego Álvarez de Ayala, who ruled
Asturias de Santillana, but more probably Diego Álvarez de Oca. Their marriage took place before 1079, when the couple made a donation to
San Millán. Ticlo may have brought part of Las Encartaciones to Lope, thus uniting them permanently with Biscay. She gave birth to an heir,
Diego I, named after her father. The names Diego and Lope would alternate in the heads of the family for generations. Ticlo bore four other
children: Sancho, Toda (who married Lope González, who succeeded Lope in Álava), Sancha and Teresa (who married García Sánchez de
Zurbano and later went on a pilgrimage to Rome). Shortly after Lope's death in 1093 Ticlo donated the monastery of Albóniga to San Millán for
the good of his soul. She died towards 1104 and was buried in San Millán. Lope may also have been the father of Pedro López de Monforte.

Diego López I de Haro (died 1124/1126) was the third Lord of the Lordship of Biscay from 1093 until his
death in 1124/1126, and also the ruler of Álava, Buradón, Grañón, Nájera, Haro, and perhaps Guipúzcoa: the
most powerful Castilian magnate in the Basque Country and the Rioja during the first quarter of the twelfth
century. He was a loyal supporter of Queen Urraca and he fought the invading armies of her estranged
husband Alfonso the Battler on two, or perhaps three, occasions. Diego succeeded his father, Lope Íñiguez, in
Biscay (and perhaps Guipúzcoa) on the latter's death in 1093, but Álava went to his brother-in-law Lope
González. On the death of García Ordóñez at the Battle of Uclés (1108), the tenencias of Grañón, Nájera and
Haro passed to Diego by an act of Alfonso VI. In June 1110 Diego received a grant of privileges from Queen
Urraca, acting without the consent of Alfonso the Battler, whereby she gave all his patrimonial lands (that is,
lands he owned, not fiscal lands he governed on behalf of the crown) complete immunity from confiscation.
In August Urraca, then advancing with her army on Zaragoza, confirmed some rights and privileges of the monastery of San Millán de la
Cogolla, an act confirmed by the three most important magnates of the region: Sancho, Count of Pamplona, Diego, described as senior in
Nagera, and Íñigo Jiménez de los Cameros, dominante in Calahorra. At that time Íñigo Jiménez was also ruling Buradón. After Lope González's
death in 1110 and before 1113 Diego succeeded to Álava and re-united all his father's tenencias. It was Diego who first began using the
toponymic "de Haro", which became the family name. It is possible that Diego, alongside the Navarrese count Ladrón Íñiguez, first went to war
against Alfonso in 1112, and that there was fighting in the vicinity of Castrojeriz that July. Alfonso made reference to Diego and the fighting in a
charter to Santo Domingo de la Calzada, but this charter is dated differently in each of its surviving copies. One copy dates it to July 1124, which
fits with Diego's last known rebellion. In August 1116 Diego raised the standard of revolt against Alfonso, whose Navarrese lands his lordships
bordered. He was consequently deprived of Nájera, which was bestowed on Fortunio Garcés Caixal, although he may never had actually given it
up. He was allowed to retain Haro and Buradón, which he had received some time after 1110. In February 1117 Alfonso made a donation to
Santa María la Real de Nájera calling himself Imperator and still claiming the kingdoms of Urraca. The donation was confirmed by Diego
López, along with Pedro González de Lara and Suero Vermúdez, several bishops and many Aragonese. The charter is in the style of the Leonese
chancery and its authenticity has been called into question, but it may reflect a moment of heightened negotiations between Alfonso and
Urraca. It cannot be taken to reflect a desertion on the part of her major supporters (Diego, Pedro and Suero). Diego remained on good terms
with Alfonso in 1118, when he participated in the Reconquista of the great city of Zaragoza, and into 1119, taking part in the continuing
conquest of the taifa. In July 1124, perhaps encouraged by Urraca or her son, Alfonso VII, Diego again aided by Ladrón of Navarre rose against
Alfonso's forces and was besieged in Haro by Alfonso himself. Alfonso confiscated all his tenencias and granted them to Íñigo Vélaz. There is
some discrepancy over when and how Diego died. According to some source, he died in 1124, probably in the fighting, while others place his
death in 1126, after having lost all his lands and titles. Diego married a certain María Sánchez of obscure origins. In 1121 he and his wife joined
his sister, Toda López, and her daughter, his niece, María López, in making a donation to Santa María la Real. María Sánchez has been called a
sister of García Ordóñez, an impossibility in light of her patronymic; a daughter of Sancho Núñez, son of count Munio Sánchez, ruler of the
Duranguesado; and a sister of Lope García Sánchez of the Llodio branch of the Ayala clan. More likely than any of these hypotheses is that she
was a daughter of Sancho Sánchez de Erro, ruler of Tafalla in Navarre, and his wife, Elvira García, daughter of García Ordóñez. Diego's claim to
García's lordships in 1108 may have stemmed partially from his wife's ancestry. She gave four sons: Lope Díaz I, who later ruled Biscay and
Álava, and three obscure names, Sancho, Fortunio and Gil. Some historians have reckoned Sancha Díaz de Frias, the founder of Santa María de
Bujedo, his daughter, but she was more probably a daughter of Diego Sánchez de Ayala and a sister of Toda Díaz. In May 1140, widowed, María
"the mother of Count Lope" (mater comitis Lupi) and Mayor Garcés gave the monastery of San Ginés to that of San Juan de Burgos.
Lope Díaz I de Haro (c. 1105 – May 6, 1170) was the fourth Lord of the Lordship of Biscay from
1124/1126 until 1134 and from 1150 until his death on May 6, 1170. He was an important magnate in
Castile during the reign of the Emperor Alfonso VII and in the kingdom of his son and grandson. Between
1147 and 1168 he is recorded as governing Old Castile on behalf of the crown. Lope was the eldest son of
Diego López I and María Sánchez. On his father's death in 1124, Alfonso the Battler seized the Basque
señoríos and the Rioja, annexing them to the Kingdom of Navarre. By June 17, 1125 the Battler was in the
castle of Haro. Diego was succeeded by the Navarrese magnate Ladrón Íñiguez. Lope was, at the time,
probably a youth of about twenty years of age. He is recorded in the Chronica Adefonsi imperatoris (I, §7)
among the eleven Castilian noblemen who swore fealty Alfonso VII upon his succession in 1126. Lope was
appointed a count by 1 February 1135. By the next year (1136) he had been given the government of
Nájera, which was to be the centre of his power until his death. By 1138 he was holding Álava and by 1140
Haro, the castle from which his father took the family name. In that year, however, he rebelled and was
dispossessed. He seems to have been reconciled to the emperor and reinstated by 1143. In 1146 he was with the imperial court in September and
again in November. There is no record of Lope's participation in the conquest of Almería (1147), but it is not unlikely. In 1149 the emperor made
Nájera the capital of a subkingdom for his eldest son, Sancho “the Desired”, but by August 1154 Lope had received de facto control of it again,
although he had to wait until August 1155 to be formally re-installed as lord of Nájera. At some point Lope entrusted the government of Nájera
to a certain vassal of his, Lucas López, whom he had knighted himself. After the death of Alfonso VII, Lope served Sancho as alférez between
November 1157 and July 1158, although in December 1157 that post was briefly held by Pedro Fernández. on November 29, 1157 he issued a
fuero to the town of Fañuela. In 1162 Sancho's son and successor, Alfonso VIII, granted Lope the Trasmiera, the Rioja, and Biscay to govern as
tenencias. In that year he used the high-sounding title Count of Nájera and Biscay (comes naiarensis atque bizchayensis) for the first time. Lope
founded two religious houses on his lands. In 1162 he established the Praemonstratensians in San Juan de la Peña, Begoña, Arratia and Guernica.
The founding charter was drawn up by a scribe named John, a chaplain of Santa María la Real de Nájera, and the original survives. Lope
subscribed the document with his own hand and embellished his signature with a large cross, the rough features of which suggest the count's
lack of familiarity with the pen. It leaves open the question of how literate Lope may have been. In 1169 Lope founded a Cistercian convent at
Hayuela (Fayola) in the Rioja. In 1170 it was re-founded at nearby Cañas. In 1168 Lope gave his brother Sancho his property in the monastery of
San Cipriano and in Villamezquina. Sometime before 1162 Lope married a lady named Aldonza (Endolza, Endulcia). Her patronymic is not
recorded in primary document and her parentage has been much discussed. The earliest authority to name her father was Pedro de Barcelos in
the fourteenth century, who called her Aldonza Ruiz de Castro, a daughter of Rodrigo Fernández de Castro and Elo Álvarez, although she is not
mentioned among Rodrigo's children in the De rebus Hispaniae. A century later Lope García de Salazar called his wife Mencía, a daughter of
Arias. Luis de Salazar y Castro believed that Lope had an earlier wife, name unknown, who bore him several sons, among them Lope López, who
married María de Almenar. This thesis is based in part on the assumption that Lope Díaz was not the type to sire children outside of marriage.
Most recently José María Canal Sánchez-Pagín has dissented from the view that Aldonza was a Castilian like her husband. She was widowed
while her offspring were still young, and they rose to positions of importance in the León and Galicia, where they would have been considered

foreigners if their mother was not a Leonese or Galician. Considering Aldonza's longevity (she outlived her husband by about forty years, and
was probably at least thirty years his junior), she must have been born around 1135. Jaime de Salazar y Acha, in his study of the Vela family,
suggested that she was a daughter of Rodrigo Vélaz, and Canal Sánchez-Pagín originally suggested that she was his granddaughter, a daughter
of Álvaro Rodríguez. In a document of 1182 recording a donation to San Prudencio de Monte Laturce that survives only in a Spanish translation
by Gaspar Coronel, Aldonza calls herself a first cousin (consobrina) of Rodrigo Álvarez, son of Álvaro Rodríguez and Sancha Fernández de
Traba. It is most likely, then, that she was a daughter of Sancha's brother, Gonzalo Fernández de Traba. She is known to have had close relations
with Gonzalo's other children, Gómez and Urraca. She was a daughter of Gonzalo by his first wife, Elvira, a daughter of Rodrigo Vélaz. Besides
his heir, Diego II, Lope Díaz had three sons—García, Lope, and Rodrigo—and eight daughters—Aldonza, Elvira, Estefanía, María, Mencía,
Sancha, Toda, and Urraca, who married Ferdinand II of León as his final wife. Lope died on May 6, 1170, a date confirmed by the Annales
compostellani. By June 1171, his widow had entered the convent at Cañas, where for over thirty years she acted as de facto abbess. She was still
living in May 1207, when she made a donation to San Marcos de León.
Diego López II de Haro called the Good or the Bad (b. 1162 - October 16, 1214) was the fifth Lord of
the Lordship of Biscay from 1170 until his death on October 16, 1214. He was son of Lope Diaz I de Haro,
count of Nájera (1126–1170) and of countess Aldonza. He was a first rank magnate in the kingdom of
Castile under King Alfonso VIII (1158–1214). He played a decisive role in the rise of the Haro dynasty, as
well as in the construction of the nobiliary identity of his group, who was to dominate the Castilian
political society during the whole 13th century. A publicity strife around this key figure between his
successors and the monarchy, in a moment of deep political troubles, led to the elaboration of his dark
image and his golden legend at the end of the 13th century, and the invention of his opposite nicknames.
He did not attend the royal court with any regularity before 1178, maybe because of the influence exerted
by the magnates of the Lara family. Between 1179 and 1183, he went into exile in Navarra. He went back
to the Castilian court in a strong position, obtaining the office of alférez, standard bearer, one of the two
most prestigious with that of great major-domo. The rise of his parents in the neighboring kingdom of León let him catch sight of better
opportunities in 1187, when his sister Urraca López married King Fernando II. Thus he left Castile, but the good fortune of his family in León
did not survive the king's death, the following year. He retained sufficient credit in Castile to negotiate his return with favorable conditions: he
was given back the office of alférez and all his governments. In charge of the rearguard, he took part in 1195 in the battle of Alarcos against the
Almohads, and the defense of the territory after the Castilian rout. The king put him apart from 1199 on, depriving him of the office of alférez
for the benefit of count Álvaro Núñez de Lara. He went into exile a third time between 1201 and 1206, offering his services to Navarra and León.
He had nevertheless made himself indispensable for the Castilian sovereign. In his first will, in 1206, Alfonso VIII recognized having wronged
the magnate, and tried to repair the damages. When Diego López decided to come back in Castile in 1206, Alfonso VIII gave him back his full
confidence as his alférez, before handing over the office to Álvaro Núñez de Lara again in 1208. That very year, Alfonso VIII named Diego López
one of his five executors. In 1212, the king entrusted to him one of his three armies in the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, that allowed the
Christian kingdoms to get rid of the power of the Almohads in al-Andalus. The chronicler Juan de Osma asserted that the king had made him
the future regent of the child-king Henry I. But Diego López II died a few weeks before Alfonso VIII. His first exile of 1179-1183 allowed his to
recover the territories his father had ruled, La Rioja, Old Castile and Trasmiera. He also obtained Asturias (of Santillana) and the Bureba. After
his second exile, he extended even more his area of influence in Northeastern Castile, to the point of ruling "from Almazán to the sea" (1196). In
1204, in order to urge him to come back in Castile, Alfonso VIII acknowledged his ownership of the whole of Bizcaya, a Basque territory his
ancestors had ruled back in the 11th century. This instrument may have meant the definitive conversion of this government into an inalienable
fief, that would be the territorial basis of the Haro during the whole 13th century. He added Durando in 1212, a gift of the king no long after the
battle of Las Navas de Tolosa. He took a decisive step towards the patrimonialization of many of those governments, sharing them with his elder
son, Lope Díaz II de Haro. Lope thus received the governments of Old Castile in 1210, Asturias de Santillana in 1211, and Álava en 1213. Diego
López II strengthened the part of the head of family among his clan, permitting the shift from the "horizontal" conception of kinship to the
"vertical" system of dynasty. He was the first of his family to use an apellido or family name : he "invented" the name "Haro", that notaries start to
attribute to him in documents from 1184 on. He was also the first to use a heraldic symbol, the wolf with a lamb in his mouth, attested on his
seal in 1198. Diego López II's memory quickly underwent attacks. As soon as 1216, during the regency of the Lara brothers, when Lope Díaz II
was trying to play a political role, the royal chancellery issued a charter judging him a bad lord. Diego López's image constructed around 1240–
1241 by the chronicler Rodrigo Jiménez de Rada, Toledo's archbishop, who had known him personally, was already very ambiguous. He
criticized his exile strategy that led him to face his king on the battlefield. The tombs of Diego López and of his wife Toda Pérez, in the cloister of
knights of the abbey of Santa María de Nájera, were both realized during the second half of the 13th century. They bear testimony of the specific
interest of the Haros for this founder ancestor. During 1270–1280, when Lope Díaz III was brought against King Alfonso X of Castile-León, in
nobiliary rebellions ever more open, intellectuals from the court denigrated the reputation of Diego López "said the Good", to whom the
responsibility of the defeat of Alarcos was for the first time attributed. Writers supporting the Haros invented in this period an equivalent myth
to justify Diego López II's attitude and to charge the monarchy. The story of the Jewish girl from Toledo, which explains the rout at Alarcos with
the sins of Alfonso VIII, appeared towards the end of the 13th century. During 1340, the books of the Portuguese count Pedro de Barcelos, the
Crónica Geral de 1344 and the Livros de linhagens definitely turned the biography of Diego López II into a myth. This author relates episodes
allegedly historical, but similar to well known literary themes from Brittany (Arthurian romances) and French epic. He converted him into an
ambiguous character, in a pseudo-historical attempt to synthesize his dark image and his golden legend. In the middle of the 15th century, Lope
García de Salázar, in his Crónica de Vizcaya, finally imagined the nickname "the Bad" to explain the contradictions in his biography. His memory
suffered later other deformations, according to the interests of the 16th-century genealogists working for the nobility, and, from the 17th
century on, of Basque historians. This time, it was the myth of the "independent seigneury" of Biscaya that was at stake between Basque fuerists
and later nationalists, and their contradictors, until the first half of the 20th century. He married Toda Pérez de Azagra, daughter of Pedro
Rodriguez de Azagra, and had several children : Lope Díaz II de Haro, Pedro Díaz - lord of Cárcar thanks to his mother and his maternal
grandparents, Urraca Díaz - married count Álvaro Núñez de Lara (died 1218), Aldonza Díaz - married Ruy Díaz de los Cameros. María Díaz :
married count Gonzalo Núñez de Lara (died 1225),Teresa Díaz de Haro - married her cousin, Infant Sancho of León, son of King Fernando II and
Urraca López de Haro and Mencía Díaz - married Alvaro Díaz de los Cameros.
Lope Díaz II de Haro, "Cabeza Brava" (1170 - November 15, 1236) was a Spanish noble of the
House of Haro, the sixth Lord of Biscay from 1216 until his death on November 15, 1236, founder of
the municipality of Plentzia, and Lord of Álava. He was the eldest son of Diego López II de Haro and
his wife, María Manrique. Lope was also a member of the Order of Santiago. Lope Díaz fought

alongside his father at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa where he distinguished himself. That action expelled the Almohads from the region
and brought it under Castilian rule. The battle was commanded by three Christian kings; Alfonso VIII of Castile, Peter II of Aragon and Sancho
VII of Navarre. Lope Díaz came to power in difficult times after the death of his father on October 16, 1214. A few days after he came to power,
King Alfonso VIII of Castile died, leaving his 10 year old son, the ill fated Henry I of Castile as heir to the throne after mysterious the death of
his older brother, Fernando de Castilla y Plantagenet. The House of Lara gained power over Henry and started a rivalry with his sister,
Berengaria of Castile who consequently was Lope Díaz' patron. In 1217, Henry was 'accidentally' killed at the age of 13 by a falling roof tile. He
was succeeded by his sister Berengaria, with the support of Lope Díaz, amongst other nobles, who later abdicated in favor of her son Ferdinand
III of Castile, crowned in Nájera. Alfonso IX of León, the father of Ferdinand III was against the coronation of his son and invaded Castile with
the support of the House of Lara. During this invasion, Álvaro Núñez de Lara gained power in Nájera and was subsequently defeated and
imprisoned by Lope Díaz. For his supporting role in the backing of Ferdinand III as king, Lope Díaz was granted the title of "Alférez del Rey", or
lieutenant of the king. He was married to the daughter of King Alfonso IX and step-sister of Ferdinand III, Urraca Alfonso de León. He was also
given titles over the villages of Haro and Pedroso. Lope participated in various other wars supporting the ascension of Ferdinand III such as the
expeditions against the Moors in Andalucía, of which the most important was the capture of Baeza in 1227. For his role in the city's capture, Lope
Díaz was given the title of Conquistador de Baeza. In the early 1230s, the bishop of Calahorra wanted to exert his power over all the churches
subject to the Monasteries of San Millán de la Cogolla. This led to multiple lawsuits that would end in 1232 with the move of the Diocese of
Calahorra y La Calzada-Logroño to Santo Domingo de la Calzada. By 1235, the fallout from this shakeup was so great that Lope was forced to
expel the bishop who fled to Rome and the diocese moved back to Calahorra. In 1234, fresh conflict broke out between King Ferdinand III and
two of his leading magnates, Álvaro Pérez de Castro el Castellano: head of the House of Castro, and Lope Díaz II de Haro. Lope's grievances with
the king were a result of a disagreement between the two at the siege of Úbeda. Without the approval of the king, who was uncle of Lope's
daughters as his sister was Lope's wife, Alvaro Perez de Castro married Lope's daughter Mencia Lopez de Haro. This led king Ferdinand to
relinquish all the titles and lands granted to Álvaro Pérez de Castro by the crown even though the conflict was settled arbitrarily by the Queens
Berengaria de Castilla and Elisabeth of Swabia. Lope Díaz de Haro II died shortly after on November 15, 1236. He was buried in a sepulcher at
the monastery of Santa María la Real de Nájera. Lope Díaz married Urraca Alfonso de León, the illegitimate daughter of Alfonso IX of León and
his lover, Inés Íñiguez de Mendoza. With this wife, he had the following children: Diego López III de Haro - succeeded his father as the Lord of
Biscay, Teresa López de Haro - married Nuño Sánchez, son of Sancho I de Cerdaña and Sancha Núñez de Lara. She later married a second time
with Rodrigo González Girón, son of Gonzalo Rodríguez Girón, Álvaro López de Haro - married Berenguela González de Girón, with whom he
had five children. Died after 1236, Mencía López de Haro - First married Álvaro Pérez de Castro el Castellano, head of the House of Castro and
son of Pedro Fernández de Castro "el Castellano". She later married a second time with King Sancho II of Portugal and became queen consort of
Portugal. She died without having any children and was buried with Lope at the monastery of Santa María la Real de Nájera, Berenguela López
de Haro - Named after the Queen of Castile, she married before 1254 with Rodrigo González Girón, son of Gonzalo Rodríguez Girón, without
succession. Her last will and testament was granted on 17 August 1296, Sancho López de Haro - the second son of Lope who went on to found
the House of Ayala which rose to power in the 13th Century, Lope López de Haro el Chico (1220 - ?) - Señorío de La Guardia of Jaén and Bailén,
married Mayor González de Girón, Alfonso López de Haro - Became Lord of Cameros through his marriage with his first wife María Álvarez,
daughter of Álvar Díaz de los Cameros and Mencía Díaz de Haro. Together they founded the Monasterio de Santa María de Herce in 1246. He
later married a second time with Sancha Gil, daughter of Gil Vasques de Soverosa and María González Girón, the latter being the widow of
Guillén Pérez de Guzmán and Manrique López de Haro - died after 1236. With Toda de Salcedo de Santa Gadea he had one son: Diego López de
Salcedo - Merino Mayor of Castilla and Adelantado of Álava and Guipúzcoa, who is present in the documentation of various monasteries and
who in 1275 was present in the last will and testament of his half sister, the queen Mencía López de Haro. He was buried in the same chapel as
her and Lope Diaz at the Monasterio de Santa María la Real de Nájera. He married Teresa Álvarez de Lara, illegitimate daughter of Alvar
Fernández de Lara. He had another son with an unknown mother: Lope Díaz de Haro (Bishop) - Bishop of Sigüenza and chaplain at the
Monasterio de Santa María la Real de Nájera along with his brother, Diego López de Salcedo.
Diego López III de Haro (died October 4, 1254, Bañares) was the seventh Lord od the Lordship of Biscay from 1236 until
his death on October 4, 1254. He was the eldest son of Lope Díaz II de Haro and of Urraca Alfonso de León, the illegitimate
daughter of King Alfonso IX of León. Diego succeeded his father as the Lord of Biscay. In his young adulthood, Diego loyally
served his uncle, the King Ferdinand III of Castile. After his father fell out of favor with the king, Ferdinand III decided to
revoke the hereditary titles of lordship over La Rioja but left him with Castilla la Vieja. In defiance, Diego rebelled against the
king several time, each time being forgiven after the fact. Diego then remained loyal until Ferdinand III's death in 1252.
Alfonso X of Castile ascended to the throne after the death of Ferdinand III. Diego, his cousin, continued to serve him in his
same position, but their relationship was incredibly strained. Finally, Diego exercised his right to refuse obedience to the king (a
law recognized in Middle Age legislation to feudal lords) and began searching for another qualified candidate to become King
of Navarre. On October 4, 1254, Diego López III de Haro died in a town of La Rioja called Baños de Río Tobía. He was killed in a
bathing tub filled with boiling water under the pretext that it would cure his rheumatism. He was buried in the Monastery of Santa María la Real
of Nájera where his father and family members were previously entombed. Diego married Constanza de Bearne, daughter of Vizconde
Guillermo II de Bearne and his wife, Garsenda de Provenza. The couple had the following five children: Lope Díaz III de Haro (c. 1245 - 1288),
he was inherited the Lordship of Biscay after the death of his father. Married Juana Alfonso de Molina, daughter of Alfonso de Molina and niece
of the king, Alfonso IX of León. He was killed in Alfaro in 1288 by Sancho IV of Castile, the king of Castile and León, Diego López V de Haro (c.
1250 - 1310), noble from Biscay, married Violante de Castilla y Aragón, daughter of King Alfonso X of Castile. He died during the Siege of
Algeciras in 1310. His body was buried in the Monasterio de San Francisco de Burgos which no longer exists today, Urraca Díaz de Haro -
Married Fernando Rodríguez de Castro, a noble who held title over Cigales and Cuéllar and son of Rodrigo Fernández de Castro, Vizconde of
Cabrera and lord of Cigales, and his wife Leonor González de Lara, Teresa de Haro. - Married Juan Núñez I de Lara, head of the House of Lara
and son of Nuño González de Lara "el Bueno", also head of the House of Lara and Sancha Díaz de Haro (died after 1287). On April 22, 1287, her
brother Diego donated to her the aldea de Santa Olalla. Lope Díaz III de Haro was a Spanish noble and head of the House of Haro and the eigth
Lord of the Lordsip of Biscay, a post which he gained by hereditary means after the death of his father. He held that title from 1254 until his own
death on June 8, 1288 where he died attempting to assassinate the King of Castile. He was son of Diego López III de Haro and Constanza de
Bearne. His maternal grandparents were the Vizconde Guillermo II de Bearne and his wife, Garsenda de Provenza. Her paternal grandparents
were Lope Díaz II de Haro, also Lord of Biscay, and of Urraca Alfonso de León, the illegitimate daughter of King Alfonso IX of León. Lope was
the oldest of 5 siblings which included Teresa de Haro, who merged the Haro family with the House of Lara, and Diego López V de Haro who
died during the Siege of Algeciras in 1310. Lope took possession of the title of Biscay while still a minor after the death of his father. Due to the
unnatural way in which his father died and the fact that his father had actively supported the overthrow of Alfonso X of Castile and had sworn
allegiance to the King of Navarre, Lope's tutors brought the boy to Estella-Lizarra where he too offered his services to the Navarese King. After
long, Lope was reconciled with Alfonso X who reinstated Lope as Lord of Haro, a privilege his father had lost the family. Lope entered the

service of Fernando de la Cerda, the eldest son of King Alfonso X. Fernando however ended up dying in 1275, throwing into question his line of
succession. Disputes arose between two of his sons; Alfonso de la Cerda and Sancho de la Cerda who began jockeying for power and influence to
see who would gain power over the succession of the Castilian crown. Lope decided to throw his support behind Sancho which turned out to be a
savvy move. On April 4, 1284, Alfonso X of Castile died and Sancho IV of Castile was named King of Castile. Sancho IV was married to María de
Molina who was the sister of Don Lope Diaz' wife. This good fortune made Lope a very powerful man, earning the Lord of Biscay the additional
titles of Mayordomo Real of the Kingdom, Caniller y Alférez Mayor, and was given title of all the land from Burgos to Cantabria. In 1287, he was
the regent of the Kingdom of Castile along with the Bishop of Astorga. Before long, the other nobles of Castile became envious of Lope's
enormous power and began to take their issues up with the King. Things came to the breaking point on the 8th of June, 1288 in a town in La
Rioja called Alfaro. In a meeting with King Sancho IV, Lope Díaz III de Haro got in an argument with Juan Alfonso López de Haro I, a noble of
the same House of Haro who held the title of Señorío de Cameros. The argument allegedly resulted in Lope pulling out a knife and threatening
the life of the King where after he was executed. The Spanish text of the incident from author Claudio Sánchez-Albornoz y Menduiña is as
follows: ... el Conde se levantó mucho asina e dijo: ¿Presos? ¿Cómo? ¡A la merda! ¡Oh, los míos! e metió mano a un cuchillo e dejóse ir para la
puerta donde estaba el Rey el cuchillo sacado e la mano alta... ballesteros e caballeros, veyendo que el Conde iva contra el Rey, firieron al Conde,
e diéronle con una espada en la mano, e cortáronsela, e cayó luego la mano en tierra con el cuchillo; e luego diéronle con una maza en la
cabeza, que cayó en tierra muerto. - Crónica del reinado de Sancho IV el Bravo. Claudio Sánchez-Albornoz y Menduiña. He married Juana
Alfonso de Molina, daughter of Alfonso of Molina, niece of the King Alfonso IX of León, and sister of the wife of King Sancho IV of Castile. He
married Juana without the consent of the king which was considered a great affront at the time. The wedding took place at the Monasterio de
Santa María y San Andrés and the following marriage brought two children: Diego López IV de Haro (died 1289), who succeeded his father as
Lordof Biscay and as head of the House of Haro. After his death, there was a struggle over the succession of the Lordship of Biscay between
Diego's paternal uncle, Diego López V de Haro, and his sister, María II Díaz de Haro who was supported by her husband and King Alfonso X,
María II Díaz de Haro ( c. 1274 - 1342), married Juan de Castilla, hijo de Alfonso X of Castile, the King of Castile and Leon. She became the
Señora de Vizcaya or Lady of Biscay in 1310, after the death of her paternal uncle Diego López V de Haro, with whom she had been fighting for
the title. Diego V was successful in his attempts to capture the lordship after the death of Diego López IV de Haro. Maria was the mother of Juan
de Haro 'el Tuerto' who was assassinated in Toro in 1326 by order of the King Alfonso XI de Castilla.
Diego López IV de Haro (died 1289) was a Spanish noble and the ninth Lord of the Lordship of Biscay from 1288 to his death in 1289. A
member of the House of Haro, Diego López was the son of Lope Díaz III de Haro, from whom he inherited the title of Lord of Biscay, and his
wife, Juana Alfonso de Molina, daughter of the infante Alfonso of Molina and granddaughter of King Alfonso IX of León. Her maternal
grandfather was Gonzalo Núñez de Lara, señor of Belorado. With the death of his father a period of conflict started between the territories of
Biscay and Castile. Diego López joined the side of Navarre and Aragon supporting the pretender to the throne Alfonso de la Cerda in the larger
conflict to fight against Sancho IV of Castile. The war went poorly for Diego's side as the forces of Sancho IV began taking large swaths of
territory, including the towns of Labastida, Orduña-Urduña, and Balmaseda. After a protracted conflict, Sancho IV was able to occupy Biscay.
Don Diego López died without descendants in 1289 without leaving behind any heirs. As a result, there were a series of disputes as to the
succession of the lordship title which eventually passed to María II Díaz de Haro.
María II Díaz de Haro the Good (1270 - October 3, 1342) was a Spanish noblewoman of the House of Haro
and Lady of the Lordship of Biscay from 1289 until 1295, from 1310 until 1322 and from 1326 until 1334. She was
the daughter of Lope Díaz III de Haro who was assassinated by order of the king at Alfaro, La Rioja. She is best
known for being the Lady of Biscay and for her lifelong battle against her uncle, Diego López V de Haro for the
title of the lordship of Biscay. Maria was the daughter of Lope Díaz III de Haro and, Juana Alfonso de Molina. She
inherited the title of Lord of Biscay from her brother Diego López de Haro IV upon his death in 1288, which passed
briefly to her husband, John of Castile and which was later taken from her by her uncle, Diego López V de Haro
during the unrest following the death of Sancho IV of Castile and the rise to power of his young son, Ferdinand IV
of Castile. Her paternal grandparents were Diego López III de Haro and Constanza de Bearne. Maria's brother was
Diego López IV de Haro. She was the great granddaughter of the king, Alfonso IX of León. Maria obtained the title
of Lord of Biscay as she was next in line after her father, Lope Díaz III de Haro, died in 1288 and her elder brother,
Diego López IV de Haro, died after just one year of holding the title in 1289. In 1287, Maria married John of Castile.
On June 8, 1288, her father was assassinated in Alfaro by order of King Sancho IV of Castile over a deep seated
disagreement between the two parties. Maria's husband, John, who was also the brother of Sancho IV and one of the infantes of the Kingdom of
Castile, was also present during the episode and was thrown in prison for his role in the affair. The title over Biscay passed down to Diego López
IV de Haro, the firstborn son of Lope Diaz III, who was involved in his own disputes with supporters of the new King, Ferdinand IV of Castile,
and with John of Castile. These disputes were due to his support of the infante Alfonso de la Cerda (Second son of Sancho IV) as King of Castile
while others still supported the infante Sancho. This initial period as Lady of Biscay lasted from 1289 until 1295. On April 25, 1295, King Sancho
IV of Castile died and was succeeded to the throne of Castile by his son Ferdinand IV of Castile who was only 9 years old at the time. This led to
a long period of instability in the kingdom and within the Castilian court. Throughout this period, the kingdom was ruled de facto by María de
Molina, the mother and regent of the young Ferdinand IV. The fragile situation was exploited by Maria's uncle, Diego López V de Haro with the
support of James II of Aragon who occupied Biscay and claimed the lordship for himself, stealing it from Maria and her husband, John of
Castile. Diego Lopez V found almost no opposition to his initial takeover of Biscay in large part due to the fact that Maria's husband, the infante
John of Castile, was in prison for offenses related with her father's cause against Sancho IV. For his conquest of Biscay, Diego Lopez V was
forever nicknamed the intrusive. Once freed from prison, John of Castile immediately set to work attempting to regain control over Biscay. He
was initially unsuccessful and joined together with other dissatisfied parties in the kingdom to fight against the queen regent, María de Molina,
and her defendant, Diego López V de Haro the intrusive. Eventually, John and Maria were able to successfully gain a claim of legal title to the
Lordship of Biscay from the Pope. In 1307, during a general meeting of the court of Biscay, Diego the intrusive was obliged to recognize Maria
as the legal heiress to the lordship and asked her to accept the title to be conferred after his death, an event which occurred in 1309. In early
1300, Diego López V de Haro founded the city of Bilbao. He died in service to King Ferdinand IV at the Siege of Algeciras in 1309 during a
campaign against the Kingdom of Granada. When she first came to power over Biscay, Maria was instantly involved in a power struggle with her
cousin, Lope Díaz IV de Haro, son of Diego Lopez V the intrusive. Lope Diaz IV counted on the support of King Ferdinand IV whom his father
had served faithfully and on the fact that the king's uncle and Maria's husband, John of Castile, continuously became entangled in disputes with
the crown. Lope Diaz IV was ultimately unsuccessful in his efforts to deprive Maria of her seat due in large part to intervention at the Castilian
court by the Queen mother Maria de Molina who did not want to see another power struggle over Biscay. As a result, Maria Diaz II remained in
her capacity as Lady of Biscay and head of the House of Haro. In 1312, King Ferdinand IV died leaving the infante John, Maria's husband, tutor

of the infante Pedro de Castilla and governor of Castile. John attempted to take the city of Granada but failed in his efforts. The Castilian forces
were obliged to retreat some 15 kilometers from the city at Cerro de los Infantes, Pinos Puente. During this conflict, the infante Pedro Sanchez
was killed along with John of Castile (26 June 1319). During her reign over Biscay, the cards legitimizing the foundation of Bilbao were ratified
in 1310. Maria founded the towns of Portugalete (1322), Lekeitio (1325) and Ondarroa (1327). In 1322, she founded the Dominican convent at
Valencia de Don Juan, taking up residency at Perales where she retired the same year, leaving the title of Lord of Biscay to her son, Juan de Haro
the one-eyed. Her second tenure as Lady of Biscay lasted from 1310 to 1322. Juan de Haro sought to expand the influence of the lordship of
Biscay, contracting marriage with the niece of the king of Aragon. Don Juan Manuel, feeling threatened by the boldness of Juan's actions, took
his grievances to King Alfonso XI of Castile who ordered Juan's assassination. Maria was forced to come out of retirement and retake the title
over Biscay. Immediately following the assassination of Maria's son, Juan, King Alfonso XI attempted to buy the rights over the Lordship of
Biscay but was unsuccessful in his attempts as an angered Maria refused to relinquish power. In 1334, she abdicated a second time, this time in
favor of her granddaughter, María Díaz II de Haro, daughter of her son Juan de Haro and his wife, Isabel de Portugal y Manuel. The young
Maria Diaz II would go on to marry Juan Núñez IV de Lara and the two would govern Biscay in the name of Maria Diaz II. This third and final
term as Lady of Biscay lasted from 1326 to 1334. María II Díaz de Haro died on October 3, 1342 of old age. Maria continuously fought for the
interests of Biscay including entering into several disputes with the crown of Castile. She is remembered in history as having contributed greatly
to the development of Biscay, gaining the nickname the good. Together with Maria de Molina, she was known as one of the most notable and
accomplished political women of her time. From her marriage with John of Castile, the following children were born: Juan de Haro (died 1326) -
Inherited all the possessions of his mother and father, married Isabel de Portugal y Manuel, daughter of the infante Alfonso of Portugal and
granddaughter of King Alfonso III of Portugal. Assassinated in Toro in 1326 by order of King Alfonso XI of Castile, Lope Díaz de Haro (died
1295) - died during his childhood and María Díaz de Haro (died 1299) - married Juan Núñez II de Lara el Menor, head of the House of Lara who
would go on to marry the daughter of Diego Lopez V de Haro, María Díaz III de Haro. Died without leaving descendants.
Diego López V de Haro, nicknamed el Intruso (c. 1250 - January 1310), was a Spanish
noble of the House of Haro and held the title of the Lord of the Lordship of Biscay which he
took from the pretender to the title, John of Castile from 1295 until his death in January
1310 and Mayordomo Mayor of the King of Navarre from 1207 until 1209. He further served
in the capacity of Mayordomo mayor del rey and the Alférez del rey of Ferdinand IV of
Castile. He was a major benefactor of the city of Bilbao, where he expanded the local fishing
village and granted it the power to maintain its customs market free of any Portazgo (royal
tribute) answerable only to the authority of the Lord of Biscay. Diego López was the son of
Diego López III de Haro and his wife, Constanza de Bearne. He eventually inherited the title
of Lord of Biscay from his father after his sister and the usurper to the title, John of Castile.
His paternal grandparents were Lope Díaz II de Haro, Lord of Biscay, and his wife, Urraca
Alfonso de León, the illegitimate daughter of Alfonso IX of León. His maternal grandparents were Guillermo II de Bearne, the Viscount of
Bearne, and his wife, Garsenda of Provence. Amongst his siblings were Lope Díaz III de Haro, Lord of Biscay, Teresa de Haro, wife of Juan Núñez
I de Lara, head of the House of Lara, and of Sancha Díaz de Haro. He was the great grandson of the king, Alfonso IX of León. Diego López' exact
date of birth is unknown, but it most likely occurred sometime around the year 1250. In 1282, he married the infanta Violant of Castile,
daughter of King Alfonso X of Castile. On April 25, 1295, after the death of King Sancho IV of Castile (who the Haro family had fought to
overthrow), Diego López took advantage of the instability in the court of the young King Ferdinand IV of Castile and took power over the
Lordship of Biscay which rightfully belonged to his sister, María II Díaz de Haro. The incessant fighting against the Castilian crown, led
primarily by the following infantes; John of Castile, an enemy of the Haro family who claimed the throne as the heir to his brother, Sancho IV of
Castile, Infante Henry of Castile, son of Ferdinand III of Castile and uncle of the young king Ferdinand IV, who claimed guardianship over the
king. This was exacerbated by the claims of the infantes of Cerda, Ferdinand de la Cerda and Alfonso de la Cerda, who were supported by
France, Aragón, and their grandmother, Queen Violant of Aragon, widow of Alfonso X of Castile. Still further, problems also arose with the
Kingdom of Aragon, Portugal, and France, who all tried to take advantage of the instability that plagued the contemporary Kingdom of Castile.
Finally, internal Castilian players such as Diego López V de Haro, Nuño González de Lara, and Juan Núñez II de Lara, amongst others, sowed
confusion and anarchy throughout the kingdom. During the summer of 1295, after the Cortes of Valladolid of the same year, Diego López was
confirmed in his illegitimate possession of the Lordship over Biscay, turned over by the pretender to both Biscay and the Castilian throne,
infante John of Castile. During this time, John also temporarily accepted Ferdinand IV as his sovereign and he regained his previous possessions
and titles. On June 15, 1300, Diego López V de Haro converted the fishing village of Bilbao into a town under the authority of the Lords of
Biscay. During the Cortes of Valladolid in 1300, the infante John of Castile officially renounced his pretendership to the throne despite being
proclaimed king of León in 1296. He took an oath of fealty ti Ferdinand IV and his successors on June 26, 1300. The same year, María II Díaz de
Haro together with her husband (the same infante Juan), as compensation for renouncing her claim over the Lordship of Biscay, received title
over Mansilla, Paredes de Nava, Medina de Rioseco, Castronuño, and Cabreros.[4] A short while later, Maria de Molina, and the infantes Henry
and John, accompanied by Diego López V de Haro, laid siege to Almazán, but lifted the siege due to opposition from the infante Henry. In
November of 1301, Diego López was in the court of the city of Burgos when the papal bull of Pope Boniface VIII made public the marriage of
María de Molina (mother of Ferdinand IV) and the dead Sancho IV of Castile. This recognition by the pope, coupled with the coming of age of
Ferdinand IV of Castile instantly made the claims to the throne of John of Castile, Henry of Castile, Alfonso de la Cerda, and Ferdinand de la
Cerda much less plausible as they had thereby lost one of their principal claims to the throne. Going forward, the crown of Castile and Leon was
much more secure. The infante Henry, upset over the legitimization of Ferdinand IV by the pope, forged an alliance against the head of the
House of Lara, Juan Núñez II de Lara in an effort to alienate Ferdinand IV from his mother, María de Molina. The likewise embittered magnate,
John of Castile started his own faction together with Juan Núñez II de Lara in an effort to reclaim the Lordship of Biscay for his wife, María II
Díaz de Haro. Later in 1301, the king placated Henry with titles over Atienza and San Esteban de Gormaz as compensation. In 1302, the rivalry
between these two factions became clear with infante Henry, Maria de Molina and Diego Lopez on one side and the infante John of Castile and
Juan Núñez II de Lara on the other. The infante Henry threatened the Queen with a declaration of war against her and Ferdinand IV if she did
not acquiesce to his demands. This coincided with a fall from grace of Maria de Molina as the contemporary magnates attempted to lessen the
grip of power she had maintained over the king. In the final months of 1302, the queen was in Valladolid where she agreed to placate the
members of the nobility who threatened her with war against King Ferdinand IV who spent Christmas with John of Castile and Juan Núñez II de
Lara in the Kingdom of Leon. In 1303, there was a meeting between the King Denis of Portugal and Ferdinand IV where in Ferdinand obtained
the return of various territories. The split between the two aforementioned factions continued. In May of that year, celebrations over the success
of the meeting (which neither Diego Lopez, Maria de Molina, or Henry of Castile participated in) were held in Badajoz. Further agreement was
reached by Ferdinand IV and Denis of Portugal to obtain Portugal's assistance against the opposing faction. Diego Lopez' faction met in Roa with
Juan Manuel, Prince of Villena, giving the latter orders to travel to the Kingdom of Aragon and to enlist his support against Ferdinand IV. The

group agreed to reunite on the Day of John the Baptist in the municipality of Ariza. Henry of Castile later conveyed this message to Maria de
Molina who was in Valladolid at the time. Henry's plan was for Alfonso de la Cerda to become King of Leon, marrying the infanta Isabel de
Castilla y de Molina, daughter of Maria de Molina and sister of Ferdinand IV. At the same time, the infante Pedro de Castilla y Molina, brother of
Ferdinand IV, was to be named the King of Castile, marrying one of the daughters of James II of Aragon. Henry claimed that his intention was
to foster peace in the kingdom and eliminate the influence of the infante John of Castile and that of Juan Núñez II de Lara. This plan, which
proposed the breakup of the Kingdoms of Castile and Leon and the forced or obliged resignation of Fernando IV, was rejected by the queen
Maria de Molina who refused to meet the rebel faction in Ariza. At the same time, the queen was asked by King Ferdinand IV to help foster a
peace between him and the rebel faction. The queen traveled to Ariza where instead of supporting the rebel cause, she pleaded with the group to
remember their oaths of fealty to the king and to return to his service causing many of the rebels to abandon the cause of infante Henry and
Diego Lopez. This move, which weeded out many of the more moderate rebels, served only to cement the hardline base who vowed to wage war
against the king, demanding further that the Kingdoms of Murcia and Jaén be turned over to Alfonso de la Cerda. It was during this time that
the infante Henry of Castile became deathly ill and retired to his villa at Roa. Fearing that Henry's possessions would revert to Diego Lopez and
Juan Manuel upon his death as was his wish, the queen plotted with Henry's confessor to convince him to leave all his possessions to the crown.
This move inevitably failed and Diego Lopez, together with Juan Manuel inherited all his possessions when Henry died on August 8, 1303. He
was sepulchered at the now destroyed Monasterio de San Francisco de Valladolid. In November of 1303, the king asked the queen for her
support in an effort to end the infighting between infante John of Castile, Lord of Valencia de Campos and Diego Lopez for control over the
Lordship of Biscay which at this time was under the full control of Diego Lopez. The queen agreed to help her son and the relationship of
mother and son was restored when she succeeded in reaching an agreement with the infante John. In winter of 1304, the king was in the area of
Carrión de los Condes when the infante John once again claimed for his wife the lordship of Biscay together with the continued support of Juan
Núñez II de Lara. The king attempted to offer her title over Paredes de Nava and Villalón de Campos as compensation, but this was refused by
the infante John. The king then drafted a lopsided deal where Diego Lopez V would turn over his titles over Tordehumos, Íscar and Santa Olalla.
He would also be made to give up his possessions in Cuéllar, Córdoba, Murcia, Valdetorio, and his title as Señorío de Valdecorneja. In return for
this, Diego would be able to keep Lordship of Biscay, Orduña-Urduña, Balmaseda, las Encartaciones, and Durango. Understandably, the infante
John accepted these terms and the king called Diego Lopez to Carrión de los Condes to cement the deal. Not surprisingly, Diego Lopez V refused
these demands and threatened an all out rebellion against his rule. The king, who was at the time preparing for the Treaty of Torrellas, from
which Diego Lopez was excluded, promised the infante John that he would receive Biscay after all and that Juan Núñez II de Lara would get La
Bureba. He further stated that both could divvy up the territories currently belonging to Diego Lopez in La Rioja if the two could resolve the
diplomatic crisis that was ongoing with Aragon. In April of 1304, the infante John commenced negotiations with the Kingdom of Aragon to
resolve demands made by Alfonso de la Cerda and disputes held by the Aragon. In the meantime, the king confiscated the territories of Diego
Lopez V and of Juan Alfonso de Haro, Señor de los Cameros and divided them up amongst his supporters. After this bold move, many of the
rebels came back under the fold of the king. In winter of 1305, Diego Lopez once again refused the kings demands that he hand over Biscay at
Guadalajara. In 1305, Diego Lopez V was called to present himself in the courts of Medina del Campo which took place that year, to respond to
the demands of the king. At the court, María II Díaz de Haro, Diego's niece and wife of the infante John, demanded the return of her rightful
property, the title of Lord of Biscay, a title which Diego had taken in the unrest that surrounded King Ferdinand IV of Castile's younger days on
the throne. While the infante John and Maria were presenting their case to the court, Diego Lopez, together with three hundred of his knights
arrived at the court and Diego Lopez announced his refusal to give up his title, citing a deal struck in the year 1300 where his niece had
renounced her claim. Diego Lopez V left the court without waiting for its final decision and began drafting a proposal soliciting aid from the
pope. It was around this time that Diego Lopez forged a new alliance with Juan Núñez II de Lara who had gotten into disputes with the infante
John. Seeing himself in a losing position, the infante John signed a two year truce with Diego Lopez as he assumed the new alliance between
Diego Lopez and the House of Lara would not hold. Trouble came quickly to this relationship as Lope Díaz IV de Haro, Diego Lopez' son and
heir entered into a dispute with Juan Núñez II de Lara and he attempted to get his father to accept the kings deal. The same year, Ferdinand IV
gave Lope Diaz IV the charge of Mayordomo Mayor of the king. The king called for a meeting with Diego Lopez V, to which Diego Lopez
brought along Juan Núñez II in an effort to reconcile the latter with the king, while the king maneuvered to split the powerful duo. The king
failed in his efforts and the two rebels left without notifying the king. At the same time, ambassadors from France arrived to solicit an alliance
with the kingdom through marriage of Ferdinand IV's sister, the infanta Isabella. . In April of 1306, the infante John, against the advice of Maria
de Molina, induced the king to declare war officially against Juan Núñez II de Lara in the knowledge that Diego Lopez would support his ally.
The forces of the king laid siege to Aranda de Duero where Juan Nunez was at the time. Juan immediately broke his oath of vassal to the king.
After a series of skirmishes, Juan Nunez managed to escape from the siege while pretending to surrender the city. He moved from there to meet
with Diego Lopez and his son, Lope Diaz IV where the three promised to wage war against the king in their respective territories. As most of the
kings vassals were unsupportive of the war, costs spiraled as they demanded war preparation funds and made little effort to use the money
effectively. The king ordered for the infante John to enter into negotiations with Diego Lopez V, something he agreed to without issue as his own
vassals were equally unsupportive of the war. The two sent the queen, Maria de Molina to negotiate a peace. Negotiations with the rebels were
hosted by Alonso Pérez de Guzmán in the town of Pancorbo. Negotiations with Diego Lopez quickly broke down and he again decided to
continue to appeal to the pope. At the beginning of 1307, while the king, Maria de Molina and the infante John were in Valladolid, they heard
news that Pope Clement V renounced the validity of the renunciation over Biscay of 1300. The king drafted a new agreement whereby Diego
Lopez V would keep Biscay during the course of his life, but it would revert to Maria II of Haro upon his death and would not go to his son, Lope
Diaz IV who would instead inherit Orduña-Urduña and Balmaseda, and get Miranda de Ebro and Villalba de Losa from the king. The group
convened on the court of Vallalodid to reach a final agreement. Before the agreement over Biscay was finally reached, Juan Nunez II de Lara left
the courts feeling betrayed by the king and his mother. For this reason, the king granted Diego Lopez V the title of Mayordomo Mayor of the
king, a move which in turn upset the infante John enough to leave the courts, warning the king that he would no longer be of service to him
until the wardens of Diego Lopez' castles paid tribute to his wife (upon Diego Lopez' death according to the agreement). Regardless, the group
met again in Lerma where it was agreed that the castles that would go to María II Díaz de Haro would begin to pay her tribute, whilst the castles
going to Lope Díaz IV de Haro would do the same for him. With the reconciliation of Diego Lopez V and of the infante John, the king demanded
that Juan Núñez II de Lara leave the Kingdom of Castile and for him to return the castles of Cuenca and Cañete located in the Province of
Cuenca that the king had earlier given to him. The king proceeded to Tordehumos in October of 1307 where he began to siege the city together
with the infante John, his son, Alfonso de Valencia, and the Grand Master of the Order of Santiago, Juan Osórez. It was around the same time
that the king also received a papal order to take all the possessions of the Knights Templar into his possession. Added to other complications,
King Ferdinand IV decided to reach a peace treaty with Juan Núñez II de Lara where Lara agreed to turn all his territories over to the king
minus those in La Bureba and La Rioja. After the siege and the peace agreement, many nobles, sensing an opportunity to grab power, attempted
to create new friction between Lara, the infante John and the king. Convinced that the king wanted them both dead, Juan Nunez II and the
infante Juan forged a new alliance together without attempting to reach out to Diego Lopez V. Despite assurances from the king to the contrary,
this edgy conflict bubbled until 1309 when the king called a conference at the courts of Madrid (the first of its kind actually held in the capital).

Present at this conference were all the major players left alive from the previous infighting. The king announced his intention to wage war
against the Kingdom of Granada due to growing pressure to expand from his nobles. Amongst the nobles that took part in the action were a
majority of the nobles from the previous civil strife from both sides. These included Diego Lopez V de Haro, the infante John of Castile, Juan
Núñez II de Lara, Alonso Pérez de Guzmán, Fernán Ruiz de Saldaña, Juan Manuel, Prince of Villena and many other magnates from Castile. The
Castilian forces were made up of the militias of the towns of Salamanca, Segovia, Seville, and many other cities. King Denis of Portugal also sent
700 knights under Martín Gil de Sousa, Alférez of the king of Portugal. Furthermore, a great deal of knights from the orders of Santiago
Calatrava were also present. Pope Clement V granted King Ferdinand IV a tenth of all taxes and rents collected by the church for a period of
three years. This edict was passed by papal bull on April 28, 1309 from the city of Avignon. King Ferdinand IV of Castile set up his headquarters
in the city of Seville where emissaries of king James II of Aragon announced their readiness to commence operations against the city of
Almería. Ferdinand IV in turn decided to lay siege to the city of Algeciras which had been the main Muslim stronghold on the Iberian Peninsula
for many years. Diego Lopez, amongst others opposed this plan and advocated unsuccessfully for an attack on Gibraltar. This was possibly due in
part to the fact that the city had been unsuccessfully besieged in the past, most notably at the Siege of Algeciras (1278). Nevertheless, the
Castilian-Leonese army gathered in the city and was transferred over the Guadalquivir River towards Algeciras. The vanguard of Ferdinand's
army reached the city walls on July 27, 1309, followed three days later by the last of the Christian forces which included the king Ferdinand and
his entourage. The other prong of attack led by James II of Aragon began its siege of Almería on August 15 of the same year. With the siege of
Algeciras ongoing, Gibraltar fell to the forces of Ferdinand under the control of Juan Núñez II de Lara, Archbishop of Seville, Fernando
Gutiérrez Tello and the Grand Master of the Order of Calatrava on September 12, 1309. In middle October of 1309, the infante John of Castile,
his son, Alfonso, Juan Manual, and Fernán Ruiz de Saldaña deserted the Castilian encampment at Algeciras together with about fifty other
knights. The action, which was due in part because Ferdinand IV owed them a great deal of money, provoked the indignation of the European
monarchs and the protest of James II of Aragon who tried to persuade the deserters unsuccessfully to return to Algeciras. Nevertheless, King
Ferdinand IV maintained the support of Juan Núñez II de Lara and of Diego Lopez de Haro and continued to try and take the city. Disease and
generally poor conditions became so bad in the Christian camp that Ferdinand IV was forced to pawn the jewels and crowns of his wife,
Constance of Portugal to pay his soldiers and knights. A short time later, the troops of Felipe de Castilla y Molina, brother of Ferdinand IV,
arrived in the Christian camp accompanied by 400 knights and many footsoldiers under the command of the Archbishop of Santiago de
Compostela. Towards the end of 1309, Diego Lopez V became sick as the result of an attack of gout, from which he would later die in Christian
camp on the River Andarax. After months of failed attempts to take the city, Ferdinand IV decided to negotiate a peace with the Kingdom of
Granada who had sent their emissary to the camp. They reached a deal where Ferdinand would lift the siege in return for 50,000 gold pieces and
the towns of Quesada and Bedmar. Diego Lopez V de Haro died in January 1310 in the camp at Algeciras. His niece, María II Díaz de Haro, wife
of the infante John of Castile, Lord of Valencia de Campos, took possession of the Lordship of Biscay. Further, the infante John returned the
villas of Paredes de Nava, Cabreros, Medina de Rioseco, Castronuño y Mansilla to the king. After his death during the siege of Algeciras, his
body was taken to the city of Burgos where he was sepulchered at the now destroyed Monasterio de San Francisco de Burgos. It was the same
place where his previous wife, the infanta Violante of Castile was also buried. Diego López V de Haro married the infanta Violante of Castile,
together they were the parents of: Lope Díaz IV de Haro (1285–1322). Señor of Orduña and Valmaseda and Alférez of the king, Ferdinand IV of
Castile, died without descendants, Fernando Díaz de Haro, Señor of Orduña and Valmaseda after the death of his brother he was married in 1315
with Maria of Portugal, Lady of Meneses and Orduña, daughter of the infante Alfonso de Portugal and his wife, Violante Manuel, sister of Juan
Manuel, Prince of Villena, Pedro López de Haro, who died in infancy and María Díaz de Haro. Señora of Tordehumos, married Juan Núñez II de
Lara, señor of Lara and Albarracín.
Juan de Castilla y Haro, also known as Juan Yáñez de Castilla y Haro or Juan de Haro, el Tuerto (died October 31, 1326, Toro), was a
Spanish noble of the House of Haro and of the royal line of the Kingdom of Castile descended from Alfonso X of Castile and the Lord of the
Lordship of Cuéllar from 1319 to 1325 and the Lord of the Lordship of Biscay from 1322 until his assassination by order of King Alfonso XI of
Castile on October 31, 1326. He was the son and heir of María II Díaz de Haro, from whom he inherited the Lordship of Biscay, and her husband
the infante John of Castile. His paternal grandfather was King Alfonso X of Castile and his maternal grandfather was Diego López III de Haro.
Juan married Isabel of Portugal, Lady of Penela, the daughter of the Infante Afonso of Portugal son of King Afonso III of Portugal and his wife
Violante Manuel, the daughter of Infante Manuel of Castile. This marriage produced the following children: María Díaz II de Haro- would go on
to inherit the Lordship of Biscay from Maria II Diaz de Haro. She married Juan Núñez III de Lara, the head of the House of Lara, son of the
infante Ferdinand de la Cerda and great grandson of Alfonso X.
María Díaz II de Haro (c. 1318 or 1320 - September 16, 1348) was Lady of the Lordship of Biscay from 1334 until her death on September
16, 1348. She was the daughter of Juan de Castilla y Haro and his wife, Isabel of Portugal. Daughter of Juan de Castilla y Haro and of Isabel of
Portugal, she was the paternal granddaughter of infante John of Castile and of María II Díaz de Haro, Lady of Biscay. Her maternal
grandparents were the infante Afonso of Portugal and his wife, Violante Manuel. In 1326, her father was assassinated in Toro by order of King
Alfonso XI of Castile who also subsequently confiscated all her father's property. María Díaz II was taken to France where she lived in the city of
Bayonne. While at Bayonne, Juan Núñez III de Lara, head of the House of Lara and noble Magnate of the Kingdom of Castile and Leon solicited
her hand in marriage. The two were married that same year. During the first part of the reign of Alfonso XI, her husband Juan Núñez III
reclaimed from the king in her name, all properties that had previously belonged to her father. In the process, Juan Núñez III fought against the
king on various occasions until his final definitive reconciliation with the king after his being besieged and defeated at Lerma. After the peace
between her husband and the king, all parties were able to coexist peacefully with the Castilian-Leonese monarch. Alfonso XI ratified the
possession of the Lordship of Biscay as belonging to María Díaz II and promised to not use the title himself in any way, something that he had
previously done since 1332. Iglesia de San Francisco, Palencia that formed part of the former convent of San Francisco where María Díaz de
Haro was buried beside her son, the infante Tello de Castilla. María Díaz II died on September 16, 1348 shortly after giving birth to her son,
Nuño Díaz de Haro who went on to briefly inherit the Lordship of Biscay after the death of his father in 1350 at Burgos. She was buried at the
Convento de San Francisco in Palencia. Today, the only remains on the site are those of the church.[3] Upon his death, Tello of Castile, the
husband of María Díaz II's daughter Juana de Lara was also buried at the convent. The sacristy of the church still contains the grave of Tello de
Castilla who wrote in his will the desire to be buried in a silver coffin. Unfortunately the sepulcher belonging to María Díaz II de Haro has been
lost to time, probably having been destroyed during the Peninsular War when the convent of San Francisco de Palencia was converted into a
barracks billeting French troops. It could have also been lost when the Convent of San Francisco was sold in 1835. In 1331, she married Juan
Núñez III de Lara, the head of the House of Lara and the grandson of Alfonso X of Castile. The couple had the following children: Juana de Lara
- XV lady of the House of Lara and Lady of Biscay. Wife of the infante Tello de Castilla, she was assassinated in Seville at the age of 24 by order
of King Peter of Castil, Isabel de Lara, lady of Lara and of Vizcaya (Biscay), from 1359 through 1361, she succeeded her younger brother in the
possession of the Lordship of Biscay. In 1354, she married infante Juan de Aragón y Castilla, son of King Alfonso IV of Aragon. Her husband was

later assassinated by his cousin, Peter I of Castila and Nuño Díaz de Haro, Lord of Lara and Lord of Biscay. He was named the Lord of Biscay in
1350 at the age of 2. Nuño Díaz died in infancy in 1352, at the age of 4.
House of Lara
Juan Núñez III de Lara (1313 - Burgos, November 28, 1350) was Lord of the Lorships of Lara, Vizcaya and Biscaya
from 1334 until his death on November 28, 1350 (together with his wife María Díaz II de Haro from 1334 until 1348) and
Mayordomo mayor del rey of the Kongdom of Navarre from 1345 until his death on November 28, 1350. He was son of
Ferdinand de la Cerda (1275–1322) and Juana Núñez de Lara the Little Dove. Despite belonging to the House de la Cerda
and aspiring to the Castilian-Leonese throne during the reigns of Sancho IV of Castile, Ferdinand IV of Castile and
Alfonso XI of Castile, he carried the family name of his mother which corresponded to the name of his lordship. He was
Lord consort of Biscay, by his marriage to Maria Diaz de Haro II, daughter of Don John de Haro the Eye. He was also Lord
of Villafranca, Oropesa, Torrelobatón, Lerma, Paredes de Nava, Castroverde and Aguilar. Ensign of the King and Lord
Steward of Alfonso XI of Castile. He was a great-grandson of Alfonso X the Wise, King of Castile and León, and Louis IX,
King of France. Son of Ferdinand de la Cerda (1275–1322) and Juana Núñez de Lara the Little Dove. As such, he
embodied the claim of his paternal grandfather, the Infante Ferdinand de la Cerda eldest son of King Alfonso X the Wise,
while being heir to both the Lara holdings of his namesake maternal grandfather, Juan Núñez de Lara "the Fat", and to
the lordship of Viscaya coming from his maternal grandmother Teresa Díaz of Haro. On the death of his uncle, Juan
Nunez de Lara the Younger in 1315, he became lord of the House of Lara, although his uncle, the late Lord of Lara, had arranged in his will that
all his possessions were sold and the proceeds from its sale should go to prayers for the repose of his soul. However, the noblemen of Castile
unwilling to remain without a Lord asked the king to appoint Juan Nunez de Lara, despite his young age, master of the House of Lara. The King
concurred and the noblemen gathered a sum of money that included land, castles and villas for the lordship of Lara. In 1326, his signature
appears on some border privileges. A year after the death of John de Haro, Juan Nunez de Lara was named Ensign of the King, and as such
appears confirmed in his privileges from that year, ranking first among the nobility. In 1329, Don Juan Manuel, was at odds with Alfonso XI of
Castile, because the king had imprisoned his wife, who was daughter of Don Juan Manuel. Therefore, Don Juan Manuel, suggested that the Lord
of Lara be married to Maria Diaz de Haro II. After approval of the marriage by Maria's mother, Don Juan Manuel promised to make war on
Alfonso XI, until Maria's father's, Juan de Haro, possessions were returned, along with lordship of Vizcaya. Concluding the agreement, Juan
Nunez de Lara and Don Juan Manuel went to the city of Bayonne, where Maria Diaz de Haro had been taken after the assassination of her father,
fearing reprisals from Alfonso XI the Just. In 1331, in the city of Bayonne, Juan Nunez de Lara married Maria Diaz de Haro II. Shortly thereafter,
Don Juan Manuel arranged the marriage of his daughter Constance to Prince Pedro of Portugal, son of Alfonso IV of Portugal. With this, Don
Juan Manuel got the support of the Portuguese ruler who had been allied with Alfonso XI, soon to be joined by the King of Granada. The
agreements concluded between the Sultan of Granada and Don Juan Manuel, recording in the mutual aid pact that Juan Manuel was supported
by Juan Nunez de Lara, with the aim of having Alfonso XI return his wife's possessions that had been confiscated. In 1332, when Alfonso XI was
crowned and instituted the Knights of the Band in the kingdom of Castile and León, Juan Núñez de Lara and Don Juan Manuel, showing their
disagreement with the king, were not present at the ceremonies. At that time, both Don Juan Manuel and Juan Núñez de Lara, fortified their
positions and tried to alienate the king's servants and members of his house, such as Juan Martinez de Leyva, who left his post as Chamberlain in
court and moved to the post of chief steward of Juan Nunez de Lara, despite the entreaties of Alfonso XI. Shortly thereafter, Don Juan Manuel
and Juan Núñez de Lara began to make war on Alfonso XI, Don Juan Manuel from his Castle of Peñafiel and Juan Núñez de Lara from the city
of Lerma. The king, who was in the city of Burgos, moved to the city of Valladolid. A short time later, Alfonso XI seized the castle of Avia, which
had been occupied by supporters of the rebel barons. In 1333, the Muslims besieged the city of Gibraltar. Alfonso IX, who at that time was
fighting against the two rebel nobles, sent the masters of the Military Orders to relieve Gibraltar, while he remained in Castile parleying with
Don Juan Manuel and Juan Núñez de Lara to achieve peace. Soon after, the king sought the help of Manuel and de Lara to rescue the city of
Gibraltar. Don Juan Manuel informed the king, that if he wanted his help he should give him the title of Duke, allow him to decide who
inherited his possessions after his death and to be allowed to coin money in his own domain. For his part, Juan Núñez de Lara asked the king for
the Lordship of Biscay to be returned to his wife and all the villas, estates and castles which had belonged to her father, John de Haro. Alfonso XI
delayed the granting of a response to such demands, and shortly thereafter went to meet with Don Juan Manuel in Peñafiel. Despite the initial
goodwill, a final agreement was not reached between the rebel noble and his sovereign. Meanwhile, troops of Juan Núñez de Lara devastated
Tierra de Campos, the king was informed of the seriousness of the situation in the besieged Gibraltar crossing, so Alfonso XI, insisted that Juan
Núñez de Lara and Don Juan Manuel accompany him. Meanwhile, the city of Gibraltar capitulated to the Muslims and Alfonso XI began to
besiege it, but had to raise the siege before the arrival of troops from Granada and Algeciras. Shortly thereafter, Juan Alfonso de Haro, who was
at odds with the king, sided with Don Juan Manuel and Juan Núñez de Lara in their common struggle against Alfonso XI. During Lent of 1334, a
squire of Juan Núñez de Lara gave Alfonso XI a letter, in which he informed the king that he was ending his vassal relationship with him.
Enraged the king ordered the feet and hands the message bearer cut off, who was later beheaded. The king then considered attacking Juan
Núñez de Lara, who was besieging the town of Cuenca de Campos. The king, after seizing the towns of Melgar and Morales, addressed Valladolid
in order to recruit more troops. Soon after, they laid a series of ambushes against Juan Núñez de Lara, who managed to escape. Alfonso XI then
decided to seize the strongholds of Vizcaya that were still loyal to Maria Diaz de Haro II, wife of Juan Núñez de Lara. Then the king besieged the
fortresses of Villafranca Montes de Oca and Bustos and seized Peñaventosa, and ordered its demolition. Alfonso XI, after leaving some of his
troops besieging the Peña de San Juan, he returned to Castile, where in the town of Agoncillo, ordered the execution of Juan Alfonso de Haro,
for abuses committed by him in the kingdom, for his support of rebel barons, and for having appropriated funds belonging to the Crown. After
the execution, Alfonso XI besieged the town of Henry, where Juan Núñez de Lara was located, while the sovereign ordered Rodrigo Alvarez of
Asturias to the town of Torrelobatón, where Juana Núñez de Lara was located. Finding himself surrounded and unable to get help from his ally,
Don Juan Manuel, Juan Núñez de Lara decided to make peace with the king. In order to terminate disputes, Alfonxo XI confirmed the lordship
of Biscay on Juan Núñez de Lara. Juan Núñez de Lara agreed, in the future, to recognize Alfonso XI as his king and give him all that he required.
Shortly thereafter, Don Juan Manuel made peace with Alfonso XI. In June 1336, Alfonso XI besieged the town of Lerma, where Juan Núñez de
Lara was located. Meanwhile other armies were besieging Torrelobatón, Busto and Villafranca. Alfonso XI also sent the Order of Santiago and
the Order of Calatrava to besiege Castle Garcimuñoz, where Don Juan Manuel was located. The village of Torrelobatón soon capitulated to the
king's troops, with Alfonso XI imposing the condition that they never return to power of Juan Núñez de Lara. Juan Núñez de Lara, finding
himself surrounded and without possibility of receiving relief, agreed to negotiate peace with Alfonso XI. It was then agreed that Juan Núñez de
Lara and his supporters would retain all their possessions, that the fortifications of Lerma, Busto, Villafranca would be demolished, and that de
Lara could not fortify any cities without the consent of the king. Also to prevent further transgressions of Juan Núñez, he would give Alfonso XI
hostages. Agreeing to terms between them, Alfonso XI appointed Juan Núñez de Lara, Ensign of the King and returned part of the Crown lands

that had been theirs, giving also the towns of Cigales, Villalón de Campos and Morales. In 1339, the ambassadors of King Peter IV of Aragon
reported to Alfonso XI that they were willing to help in the fight against Muslims in the south of the Iberian Peninsula. That same year, Juan
Núñez de Lara was knighted by Alfonso XI in Seville. In 1339, Alfonso XI invaded the counties of Antequera and Ronda, held by the Muslims,
joined by Juan Núñez de Lara, Juan Manuel, Prince of Villena, and Alfonso Meléndez de Guzman. King Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Othman of
Morocco. invaded Spain in 1340, and after a naval battle, defeated the army of Alfonso XI and surrounded the city of Tarifa. Alfonso XI,
requested help from the kings of Aragon and Portugal, meeting Alfonso IV of Portugal at city of Seville. In the Battle of Río Salado, Juan Núñez
de Lara distinguished himself in battle, fought alongside Juan Manuel, Prince of Villena, the Master of the Order of Santiago and other nobles at
the forefront. He took part in the success garnered by the Christian armies at that time. In 1341 Alfonso XI conquered the town of Alcalá la Real,
Juan Núñez de Lara was present lieutenant of the king. During the Siege of Algeciras (1342–44), Alfonso XI surrounded the city of Algeciras,
which was in the hands of Muslims. Juan Núñez de Lara, Juan Manuel, Pedro Fernández de Castro, Juan Alfonso de la Cerda, lord of Gibraleón,
knights of France, England and Germany, and even King Philip III of Navarre, king consort of Navarra, who came accompanied by 100
horsemen and 300 infantry all participated in the siege. In June 1342, Pedro Fernández de Castro, Lord of Lemos and Sarria died of an epidemic.
Alfonso XI divided Pedro's office between Don Juan Manuel, Juan Núñez de Lara, and Fernando Ruiz de Castro, all possessions that had
belonged to his late father. In March 1344, after almost two years of siege, the city of Algeciras surrendered. In 1349, after spending several years
in retirement, Juan Núñez de Lara was summoned by Alfonso XI, together with the other nobles, so they could assist in the siege of Gibraltar.
Alfonso XI went to Andalusia and laid siege to Gibraltar until 1350. The Castilian nobles, including Juan Nunez de Lara, petitioned Alfonso XI
to lift the siege, because he risked losing his life if he persisted in the company. Despite the entreaties of Juan Núñez, Fernando Manuel, Lord of
Villena and son of the late Don Juan Manuel, and Juan Alfonso de Alburquerque, Alfonso XI persisted in his attempt to take Gibraltar, until he
died in March 1350. After the death of Alfonso XI, his eldest son Pedro was proclaimed king. Juan Núñez de Lara, Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias
and the other nobles lifted the siege of Gibraltar and led the body of Alfonso XI to the town of Seville, where he was buried in the Chapel Royal.
On completion of the actual funeral of Alfonso XI, King Pedro I of Castile confirmed Juan Núñez de Lara in the office of lieutenant of the King
and Lord Steward. On November 28, 1350, Juan Núñez de Lara died, suddenly and mysteriously, in the city of Burgos. Supporters of Juan Nunez
suspected poison. At his death, the body of Juan Núñez de Lara was buried in the Convento de San Pablo de Burgos by the Dominicans, who had
close ties to his family. The tomb contained the remains of Juan Nunez de Lara, as well as those of his parents and maternal grandfather. In
1331, he married María Díaz II de Haro, Madame de Vizcaya, the daughter of Juan de Haro, Lord of Biscay and Isabel of Portugal. Their children
were: Juana de Lara (1335 - killed in 1359), Lady Lara and Vizcaya. She married Infante Tello of Castile, illegitimate son of Alfonso XI of Castile,
being killed in Seville, with 24 years of age during the civil war between his brothers Pedro I the Cruel and Henry II of Castile, Lope Diaz de
Haro (1336–1343); Lord (heir) of Biscay, died at age 7, Isabel de Lara (1340 - poisoned in 1361), Lady Lara and Vizcaya, between 1359 and 1361.
She succeeded her brother in the possession of the Lordship of Biscay. She married the Prince Juan de Aragon, son of Alfonso IV the Benign,
King of Aragon and Nuno Diaz de Haro (1348–1352). Lord of Lara and Vizcaya. Successor of his father, but died by age 4, in 1352. In his affair
with the lady Mayor Leguizamon was born: Pedro de Lara (1348–1384), Count of Mayorga, who married Beatriz de Castro, daughter of Álvaro
Pérez de Castro and Maria Ponce de Leon, and granddaughter of Pedro Fernández de Castro.
Nuno Diaz de Haro (1348–1352) was Lord of the Lordships of the Lara, Vizcaya and Biscay from 1351 until his death in 1352. He was
successor of his father Juan Núñez III de Lara, Lord of Biscay but died by age 4, in 1352.
Juana de Lara (1335 - 1359) was Lady of the Lordships of the Lara, Vizcaya and Biscaya from 1352 until her death in 1359. She was dagther of
Juan Núñez III de Lara, Lord of Biscay. She married Infante Tello of Castile, illegitimate son of Alfonso XI of Castile, being killed in Seville, with
24 years of age during the civil war between his brothers Pedro I the Cruel and Henry II of Castile.
Isabel de Lara(1340 - 1361) was Lady of the Lordships of the Lara, Vizcaya and Biscaya from 1359 until her death in 1361. She was dagther of
Juan Núñez III de Lara, Lord of Biscay. She succeeded her sister in the possession of the Lordship of Biscay. She married the Prince Juan de
Aragon, son of Alfonso IV the Benign, King of Aragon.
House of Trastámara
Tello Alfonso of Castile (1337 - October 15, 1370) was a Prince of Castile and First Lord of Aguilar de Campoo and Lord of the Lordship of
Biscay from 1355 until 1369 (jointly with his wife Juana of Lara from 1355 until 1359 and her sister Isabel de Lara from 1359 until 1361. In
Spanish he is known as Tello de Castilla, Infante de Castilla; Señor de Aguilar de Campoo, de Vizcaya, de Castañeda y de Lara.was the seventh of
the ten illegitimate children of Alfonso XI of Castile and Eleanor of Guzman. He was born in Seville. He participated along with his brothers in
the struggles against the despotic rule of his half-brother Pedro of Castile also known as Pedro the Cruel. In 1353 he married Juana of Lara
(daughter of Juan Núñez III de Lara), but she was reportedly murdered in 1359, on order of King Peter (Pedro the Cruel). Tello and Juana had
no legitimate children. It is reported that Tello kept news of her death secret in order to maintain possession of her dowry. Tello had many
illegitimate children. Juan Tellez de Castilla, Segundo Señor de Aguilar de Campoo, (1355-1385). He died at the Battle of Aljubarrota. From his
marriage to Leonor de la Vega arise the Marquesses of Aguilar de Campoo (Grandees of Spain): Afonso Tellez de Castilla (born 1365), Pedro
Enríquez de Castilla, Señor de Camporedondo (born 1370), Fernando Tellez de Castilla, died young, Constanza Tellez de Castilla, Maria Tellez de
Castilla, Isabel Tellez de Castilla, Elvira Tellez de Castilla, Juana Tellez de Castilla and Leonor Tellez de Castilla, died young.
Álava
Álava (IPA: [ˈalaβa] in Spanish) or Araba (IPA: [aˈɾaba] in Basque), officially Araba/Álava, is a province of Spain and a historical territory of the
Basque Country, heir of the ancient Lord of Álava. Álava was a señorío from about 1100 onwards when the titles to the Señorío de Álava were
awarded by Queen Urraca of Castile, later by the Kings of Navarre before falling back to the Castilian crown. The last areas of the Señorío de
Álava, as it is known in Spanish, were annexed by Alfonso XI of Castile in 1332.
List of Counts of the Countship of Álava (Araba)

Eylon was Count of the Countship of Álava (Araba) from ? until 866.
Vela Jiménez (died 883) was Count of the Countship of Álava (Araba) from around 873 until his death in 883.
Munio Velaz was Count of the Countship of Álava (Araba) from 887 until 921.
Álvaro Herrameliz (fl. 920-931), was a Spanish noble and the Count of the Countship of Lantarón y Cerezo and Álava in the region that
today would be considered the Basque Country in northern Spain from around 921 until his death in 931, probably the victim of the dynastic
struggle between Alfonso IV and his brother Ramiro II. He participated in the conquest of Nájera and Viguera alongside king Ordoño II of León.
He also confirmed the foundation of the monastery at Santa Coloma, La Rioja in 923. The towns of Herramélluri and Herramel are named for
Álvaro Herrameliz' family. He married Sancha Sánchez of Pamplona the widow of Ordoño II of León. After the death of Álvaro, she would later
remarry with Fernán González of Castile. Two sons of this marriage have been documented: Herramel Álvarez, who went on to found the town
of Villarramiel and Fortún Álvarez, who appears in several charters in the monastery of Sahagún confirming documents with his brother and
other Basque-Navarrese magnates in the court of Ramiro II of León. Álvaro was most likely the grandfather of his namesake who appears often
in contemporary sources as the alférez of king Alfonso V.
Nuño González was Count of the Countship of Álava (Araba) from 970 until 1033.
Fortunio Iñíguez was Count of the Countship of Álava (Araba) from 1033 until 1046.
Munio Múñoz was Count of the Countship of Álava (Araba) jointly with Sancho Maceratio from 1046 until 1060.
Sancho Maceratio was Count of the Countship of Álava (Araba) jointly with Munio Múñoz from 1046 until 1060.
Ramiro was Count of the Countship of Álava (Araba) from 1060 until 1075.
Marcelo was Count of the Countship of Álava (Araba) from 1075 until 1085.
Lope Díaz el Blanc was Count of the Countship of Álava (Araba) from ? until 1093.
Lope González was Count of the Countship of Álava (Araba) from 1093 until 1099.
Lope Sánchez was Count of the Countship of Álava (Araba) from 1099 until 1114.
Ladrón Íñiguez (died 1155), also known as Ladrón Navarro was the Lord of the Basque lordships Álava (Araba), Biscay, and Guipúzcoa as a
vassal of Navarre from 1124 until 1136 and from 1143 until his death in 1155. He was a leading noblemen of the Kingdom of Navarre during
the reign of García Ramírez (1134–50), whose accession he was instrumental in bringing about. He is regularly titled count (comes), the highest
rank in the kingdom, after 1135. He is recorded in contemporary documents with the title princeps Navarrorum (prince of the Navarrese).
Between 1124 and his death he was the effective ruler of the Basque country (Euskadi). Of the Azenariz family, he was the eldest son of Íñigo
Vélaz (died 1129) and Aurea Jiménez. His relationship to the Vela family is supposed on the basis of onomastics, his father being presumed the
younger brother of Ladrón Vélaz, providing a route for the name "Ladrón" into the name pool of Íñigo's descendants. Ladrón's age can only be
estimated by the witness of his sons Vela and Lope in a charter of 1135. According to the Crónica de San Juan de la Peña the initiative in placing
García on the throne following the death of Alfonso the Battler, was taken by the bishop of Pamplona, Sancho de Larrosa, and several magnates
of the kingdom, Ladrón first among them. As early as August 1134 Ladrón appears as first after the king and queen (Marguerite de l'Aigle) in
witnessing the royal donation of Jániz and Zuazu to the monastery of Santa María de Pamplona. In 1135 Ladrón was among three Navarrese
homes buenos ("good men") who, at Vadoluengo (Vedadoluengo), tried unsuccessfully to negotiate a peace with Ramiro II of Aragon, who
claimed Navarre. Subsequent to this García made Ladrón conte en Pamplona (count in Pamplona) on the same day that he dubbed and
ennobled many in the same city in preparation for the war with Aragon, which never came. In 1135 King García confirmed the rights and
privileges of the Diocese of Pamplona on the advice of his magnates, among whom Ladrón (comes Latro) is named first. On November 2, 1137,
Ladrón witnessed the donation of Alfonso VII of León to San Millán de la Cogolla. In 1140 Alfonso invaded Navarre, including the lands of
Ladrón, an event recorded in the Chronica Adefonsi imperatoris: While these battles were taking place, the Emperor was waging war in the land
of King García of Navarra. He had captured some of his fortified castles and some of those belonging to Count Ladrón Navarro. This individual
was the most noble of all the princes in King García's court. The Emperor devastated the land by plundering it and burning it. He also cut down
the vineyards and the orchards. Count Ladrón pleaded to obey Alfonso VII in the face of this destruction. He pledged to obey him and serve him
all the days of his life. The history of the Basque señoríos in the early part of the twelfth century is very obscure. The lordships of Biscay,
Guipúzcoa, and Álava were in the hands of Diego López I de Haro, a vassal of Urraca of Castile, until 1124, when he was dispossessed by Alfonso
the Battler. Ladrón appears as count of Álava in 1131, while his father was still living, and he held all three Basque lordships (Álava, Biscay, and
Guipúzcoa) as a vassal of Navarre between 1135 and 1147. He is also cited as lord of Araquil, Leguín, and Estíbaliz, all under the suzerainty of
García, though these Basque provinces exhibited a high degree of autonomy. He was the lord of Guevara and the founder of the Ladrón de
Guevara branch of his family. In September 1136 Alfonso VII made him the governor of Viguera, which may have interrupted his rule in the
Basque provinces, during which his son Vela may have governed in his stead. In the period around 1140–47 he appears in the Basque country
again and sometime after February 1140 he appears in possession of Aibar. From 1143 he patronised the monastery of San Miguel de Aralar.
According to a probably apocryphal story reported by Esteban de Garibay y Zamalloa in his Ilustraciones Genealógicas de los Catholicos Reyes
de las Españas, when García VI created twelve peers in Navarre in imitation of the twelve peers of France, Ladrón Íñiguez was first among them.
Also according to Garibay, Ladrón took part in the reconquest of Tudela in 1114. The story of his founding the majorat of Oñate (which he
supposedly willed to his son) in 1149, along with his wife Teresa, a daughter of the viscount of Soule and Mauléon, is also apocryphal.

Don Vela was Count of the Countship of Álava (Araba), Biscay, and Guipúzcoa from 1136 until 1143 and from 1155 until 1174. He was son of
Ladrón Íñiguez Lord of Álava (Araba), Biscay, and Guipúzcoa.
Juan Velaz was Count of the Countship of Álava (Araba) from 1175 until 1181.
Diego López II was Count of the Countship of Álava (Araba) from 1181 until 1187.
Iñigo de Oriz was Count of the Countship of Álava (Araba) from 1187 until 1199.
Nuño González de Lara (died September 7 or 8, 1275) was Count of the Countship of Álava (Araba) from 1240 until 1252.
Ferdinand de la Cerda (1253 - 1275) was the Crown Prince (infante) of Castile and Count of the Countship of Álava (Araba) from 1274
until his death in 1275. He was eldest son of King Alfonso X of Castile and Violant of Aragon. His nickname, de la Cerda, means "of the bristle"
in Spanish, a reference to being born with a full head of hair. In November 1268 he married Princess Blanche of France, the daughter of King
Louis IX of France. They had two sons: Alfonso de la Cerda (1270-1333), who was believed to have married Matilde of Narbonne, daughter of
Viscount Aimery VI of Narbonne.[2] Recent research showed that Alfonso de la Cerda married Matilde of Brienne, daughter of John I of
Brienne.[3] They had four sons and three daughters. Arm of the House de la Cerda to the 13th century, a combination of Castile and León, from
infante Fernando, and the arms of France, for Blanche of France. Fernando de la Cerda (1275-1322), who married Juana Núñez de Lara, called "la
Palomilla", Lady of Lara & Herrera, daughter of Juan Núñez de Lara “el Mayor” and Teresa Álvarez de Azagra. They had one son and three
daughters. One daughter, Blanca Núñez de Lara, was the mother-in-law to King Henry II of Castile. Ferdinand predeceased his father in 1275 at
Ciudad Real from wounds received at the Battle of Écija. His sons did not inherit the throne of their grandfather, since their uncle Sancho,
usurped the throne.
Juan Alonso de Haro was Count of the Countship of Álava (Araba) from 1288 until 1310.
Diego López de Salcedo was Count of the Countship of Álava (Araba) from 1310 until 1332.
Cimbri
The Cimbri were a Germanic tribe, who together with the Teutones and the Ambrones fought the Roman Republic between 113 BC and 101 BC.
The Cimbri were initially successful, particularly at the Battle of Arausio, in which a large Roman army was routed, after which they raided
large areas in Gaul and Hispania. In 101 BC, during an attempted invasion of Italy, the Cimbri were decisively defeated by Gaius Marius, and
their king, Boiorix, was killed. Some of the surviving captives are reported to have been among the rebelling Gladiators in the Third Servile War.
List of Rulers of Cimbri
Lugiuswas a co-leader of the Cimbri tribe during the Cimbrian War, in which the Cimbri won a spectacular victory against the Romans at the
Battle of Arausio in 105 BC. He was later defeated and slain along with Boiorix at the Battle of Vercellae in 101 BC. The other Cimbrian chiefs
Claodicus and Caesorix were captured.
Boiorix was a king of the Cimbri tribe during the Cimbrian War. His most notable achievement was a spectacular victory against the Romans
at the Battle of Arausio in 105 BC. He was later defeated and slain along with Lugius at the Battle of Vercellae in 101 BC. The other Cimbrian
chiefs Claodicus and Caesorix were captured.
Claodicus was a co-leader of the Cimbri tribe during the Cimbrian War, in which the Cimbri won a spectacular victory against the Romans at
the Battle of Arausio in 105 BC. He was captured along with Caesorix at the Battle of Vercellae in 101 BC. The other Cimbrian chiefs Boiorix and
Lugius were killed on the field.
Caesorix was a co-leader of the Cimbri tribe during the Cimbrian War, in which the Cimbri won a spectacular victory against the Romans at
the Battle of Arausio in 105 BC. He was captured along with Claodicus at the Battle of Vercellae in 101 BC. The other Cimbrian chiefs Boiorix
and Lugius were killed on the field.
Tigurini
The Tigurini were a clan or tribe forming one out of four pagi (provinces) of the Helvetii. The Tigurini were the most important group of the
Helvetii, mentioned by both Caesar and Poseidonius, settling in the area of what is now the Swiss canton of Vaud, corresponding to the bearers
of the late La Tène culture in western Switzerland. Their name has a meaning of "lords, rulers" (cognate with Irish tigern "lord"). The other
Helvetian tribes included the Verbigeni and the Tougeni (sometimes identified with the Teutones), besides one tribe that has remained
unnamed. The name of the Tigurini is first recorded in the context of their alliance with the Cimbri in the Cimbrian War of 113 BCE –101 BCE.

They crossed the Rhine to invade Gaul in 109 BCE, moved south to the Roman region of Provence in 107 BCE and defeated a Roman army
under Lucius Cassius Longinus near Agen.[3][4] The Tigurini followed the Cimbri in their campaign across the Alps, but they did not enter Italy,
instead remaining at the Brenner Pass. After the end of the war, they returned to their earlier homes, settling in the western Swiss plateau and
the Jura mountains north of Lake Leman. The names of the Tigurini and the Helvetii had retained a connotation of a "barbarian" threat from the
north for the Romans, employed by Julius Caesar as a motivation for his expedition to Gaul by suggesting that these tribes were "on the move
again". In 58 BCE the Helvetii encountered the armies of Caesar, and were defeated and massacred in the battles of the Aar and the Bibracte,
allegedly leaving 228,000 dead. These battles were the initial events in the Gallic Wars, fought between 58 and 49 BCE. After the Roman
conquest, the Helvetii participated in the uprising of Vercingetorix in 52 BC, losing their status as foederati. As a means of ascertaining control
over the military access routes to Gaul, the Romans established the Colonia Iulia Equestris at the site of the Helvetian settlement of
Noviodunum (Nyon). There was still a fortified oppidum in Bois de Châtel in the later 1st century BC, but it was destroyed in the early 1st
century AD, its population presumably moving to the newly established Helvetian capital of Aventicum. The Helvetii seem to have retained
their division into four pagi, and a certain autonomy, until the 60s AD. They supported Galba in the civil war following the death of Nero in AD
68. Their forces were routed at Bözberg Pass (Mount Vocetius) in AD 69. After this, the population was quickly romanized, losing its former
tribal identities.
Leader of the Helvetian tribe of the Tigurini
Divico was a Gallic king and the leader of the Helvetian tribe of the Tigurini. During the Cimbrian War, in which the Cimbri and Teutons
invaded the Roman Republic, he led the Tigurini across the Rhine to invade Gaul in 109 BCE towards the Roman region of Province. He
defeated a Roman army and killed its leaders Lucius Cassius Longinus (consul 107 BC) and Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus near at the
Battle of Burdigala 107 BCE. He was leader of the Helvetii against Julius Caesar at the Battle of Bibracte in 58 BC.
Paeonians
In antiquity, Paeonia, or Paionia, (Greek: Παιονία) was the land and kingdom of the Paeonians[pronunciation?] (Ancient Greek Παίονες). The
exact original boundaries of Paeonia, like the early history of its inhabitants, are very obscure, but it is believed that they lay in the region of
Thrace. In the time of Classical Greece, Paeonia might have later included the whole Vardar river valley and the surrounding areas. It was
located immediately north of ancient Macedonia (which roughly corresponds to the modern Greek region of Macedonia) and to the south-east of
Dardania (roughly corresponding to modern-day Kosovo); in the east was the Thracian mountains, and in the west, the Illyrians. Paeonia was
separated from Dardania by the mountains through which the Vardar river passes from the field of Scupi (modern Skopje) to the valley of
Bylazora (modern Veles). It corresponds with most of the present-day Republic of Macedonia, a narrow strip along the north part of the Greek
region of Macedonia, and a small part of south-western Bulgaria.
List of Kings of the Paeonians
Pigres of Paionia was the King of the Paeonians around 511 BC. He was with his brother Mantyas and his sister, came to Sardes, where
Darius I was at the time, hoping that by the favour of him, he and his brother might be established as tyrants over the Paeonians. Darius,
however, was so pleased with the exhibition of industry and dexterity which he saw in their sister, that he sent orders to Megabazus to transport
Paeonians into Asia.
Mantyeswas the King of the Paeonians around 511 BC. He was with his brother Pigres and his sister, came to Sardes, where Darius I was at the
time, hoping that by the favour of him, he and his brother might be established as tyrants over the Paeonians, persuaded Darius I to deport the
coastal Paeonians to Asia.
Dokidan of the Derrones was the King of the Paeonians reigned during the 6th century BC.
Dokim of the Derrones was the King of the Paeonians reigned during the 6th century BC.
Euergetes of the Derrones was the King of the Paeonians reigned from c.480 BC until 465 BC, known only from his coinage.
Teutaos was the King of the Paeonians reigned from c.450 BC until 435 BC; known only from his coinage.
Bastareus was the King of the Paeonians reigned from c.400 BC until 380/78 BC, known only from his coinage.
Teutamado was the King of the Paeonians reigned from 378 BC until 359 BC, known only from his coinage.
Agis (Greek: Ἄγις; died 358 BC) was the King of the Paeonians in ca. 358 BC, a contemporary of Philip II of Macedon. His successor was
Lykkeios.

Lycceios, Lycpeios or Lyppeios was an ancient Paeonian king from 356 BC until 340 BC.
Symnon was the ruler of the Paeonians, great ally of Phillip II, reigned from 348 BC until 336 BC.
Patraus (Greek Πατράος) was an ancient Paeonian King from 340 BC until 315 BC. He seems to have been Ariston's brother who served as a
general to Alexander the Great.
Nicharchos was the ruler of the Paeonians reigned from 335 BC until 323 BC; son of Symon.
Langarus of the Agrianes was the King of the Paeonians around 335 BC; invaded the territory of the Autariatae in 335 BC in coalition
with Alexander the Great.
Dyplaios of the Agrianes was the ruler of the Paeonians reigned around 330 BC.
Audoleon was an ancient Paeonian King from 315 BC until 285 BC, he was son of Patraus or Agis. He was a contemporary of Alexander the
Great, and was the father of Ariston, who distinguished himself at the battle of Gaugamela, and of a daughter who married Pyrrhus of Epirus. In
a war with the Illyrian tribe Autariatae he was reduced to great straits, but was succoured by Cassander.
Ariston (Greek: Ἀρίστων) was an ancient Paeonian King around 285 BC. He was a member of the Paionian royal house, possibly brother of
Patraus and father of the later king Audoleon. His service with Alexander the Great, like that of Sitalces II and others, helped to ensure the
loyalty of his nation to Macedon in the King's absence. From the beginning of the expedition, he commanded the single squadron of Paeonians.
Leon of Paionia (Greek: Λέων was an ancient Paeonian King from 278 BC until 250 BC, father of Dropion.
Dropion (Greek: Δροπίων) was an ancient Paeonian King from 250 BC until 230 BC, son of Leon of Paionia.
Didas was the King of the Paeonians from 215 BC until 197 BC, he was allied Philip V of Macedon with 4,000 warriors.
Almamy Suluku (1820 - 1906) was a powerful Limba ruler from Sierra Leone who maintained his independence as
long as possible through brilliant political strategy. Almamy Suluku was born in 1820 in Kamabai, Biriwa country, in the
Northern Province of Sierra Leone. He was the son of Sankailay, a great Limba chief of the Biriwa country, with its capital
of Bumban. As a young man, Suluku became the war captain; and under his military leadership, Biriwa became one of
the largest kingdoms in Sierra Leone. When his father died, Suluku replaced him as the chief of Biriwa. But Suluku was
not satisfied with territory alone, and he set out to make his kingdom wealthy as well. He fostered the trade in gold, ivory,
hides, and foodstuffs that passed through Bumban on the way to Freetown; and he gave effective police protection to the
traders in his realm. His progressive rule impressed the British administration in Freetown, which sent him annual gifts
throughout the 1880s. When Samori Toure's Mandinka forces occupied Biriwa in 1884, Suluku pretended to co-operate
with the Mandinka, while sending urgent messages to the British in Freetown warning of a disruption in trade. The British accepted Suluku's
arguments, persuading the Mandinka to leave Biriwa country. Thus, while other Sierra Leonean kings suffered costly defeats in futile military
resistance, Suluku managed to have his way through political strategy alone. In the 1890s, as British power increased, Suluku pursued his own
independent policy while making the British believe he was their loyal ally. He sent frequent messages of friendship to the British Governor and
entertained royally every British delegation that arrived in Bumban, but did exactly as he pleased. Some lower ranking officers warned of
Suluku's deception, but Freetown was convinced of his loyalty. When the 1898 Rebellion, led by Bai Bureh broke out, Suluku sent warriors and
weapons to Bai Bureh; but when the British complained, he sent them a letter expressing his support for their position and offering his services
as mediator. After the Protectorate was established, the British wanted to break up Suluku's kingdom into small chiefdoms, but Suluku's subjects
refused to cooperate as long as the old Gbaku was still alive. When he was very aged, a British official asked Suluku to name his successor under
the new and tightly controlled colonial structure. The old Gbaku's reply: "Suluku will never die".
Bai Bureh (February 15, 1840 - August 24, 1908) was a Sierra Leonean ruler and military strategist who led the
Temne and Loko uprising against British rule in 1898 in Northern Sierra Leone who reigned from 1887 until
1898 and from 1905 until his death on August 24, 1908. Bai Bureh was born in 1840 in Kasseh, a village near Port
Loko in Northern Sierra Leone. His first name, Bai, means Chief in the Temne language. Bureh's father was an
important Loko war-chief and his mother was a Temne trader from Makeni. When Bureh was a young man his
father sent him to the small village of Gbendembu in northern Sierra Leone, where he was trained to become a
warrior. During his training at the village, he showed that he was a formidable warrior and was given the
nickname of Kebalai which translates as ‘one who doesn’t tire of war’. When Kebalai returned to his home village,
he was crowned ruler of Kasseh. During the 1860s and 1870s, Bureh had become the top warrior of Port Loko and
the entire Northern Sierra Leone. He successfully fought and won wars against other villagers and tribal leaders
who were against his plan to establish correct islamic and indigenous practices throughout Northern Sierra
Leone. In 1882, Bureh fought against the Susu people from French Guinea (now Guinea) who invaded Kambia, a town in northern Sierra Leone.
Bai Bureh's fighters defeated the Susu, pushed them back into French Guinea and returned the land to the local Kambia people. After winning
several major wars, his popularity spread. The people of the north felt they had found a warrior who would defend their land. In 1886, Bai Bureh
was crowned as the chief of Northern Sierra Leone. As a ruler, Bureh never wanted to cooperate with the British who were living in the capital
city of Freetown. Bai Bureh refused to recognise a peace treaty the British had negotiated with the Limba without his participation; and on one
occasion, his warrior fighters raided the British troops across the border into French Guinea. On January 1, 1893, the British colonials instituted a

hut tax in Sierra Leone and throughout British-controlled Africa. The tax could be paid in either money, grain, stock or labor. Many Africans had
to work as laborers to pay the tax. The Hut Tax enabled the British to build roads, towns, railways and other infrastructure amenities in British-
controlled Sierra Leone. Bai Bureh refused to recognise the hut tax that the British had imposed. He did not believe the Sierra Leonean people
had a duty to pay taxes to foreigners and he wanted all British to return to Britain and let the Sierra Leoneans solve their own problems. After
refusing to pay his taxes on several occasions, the British issued a warrant to arrest Bureh. When the British Governor to Sierra Leone, Sir
Frederic Cardew, offered the princely sum of one hundred pounds as a reward for his capture, Bai Bureh reciprocated by offering the even more
staggering sum of five hundred pounds for the capture of the governor. In 1898, Bureh declared war on British in Sierra Leone. The war later
became known as the Hut Tax War of 1898. Most of Bureh's fighters came from several Temne and Loko villages under his command, but other
fighters came from Limba, Kissi and Kuranko villages, sent to his aid. Bai Bureh's men not only killed the British soldiers but also killed dozens
of Creoles who were living in Northern Sierra Leone because it was thought by the indigenous people of Sierra Leone that they supported the
British. One of the most notable Creole people who was killed by Bai Bureh's warriors was a trader John "Johnny" Taylor, who was killed in his
house in Northern Sierra Leone. Bai Bureh had the advantage over the vastly more powerful British for several months of the war. By February
19, 1898, Bai Bureh's forces had completely severed the British line of communication between Freetown and Port Loko. They blocked the road
and the river from Freetown. Despite their arrest warrant, the British forces failed to defeat Bureh and his supporters. Hundreds of British troops
were killed, and hundreds of Bureh's fighters also died during the war. Bai Bureh finally surrendered on November 11, 1896, when he was
tracked down in swampy, thickly vegetated countryside by a small patrolling party of the newly organised West African Regiment in Port Loko.
His Temne and Loko warriors fought for a while, but they did not evade the troops for long. Bai Bureh was taken under guard to Freetown,
where crowds gathered around his quarters day and night to gain a glimpse of him. Bai Bureh was treated as a political prisoner and was given
limited freedom. The British sent Bai Bureh in exile to the Gold Coast (now Ghana), along with the powerful Sherbro chief Kpana Lewis and the
powerful Mende chief Nyagua. Both Kpana Lewis and Nyagua died in exile but Bai Bureh was brought back to Sierra Leone in 1905, reinstating
him as the Chief of Kasseh. Bai Bureh died in 1908. The significance of Bai Bureh's war against the British is not a matter of whether he won or
lost the war but that a man who had none of what could be called formal military training was able to show that for a significant number of
months he was able to take on the British who were very proud of their great military successes across the globe. The British troops were led by
officers trained at the finest military academies where war is studied in the same way that one studies a subject at university. The fact that Bai
Bureh was not executed after his capture has led some historians to claim that this was in admiration for his prowess as an adversary to the
British. The tactics employed by Bai Bureh in his fight against the British are very much the forerunner of tactics employed by guerilla armies
worldwide. At the time these tactics were very revolutionary and he "succeeded" for the good reason he had expert knowledge of the terrain
across which the war took place. Bai Bureh had pursued the war not just with sound military brain but also a sense of humour. When Governor
Cardew had offered the princely sum of 100 pounds as a reward for his capture, Bai Bureh had reciprocated by offering the even more
staggering sum of five hundred pounds for the capture of the Governor. There is a very large Statue of Bai Bureh in central Freetown. He is
pictured on several Sierra Leonean paper bills. A Sierra Leonean professional football club called the Bai Bureh Warriors from Port Loko is
named after him. Former Peace Corps volunteer Gary Schulze and his colleague William Hart discovered the only known photograph of Bai
Bureh for sale on eBay in August 2012. The photo was put on display in the Sierra Leone National Museum in 2013. 'De war done done' (said
when Bureh was captured by the British).
Bai Kong Kuba Lewis was the most dominant king among all of the Sherbro people. Kong Kuba Lewis signed a treaty ceding Sherbro
country to the British in 1825, but the British did not exercise any direct authority over the Sherbros until the end of the century.
Kpana Lewis (April 19, 1830 - May 10, 1912) was a Sherbro chief from Sierra Leone and an opponent of
colonial rule of the British from 1879 until 1898. He exercised strong influence over all Sherbro chiefs. Part of
his fame rested in his pervasive use of the Poro Secret society to oppose the British colonialists. He was
considered so powerful that, while Bai Bureh was allowed to return from exile after the 1898 Rebellion, Kpana
Lewis continued to be held in exile in the Gold Coast (now Ghana), where he died in 1912. Kpana Lewis was
born in 1830 in Sherbro Island in the Southern Province of Sierra Leone to a politically dominant family of the
Sherbro aristocracy. His grandfather, Bai Kong Kuba Lewis was the most dominant king among all of the
Sherbro people. Kong Kuba Lewis signed a treaty ceding Sherbro country to the British in 1825, but the British
did not exercise any direct authority over the Sherbros until the end of the century. Kpana Lewis assumed the
leadership of the Sherbro people in 1879, after his father died. As a leader, Kpana Lewis was able to bring quite
a few of the county back under the authority of the Sherbro. This he did by using the enormous power of the Poro Secret Society, of which he
was a leading member. Poro is reported to have spread into the interior of Sierra Leone from Yoni on Sherbro Island, which was the capital of
the Sherbro Kingdom and where Kpana Lewis resided. He thus came to restore something of the old glory of the Kong Kuba, and to regain
authority over former mainland provinces of the once powerful Sherbro Kingdom. When the British proclaimed a Protectorate in 1896, many of
the terms of the Protectorate Ordinance were distasteful to the local rulers. Above all was the Hut Tax. Kpana Lewis was one of the few leaders
who actually led a group of chiefs to the capital Freetown to protest against the tax. While the British Governor informed him that the Sherbro
in the Colony was unaffected by the tax, Kpana Lewis did not sit back and leave the other rulers to continue protesting alone because his own
territory was not involved. On his return to Yoni, Kpana Lewis used the Poro to give force to his disgust with the colonial measures. The Poro
traditionally had a role of ensuring concerted action for political or economic purposes. It could as easily place a ban on war as on the harvest, a
ban which no one dared disobey. It thus fulfilled the role of a modern judiciary system and police force. It was this that Kpana Lewis now used to
effect a boycott of trade with Europeans and the Krio people who Kpana Lewis and other indigenous tribal leaders accused of supporting the
British. When the District Commissioner, called a meeting of chiefs in the area to warn them against any kind of rebellion, one of the chief said
that he had to confer with Kpana Lewis, whom he regarded as his leader and not the British. So great was his power and influence over these
rulers that they were willing to openly defy powerful British officials in favour of Kpana Lewis' authority. The British then quickly passed a law
making it a criminal offence to use the Poro to restrain trade. When the Hut Tax War of 1898 rebellion broke out, led by Temne war-chief Bai
Bureh, nothing could convince the District Commissioner that Kpana Lewis was not the brain behind the resistance. Even though the British had
no evidence connecting Kpana Lewis with the Rebellion, he was detained as a suspect and was subsequently sent into exile in the Gold Coast
along with Bai Bureh and the Mende chief Nyagua. The British then installed their own man, Fama Yani, as the leader of the Sherbro people.
Fearing that if Kpana Lewis returned, his presence would lead to the overthrow of Fama Yani, the British refused to allow his return, thought Bai
Bureh was ultimately brought back to Sierra Leone. Despite protests by Kpana Lewis' son, called Kong Kuba, and of intervention by the Anti-
Slavery Society in London, the British Government held him in the Gold Coast where he died after more than a decade in exile.

Mende people
The Mende people are one of the two largest ethnic groups in Sierra Leone, their neighbours the Temne people having roughly the same
population. The Mende and Temne both account for slightly more than 30% of the total population. The Mende are predominantly found in the
Southern Province and the Eastern Province, while the Temne are found primarily in the Northern Province and the Western Area, including
the capital city of Freetown. Some of the major cities with significant Mende populations include Bo, Kenema, Kailahun and Moyamba. The
Mende belong to a larger group of Mande peoples who live throughout West Africa. The Mende are mostly farmers and hunters. The Mende are
divided into two groups: The halemo are members of the hale or secret societies, and kpowa are people who have never been initiated into the
hale. The Mende believe that all humanistic and scientific power is passed down through the secret societies. The Mende speak the Mende
language among themselves, but their language is also spoken as a regional lingua franca by members of smaller Sierra Leonean ethnic groups
that inhabit the same part of the country. Their language is spoken by around 46% of Sierra Leone's population. Sierra Leone's politics have been
dominated by the Mende, on the one hand, and the Temne and their long-time political allies, the Limba, on the other. The Mende support the
Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP), while the Temnes and Limbas support the All People's Congress party (APC).
Chief of Mende People
Nyagua was a Mende chief from Sierra Leone in the second half 19th century. Nyagua was born in the early 1800 in Kenema in the Eastern
Province of Sierra Leone. Nyagua ruled a great realm, covering much of the territory between modern Kenema and Sefadu in the Eastern
Province. He conquered many outlying districts to enlarge his domain, but some came voluntarily under his control. Nyagua built up an
impressive capital at Panguma, and is said to have possessed a vast number of slaves and about four hundred wives. As British power increased
in the Sierra Leone hinterland, Nyagua realised that he did not have the strength to resist it. He therefore co-operated with the British on several
occasions by signing a treaty of friendship, capturing warriors who had raided a customs post, and sending a son to be educated in Freetown. But
Nyagua saw himself as a friend, and not a vassal or servant of the British. He was the king of a small allied state, and felt that he deserved the
respect of a sovereign ruler. When a travelling British Commissioner called Nyagua to a meeting abruptly at his own convenience, the Mende
King refused to attend; and when the British Governor sent an "order", Nyagua replied that he must take up the matter with his elders first as
custom required. British officials began to see Nyagua as arrogant and troublesome, despite his obvious co-operation; and when the 1898
Rebellion erupted, led by Temne chief Bai Bureh the British ordered his immediate arrest. Nyagua had commanded his people to remain at
peace for their own protection, and his followers attacked the British only after the arrest of their king. Nyagua was taken to Freetown on
"suspicion of disloyalty" and sent along with Bai Bureh into exile in the Gold Coast (now Ghana) from which he never returned to his homeland,
instead he died in the Gold Coast. Even the British officials acknowledged that Nyagua had committed no hostile act, but they felt his influence
was too strong for him to remain a chief in their new Protectorate. He was among the last of Sierra Leone's independent warrior-kings.
Nyatsimba Mututaor "Mutato the Great" was a King of Mutapa (Monomotapa) Kingdom from around 1430 until 1450. In 1440, the Empire
of Monomotapa was under the leadership of the fierce and awesome King Mutato, or "Mutato the Great." His vast empire had been developed by
Vakarang immigrants who were invaders. The Monomotapa Empire covered what is known today as Rhodesia, Kalahara, Mozambique, and into
Transvaal in South Africa. King Mutato established effective political rule, and promoted economic development and prosperity. The
Monomotapa used iron technology and allied crafts, long before the Christian era. With over 4000 active mines, and gold being the leading
export commodity, iron work was still highly regarded. The drive for excellence in everything produced was reflected in the artistic work
throughout the empire. The building of the temples and beautiful stone structures, rivaled the construction associated with the great pyramids
in Egypt. The Monomotapa were great stonemasons and architects. According to records in stone, a highly developed civilization existed in
South Africa, at the same time of the great Egyptian and Ethiopian era, in the North. King Mutato mastered a plan to unite the Africans
throughout the entire Monomotapa Empire. Their enemies knew that if they could keep the Africans fighting amongst themselves, they would
be a divided people, lacking in power, and the enemy would have access to their wealth. Mutato moved quickly to recruit, develop, and train
armies, under the supervision of capable generals. Additional strategic leadership by Matope, Mutato's son, who came into power after Mutato's
death, strengthened and unified Monomotapa. However, after Matope's death, Monomotapa swiftly declined, and the empire began to break up.

Republic of Kuwait
The Republic of Kuwait was a short-lived and self-styled republic formed in the aftermath of the invasion of Kuwait by Ba'athist Iraq during the
early stages of the Persian Gulf War. During the invasion, the Iraqi Revolutionary Command Council stated that it had sent troops into the State
of Kuwait in order to assist an internal coup d'état initiated by "Kuwaiti revolutionaries." A Provisional Government of Free Kuwait was set up on
August 4 by the Iraqi authorities under the leadership of 9 allegedly Kuwaiti military officers (4 colonels and 5 majors) led by Alaa Hussein Ali,
who was given the posts of Head of State (Rais al-Wuzara), commander-in-chief, minister of defense and minister of the interior. Emir Jaber Al-
Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah (who fled Kuwait and established a Government in exile based in Saudi Arabia) was declared deposed by the new
regime, which accused the royal family of pursuing "anti-popular," "anti-democratic," pro-"imperialist" and "Zionist" policies along with the
"embezzlement of national resources for the purpose of personal enrichment."The formation of an indigenous Popular Army to allegedly take
over from Iraqi troops was immediately proclaimed (immediately claiming 100,000 volunteers) and citizenship rights were conferred to non-
Kuwaiti Arabs who had come for work from abroad under the monarchy. The newspaper of the regime was known as Al-Nida, named after the
"Day of the Call" proclaimed on August 2 to "commemorate" the Iraqi "response" to the alleged calls of the Kuwaitis for Iraq's assistance in
overthrowing the monarchy.
Head of a brief puppet government in Kuwait (the "Republic of Kuwait")
Ala'a Hussein Ali Al-Khafaji Al-Jaber (Arabic: ‫الء‬‫ع‬ ‫ين‬ ‫م‬ ‫ح‬ ‫لي‬ ‫ع‬ ‫فعجي‬ ‫خ‬ ‫يدجعبر‬ ; born c. 1948) served as the head of
a brief puppet government in Kuwait (the "Republic of Kuwait") during the initial stages of the Gulf War from August 4
until August 8, 1990. Ali held dual nationalities as an Iraqi and Kuwaiti, having grown up in Kuwait and studied in
Baghdad where he became a member of the ruling Baath party. Having held a lieutenant's position in the Kuwaiti army
prior to the invasion, Ali was promoted to colonel in Baghdad and placed at the head of a 9-member puppet
government during the invasion. A week later Kuwait was annexed by Iraq and Ali became Iraqi Deputy Prime
Minister. After Desert Storm, he was not heard of until 1998 when he fled to Norway through Turkey with his family
under a fake name. In 1993, Ali was sentenced in absentia to death by hanging for treason by the Kuwaiti government.
In January 2000 he returned to Kuwait attempting to appeal the sentence. The court however, confirmed Ali guilty of treason again on May 3,
2000. In March 2001, his sentence was commuted to life in prison.
Bear's Rib (Sioux name Matȟó Čhuthúhu) was a Húŋkpapȟa Lakota chief from the late 19th century.
Beshekee also Pezeke and other variant spellings of Ojibwe: Bizhiki (English: Buffalo) was a noted war chief from the Bear
doodem of the Pillager Chippewa Band during the 19th century in North America. As a young man, he signed the 1837
Treaty of St. Peters as Pe-zhe-kins (Bizhikiins, meaning "Young Buffalo"), a Warrior. The Pillager Band was famous for
producing skilled fighters in the wars against the Dakota, and in his time, Beshekee was among the most respected of these.
In 1855, he travelled with Aysh-ke-bah-ke-ko-zhay (Flat Mouth), another prominent Pillager leader to Washington D.C. to
address the grievances of the Mississippi Chippewa and to negotiate a cession of Ojibwe lands at the headwaters of the
Mississippi River to the U.S. Government. Beshekee would later sign the 1863 Treaty that partially addressed these grievances
by establishing permanent reservations in Minnesota, including one at Leech Lake.
Aysh-ke-bah-ke-ko-zhay (or Aish-Ke-Vo-Go-Zhe, from Eshkibagikoonzhe, "[bird] having a leaf-green bill" in Anishinaabe
language; also known as "Flat Mouth" (Gueule Platte), a nickname given by French fur traders) was a powerful Ojibwa chief
who traveled to Washington, D.C. in 1855, along with Beshekee and other Ojibwa leaders, to negotiate the cession of ten
million acres (40,000 km²) including the headwaters of the Mississippi in northern Minnesota. “Tell him I blame him for the
children we have lost, for the sickness we have suffered, and for the hunger we have endured. The fault rests on his
shoulders.” - Aysh-ke-bah-ke-ko-zhay, Leech Lake Ojibwa speaking of Territorial Governor Alexander Ramsey.
Tuba (also Tuvi or Toova; c. 1810 - 1887) was a Hopi leader in the late 19th century. Tuba was the headman of the small Hopi village of
Moencopi, roughly fifty miles west of the main villages on the Hopi mesas. However, he apparently was an important person in the village of
Oraibi as well. Eventually, Tuba joined The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and later received his endowment in the St. George Utah
Temple. Tuba City, Arizona was named in his honor. Tuba was born in Oraibi, Arizona as a member of the Short Corn Clan, or possibly the
Pumpkin Clan.[citation needed] Hopi tradition does not record his birth name, but he was related to a Mormon missionary that said his Hopi
name was "Woo Pah." Tuba related to this same missionary that during the Mexican-American War (c. 1846), the Mexicans were in full retreat
from the environs of the Hopi mesas. However, as they left they caused considerable trouble for the Hopis, and in fact one tried to steal a
beautiful girl from Oraibi to take south with him. Apparently, Tuba's brother challenged the Mexican interloper to a kind of duel, and the pair
fought with bowie knives in the village plaza. Tuba's brother was killed, but Tuba stepped in and killed the Mexican with a spear. This story
seems of doubtful historical accuracy for several reasons. Among them, the story recounts that Tuba was eighteen years old when the duel

occurred although he would have been in his mid-thirties at the time of the Mexican-American War. Whatever the case may be, Hopi tradition
tells that at some point, Tuba became involved in an unremembered dissension at Oraibi, and left the village to "be at peace." From then on,
"Woo Pah" was known among the Hopi as Tuuvi, meaning the outcast or the rejected one. Tuba settled at Moencopi, or "Running Water," about
fity miles west of Oraibi. Moencopi had played any important part in the Hopi's legendary migration cycle. By Tuba's time, the area was used as
summer fields for the villagers at Oraibi due to its springs and streams. The Hopi say that at first, Tuba settled at Moencopi alone with his wife,
living there all year long whereas before it had merely been a seasonal settlement. However, soon people of Tuba's Short Corn Clan followed
him, and eventually members of other clans until a sizeable community was created. Tuba told one Mormon that after he had settled at
Moencopi, there came a time when the Hopis who lived with him "became lazy and wicked", refusing to "plant or tend the herds." Tuba was
greatly distressed about this, and as he sat brooding, he saw an old man approach with a long white beard. The man claimed to have a message
from God that the people must plant and take care of their herds or they would die in a three year famine that was to come. Tuba then turned
his head and the man disappeared. Tuba did as instructed and stored his own corn in a bin which was enough to last through the predicted
famine. Purportedly, Tuba explained that a long time ago there were three men that had been left on the earth, and when the Hopi were in
trouble, one would come to advise them. He believed that this stranger was one of them. The first Mormon missionaries to visit the Hopi came
in 1858 under the leadership of Jacob Hamblin. It is unclear if Tuba still lived in Oraibi at this point, or if he had already moved to Moencopi.
However, Jacob Hamblin writes that upon their arrival a "very aged man" (presumably not Tuba) reported a prophecy that men would come to
the Hopi from the west who would bring them back blessings which they had lost and that he believed that Hamblin and the Mormons were
those spoken of. Hamblin soon left, but a few Mormons stayed behind to teach the Hopi. However, these left in the middle of winter to preserve
the peace after a strong contention had begun in Oraibi as to whether they were in fact those spoken of by the prophecy. It might be speculated
that this contention over the Mormons is the unnamed dissension that caused Tuba to leave Oraibi and settle at Moencopi. In any event, in early
1860, Tuba became acquainted with Mormon missionaries Thales Haskel and Marion Shelton in Oraibi, and invited them to settle in Moencopi
and build a wool mill. However, they returned to southern Utah. Ten years later, in November 1870, Tuba left his home with his wife,
Pulaskaninki, in company with Jacob Hamblin to spend time in southern Utah in order to learn the ways of the Mormons. This was apparently
in contraversion of a Hopi taboo forbidding Hopis from crossing the Colorado River until three prophets which had led the Hopi to their current
home returned. Upon reaching the Colorado, Hamblin recorded: [Tuba]...looked rather sorrowful, and told me that his people once lived on the
other side of this river, and their fathers had told them they never would go west of the river again to live. He said, 'I am now going on a visit to
see my friends. I have worshiped the Father of us all in the way you believe to be right; now I wish you would do as the Hopees [their name for
themselves] think is right before we cross.' I assented. He then took his medicine bag from under his shirt, and offered me a little of its contents.
I offered my left hand to take it; he requested me to take it in my right. He then knelt with his face to the east, and asked the Great Father of all
to preserve us in crossing the river. He said that he and his wife had left many friends at home, and if they never lived to return, their friends
would weep much. He prayed for pity upon his friends, the "Mormons," that none of them might drown in crossing; and that all the animals we
had with us might be spared, for we needed them all, and to preserve unto us all our food and clothing, that we need not suffer hunger nor cold
on our journey. He then arose to his feet. We scattered the ingredients from the medicine bag into the air, on to the land and into the water of
the river...After this ceremony we drove our animals into the river, and they all swam safely to the opposite shore. In a short time ourselves and
effects were safely over. Tuba then thanked the Great Father that He had heard and answered our prayer. Tuba spent nearly a year in the
company of the Mormons. He was even able to meet the Mormon leader, Brigham Young, then in St. George. Tuba was particularly impressed
by a factory where yarn was being mechanically spun. In Hopi culture, it is the men who spin the yarn for blankets, and it is spun by hand.
According to Jacob Hamblin, after seeing this factory, Tuba "could never think of spinning yarn again with his fingers, to make blankets." His
wife was most impressed by the Mormon grist mills, a major improvement over grinding corn by stone. Although Tuba seems to have had
various disagreements with village leaders in Oraibi, he apparently retained access to one of the Hopi's sacred stones. On one occasion, several
Mormons were visiting Tuba in Oraibi and he took his visitors inside the village kiva. There, he produced what appeared to be a marble slab
about 15"x18" covered in "hieroglyphic" markings including clouds and stars. The later Ethnological Report No. 4 produced by the US
government seems to uphold the existence of such a stone based on the testimony of John W. Young and Andrew S. Gibbons. This describes the
stone as made of "red-clouded marble, entirely different from anything found in the region." In 1873, Tuba again invited the Mormons to come
and live by his village of Moencopi. This time, the offer was accepted, although a permanent Latter-day Saint presence did not become a reality
until 1875. But the resultant community became the first Mormon settlement in Arizona. Hopi tradition has it that Tuba invited the Mormons to
settle near his village in order to gain protection from marauding Paiutes and Navajos. Whatever the case may be, the Mormons came and Tuba
was baptized into the LDS Church in 1876. In April, 1877, Tuba and his wife attended the dedication of the Mormon temple in St. George, Utah
in company with missionary Andrew S. Gibbons and his wife. It was sometime during this period that Tuba shared his new faith with Tom
Polacca, a headman at Hano on First Mesa, who was also eventually baptized. In September 1878, Tuba helped lay out the site for a new Mormon
town near Moencopi which would be called Tuba City. Both Mormons and some Hopis moved into the new town, although other Hopi leaders
objected when Tuba gave the land on which the town was situated to the Mormons. In 1879, a wool factory was built in Tuba City in order to
"benefit the Indians and the [LDS] Church". No doubt this edifice reminded Tuba of the factory which had so engaged his imagination in
southern Utah nine years before. The settlement of his Mormon friends at Tuba City and the completion of the factory may have been a high
point in Tuba's life, for it seems his last decade was marked with sadness. The woolen factory was in operation for only a short time and within a
few years it had fallen into disrepair. It is reported that Tuba "took particular pride in watching over the remains of the factory, but after his
death the ruination of the building was made complete." It also seems that at some point in his last years, Tuba's wife left him for a younger
man, and afterwards Tuba spent about three years living in the home of Mormon missionary C. L. Christensen. Tuba died in 1887, and at least
some of Tuba's children were still living in Moencopi into the mid-twentieth century. In 1941, a sandstone marker with a bronze plaque was
dedicated in Tuba City by the LDS Church in honor of Tuba.
Winnemucca, (ca. 1820–1882) (also called Wobitsawahkah, Bad Face, Winnemucca the Younger, Mubetawaka, and Poito) was Chief of Paiute
Tribe in the second half 19th century. He was born a Shoshone around 1820 in what would later become the Oregon Territory. When he married
the daughter of Old Winnemucca, he became a Paiute according to their tribal rules. They were of the Kuyuidika band of the Northern Paiute.
His father-in-law honored him by naming him "Winnemucca the Younger". The name means "The Giver of Spiritual Gifts." Winnemucca the
Younger became a war chief with the Kuyuidika.
Winnemucca the Younger(his alternative name "Bad Face", died October 1882) eventually became war chief of the
Kuyuidika. He distrusted white settlers more than did his father-in-law. Trying to define his role in Northern Paiute
politics has been an area of controversy for historians. He is primarily known through the writings of his daughter, Sarah

Winnemucca. She downplayed his Shoshone roots and connections to distinguish her father and her people as peaceful and to protect them from
the prejudice many settlers held against the more warlike Shoshone, also called "Snake Indians". She exaggerated his influence over the Paiute
people, saying that he was the principal chief of all the Paiute tribes. Since she served as an interpreter in the area, her viewpoint was adopted by
many contemporary Oregonians. Modern historians and ethnologists view Winnemucca more as a "first among equals", with considerable
influence over the bands in the Pyramid Lake region. He was a leading proponent of the Pyramid Lake War of 1860. At the time of the
formation of the Paviotso Confederacy at the Ochoco Council of 1851, the Paiute were more allied with his father-in-law, (Old) Chief One
Moccasin's plea to keep the peace. The Paiute did not then join the Shoshone and Northern Ute warriors in the war effort. Later, Bad Face led
several Paiute units in warfare, and they were mistakenly identified as Snake warriors. At 3:00 am on March 17, 1865, while Sarah Winnemucca
and her grandfather, Old Winnemucca were in Dayton, Nevada, Captain Almond D. Wells' Nevada Volunteer cavalrymen raided their family
camp on the shore of what is now know as Winnemucca Lake. The cavalry killed 29 of the 30 old men, women and children in the camp,
including two of Old Winnemucca's wives. Bad Face's wife and a daughter were shot, sustaining mortal wounds. His baby son was killed by being
thrown into a fire. In 1868 Bad Face surrendered. After that war, his influence decreased considerably. He had little control over events at the
Malheur Reservation leading to the Bannock War of 1878. During the winter of 1872-1873, Bad Face refused to settle on a farm at the Malheur
Reservation, despite his daughter Sarah's asking him to join her. He said he might starve there.[2] He took refuge at the base of Steens Mountain,
near the Reuben and Dolly Kiger Ranch in what is now Harney County, Oregon. By 1873, settlers and the government in Oregon worried that
the Paiute under Bad Face might join with the Shoshone under Chochoco (Has No Horse). They also worried about potential collaboration of the
tribe with former enemies, the Modoc people, being led by John Schonchin and Captain Jack (Modicus), in what became the Modoc War. On
April 11, 1873, the Modoc War ended. By 1874, Winnemucca, Sarah and another daughter, and eight warriors were appearing at Metropolitan
Theater in Sacramento, California in a series of skits on Indian life, which they performed for five years. While the agency was led by the US
Indian agent Samuel Parrish, in 1875, Bad Face went to and from the Malheur Reservation with considerable freedom. Parrish built irrigation
canals and a school for the reservation. He had expanded the reservation to secure better farmland for the Shoshone, although he had no
permission. He annexed Pony Blanket's cultivated land and the Shoshone's traditional hot springs. This caused conflict with powerful local
settlers who wanted that land; they included the ranchers Henry Miller and Pete French. They started what was a successful campaign to have
Parrish replaced. In early April 1875, Bad Face, Sarah Winnemucca, and Pony Blanket attempted to persuade officers at Fort Harney to help
reinstate Parrish. William V. Rinehart and other wealthy opponents retaliated by falsely accusing officers at Fort Harney, Fort McDermitt, and
Fort Bidwell of supplying food to Shoshone who refused to stay on the Malheur Reservation, and thus helping them stay away. Rinehart was the
sworn enemy of both the Shoshoni and Paiute, preferring absolute authority and extermination of indigenous people, where possible. Parrish
was replaced by Rinehart on June 28, 1876, just three days after Custer's fall at Little Bighorn. He began defrauding and abusing both
reservation and non-reservation native people, often not giving them adequate supplies of rations. Northeastern Oregon settlers prevailed upon
the Congress to overturn President Ulysses S. Grant's pact to let the Nez Perce stay in Wallowa. On June 13, 1877 Chief Joseph went on the
warpath. After refusing to move 500 of his people from their high mountain meadow in the Wallowa Valley to the Fort Hall Reservation in
Idaho, he killed four white men. (The reservation was to have included Camas Prairie, but due to a clerical error, did not.)The Paiute, who had
been leaving the Malheur Reservation to escape Rinehart and starvation, returned en masse, knowing they would be safer at the reservation
during wartime. Bad Face and some of his warriors traveled to Boise City, where they dined as guests of honor with Governor Mason Brayman;
they assured him of their peaceful intent. [2] Still, neither would go onto the Malheur Reservation as Rinehart insisted and conditions continued
to worsen. Two Shoshone "Dog Soldiers" came to the Malheur Reservation in March 1878 and threatened war as soon as there was grass.[2]
Brayman wrote to US Senator W. J. McConnell on their behalf, agreeing that the Shoshoni Banattee Snakes at Fort Hall Reservation had "ample
justification" for the methods they pursued, given the ongoing loss of their natural food supply, Camas root, to the settlers' hogs. On June 16,
1878, the Salt Lake City Tribune reported that Laughing Hawk (Tambiago), imprisoned at the Idaho Territorial Penitentiary, had informed
officials that Buffalo Horn (Kotsotiala) was to meet with Bad Face and Has No Horse in the "Juniper Mountains". The officials ignored his
warning. On May 27, 1878, after holding a council of war, the Shoshone started an uprising in eastern Oregon with the killing of James
Dempsey, a white gun dealer who lived in Harney Valley. with a Shoshoni wife. He had purchased arms in October 1877 from the Mormons at
Salt Lake City and sold the weapons to the Bannock/Bannatte Robber Snakes, after having urged them for a year to go to war. He then informed
Idaho Governor Brayman that war was eminent. The uprising turned into the second Shoshone War, which the Americans called the Bannock
War. On June 5, Sarah Winnemucca met with Pony Blanket (Egan), Left Hand, Dancer, and Three Coyotes at the Malheur Indian Agency and
learned that the Snake Indians were being starved out of the Malheur reservation, that they could not buy clothes, and that Paiute horses were
being shot. Three Coyotes reported the rape of an Indian girl and the confiscation of weapons and horses at the Fort Hall Reservation. They
gathered money to send Sarah to Washington to tell President Rutherford B. Hayes of these problems. She left on June 9, 1878. That day Captain
Reuben Bernard caught up with Black Buffalo and Old Bull near the Oregon-Idaho border, after having his men pull down telegraph lines to
shut off the war zone communications. He seriously wounded both men. Before the last of the lines were pulled down, General Irvin McDowell
got a message through to Bad Face and his son Natchez, asking them to come and help keep the peace with the hostile Snake at the Malheur
Reservation. They consented but planned to join the Snakes at war. On June 10, 1878, Congress declared war on the Western Shoshoni Nation.
Bad Face died of poisoning in 1882. The San Francisco Chronicle reported that Winnemucca died in October 1882 at Coppersmith Station,
Nevada. Winnemucca Indian Colony of Nevada, Winnemucca Lake, Winnemucca Mountain, and the city of Winnemucca, Nevada are named
after Winnemucca. His eldest son Natchez and nephew Numaga were known to whites as Little Winnemucca and Young Winnemucca,
respectively. As of 1970, one source claimed that descendants of Chief Winnemucca could be found among the residents of the Pyramid Lake
Reservation.
Egan is the American name given to Pony Blanket. Pony Blanket was a Paiute leader in the Oregon Country in the 19th century. Pony Blanket,
known to American settlers as Egan, was born to a Cayuse family and did not know his birth mother. He married Evening Star, the sister of
Chochoco (Has No Horse)'s first wife Dawn Mist, and was thus the brother-in-law of Has No Horse. With Evening Star he had at least two sons
and a daughter. In 1868, his lodge was at Fort Harney. In 1869 he collaborated with Chochoco(Has No Horse) to set the Snake people of
Weahwewa (Wolf Dog)'s band free from the Klamath Reservation, where they were starving under the mismanagement of Indian Agent William
V. Rinehart. Following the Snake War many of the Paiute had moved onto the Malheur Reservation in 1872, but white settlers began to take
back land when they found gold and good grazing land there. Egan led his tribe and some Bannock people in fighting the white settlers for two
years. On June 10, 1878, what became known as the Bannock War was declared, in response to the Great Shoshoni Uprising. On June 22, 1878,
the first major U.S. military strike of the war began about two miles east of the present Crook County line. Major James Herron, on orders from
General M. V. Brown, led fifty Oregon Volunteers into the Ochoco, where they joined with Colonel Orlando Robbins and his Idaho Militia troops,
and with Civil War veteran Captain Reuben Frank Bernard and his 250 U.S. cavalrymen. They planned to wait for Howard's infantry to join them
from a day's march to the south. Colonel Robbins scouted ahead to assess the strength of assembled Shoshoni war parties in the Ochoco, which

he estimated to be around two thousand strong with more than ten thousand horses. Captain Bernard broke camp at 2:00am, deciding not to
wait for Howard's troops to arrive, and advanced on the Shoshoni encampment. Banattee medicine chief Honalelo (Bearskin), known to soldiers
as 'Little Bearskin Dick,' rode out to meet the advance under a white flag of truce and was shot dead. The American contingent surged forward
into the camp firing rifles and revolvers. During the battle, war chief Pony Blanket was severely wounded. He and Robbins met head to head and
charged each other, weapons firing. The colonel was not injured but he hit Pony Blanket in the wrist and caused him to fall from his horse.
Robbins then shot him with a .45 calibre in the chest and again in the right groin and captured Pony Blanket's buckskin war horse. The battle
continued at higher intensity following the fall of the war chief, forcing Captain Bernard to retreat, where he was joined by reinforcements, Pete
French and 65 ranchers and cowboys. Wahweveh (Black Eagle), the brother of both Chief Paulina and Weahwewa (Wolf Dog), dragged Pony
Blanket's severely injured body to safety as the battle continued even more intensely. Both of Pony Blanket's sons and his wife Evening Star were
shot multiple times as they tried to reach him to give aid and all three died there on the banks of Silver Creek. His daughter survived and did
reach him. Genega Taniwah (Dancer) and others tended his wounds and splinted his broken bones, and he did live, but would no longer lead
from that day. Left Hand was promoted to war chief in his place, with political support from his son in law Wahi (Fox) the Lohim Shoshoni head
chief, Potoptuah (Yellow Jacket), and Black Eagle. Left Hand rallied his warriors, estimated at a thousand strong, left a mighty fire burning and
led the entire band to escape from the Ochocos in the night, fooling the army troops into thinking they were standing their ground. The
following morning, army scouts found ten bodies, including women and children. Later Colonel Thompson would claim that his soldiers had
pulled forty two bodies from a rimrock crevice, among them war chief Buffalo Horn. On June 24, U.S. soldiers captured several women at Sage
Hen Springs. They revealed Pony Blanket's survival and escape, the change in leadership, and Left Hand's flight leading them all toward the
Umatilla Reservation to recruit more men, to Sarah Winnemucca, who at the time was serving as translator for General Howard (which she did).
Howard continued his pursuit of Pony Blanket and Left Hand's retreat as they hurried slowly toward the Columbia River and an actual planned
escape to Canada. Has No Horse and 150 of his warriors ran interference for them, creating havoc and destroying property on Howard's path.
Howard's troops continued over Big Summit Prairie, where Left Hand faltered when his scouts reported 1000 cavalrymen advancing on their
position. Pony Blanket was recovered enough to assume control again, and led a 30-mile wide path of destruction deeper into the Blue
Mountains. He led a 90-mile forced march to Camas Creek (Oregon), off the North Fork of the John Day River, without a single battle. On July 4,
on the Camas Prairie near Ukiah, Pony Blanket led a lethal attack against Captain Frank Vincent commanding the Pendleton volunteers and
Captain Joe Wilson commanding the Prineville volunteers. Wilson and thirteen volunteers deserted back to Pendleton at the first volley, leaving
Jacob Stroud to lead the Prineville volunteers. A teacher, William Lamar, was killed, and eight volunteers were seriously wounded. General
Howard heard of the defeat on Camas Prairie by July 5, drew more rations and began to advance on Pony Blanket's contingent. He ordered
Colonel Miles and his 500 troopers to the Umatilla Reservation to try to intercept Has No Horse's warriors, arriving July 9 to find the Umatilla
Agency burned and Has No Horse's 1000 strong war party waiting to attack them. Umatilla allies of the Snakes watched from a hill overlooking
the fight and when the Snakes abandoned the field against Miles' superior weaponry, these men negotiated with Miles and his officers to kill or
capture Pony Blanket. In September 1878, Joe and Dick Blackwell of Long Creek found Egan's elderly mother in law, with several other
Shoshoni women who had been left for dead in Flower Gulch. She had been scalped and shot through the loins and was struggling for her life.
She was nursed in the Blackwell home in Long Creek, then transferred to the Malheur Rreservation. Egan was beheaded by an Umatilla scout
working for the U.S. Cavalry, which ended the Bannock War.
Wahweveh (Black Eagl, died 1879) was a leader of the Oregon Walpapi Paiute (related to the Shoshone). He was head war chief in the final
phase of the Shoshoni Rebellion, known to Americans as the Sheepeater War of 1879. Little is known of Wahweveh's early life. His full siblings
were Chief Paulina, Bright Eyes, and Puna (Cactus Fruit). His half-brother was Weahwewa (Wolf Dog). On June 7, 1878, during the leadup to
what became known as the Bannock War, Malheur Reservation Indian agent William Rinehart reported to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs
that Wahweveh, with 55 braves, had picked up supplies and was heading east.[1] On Saturday, June 22, 1878, Black Eagle rescued the severely
injured Pony Blanket (Egan) from the battlefield—saving his life, but signaling the end of Egan's tenure as war chief. By July, news of a new
Tukadika (Mountain Sheep Eater) Snake outbreak in Idaho drew Wahweveh and his Hunipui (Bear Killer) Snake dog-soldiers onto the
battlefront. On their way, on July 4 Black Eagle and his warriors attacked four heavily laden supply wagons at La Grande on their way to
Pendleton. They destroyed the wagons, killed and mutilated their drivers, and scattered the freight. On August 13, 1878, more than 60 warriors
rode into the Malheur Indian Agency and were arrested after they surrendered to American troops. Among the warriors were Cheegibah
(Leggins), son of Natchez (Boy) and grandson of Chief Winnemucca the Younger; Otiz (Left Hand), grandson of Owitze (Twisted Hand) and
Ochiho (Red Willow), son of Chochoco (Has No Horse). Under intense interrogation, Leggins identified the ranking war chiefs: Oytes (Left
Hand), Bannock Joe Pohave (Racehorse), Captain Bearskin (Honalelo (Little Bearskin Dick)), Big John Ponce (Three Coyotes), Eagle Eye
Wahweveh (Black Eagle), Charley Chongyo (Pipe), D.E. Johnson, Beads, and Surger Wahi (Fox). Most of the leaders whom Leggins named were
shot in 1878. Lieutenant Colonel James Forsyth reported that his troops had killed Wahweveh (Black Eagle) on July 31, 1878; however, in spring
1879 Wahweveh and medicine chief Tamanmo (Black Spirit), with a few Snake dog soldiers, raided a mining camp on the Oregon-Idaho border
and killed several Chinese laborers. American troops under several leaders responded with a series of battles which became known as the
Sheepeater War. Black Eagle was killed in late August 1879 on the south fork of the Salmon River.
Chief Paulina was a Northern Paiute war leader during the late 1850s and 1860s, Chief Paulina led a band of Northern Paiutes that violently
resisted encroachment on their lands.The band refused to relocate to a Native American reservation[3] and attacked settler communities
traveling through or living on Paiute lands in central and eastern Oregon and the Klamath Basin. Paulina became the most notorious war leader
in those raids. He was known for the swiftness of his attacks and his ability to evade capture by both volunteer regiments and U.S. Army
detachments under General George Crook. He led a small band (including his brother Wahveveh) that raided and stole livestock and horses,
causing fear within nearby communities. The band also attacked Indians living on the Warm Springs Indian Reservation. There has been some
speculation that Paulina's hatred for the Warm Springs Indians and Caucasian settlers occurred in April 1859 when Dr. Thomas Fitch led Native
Americans from the Warm Springs Indian Reservation to attack a band of Paiutes in the valley of the John Day River. The party killed 10 Paiute
warriors, capturing the women and children and the rest of the band. Among those captured were Paulina and Wahveveh, both of whom were
later sent to Fort Dalles only to be imprisoned for a short time. Captain John M. Drake led one of the first military campaigns into the area, but
the conflicts increased. The Paiute threat was broken up into two bands led by Paulina, of the Walpapi band, and Weahwewa, of the Kidutokado
band. In one particular incident, Paulina arranged peace talks with the Chief of the Wascos, Queapama. However, under that guise, Paulina had
one of his braves murder Queapama. While predatory bands such as Paulina’s certainly profited from these attacks, they ultimately contributed

to the climate of hostility that increased the level of violence and the death toll in the region. All the resident groups settlers, native
communities at Warm Springs and Umatilla, and the Northern Paiute engaged in retaliatory actions that resulted in the deaths of dozens of
people, including women and children. After U.S. Army forces captured Paiute hostages and held them prisoner at Ft. Klamath, including
Paulina's sister, wife and son, Paulina and the other leaders of the Hunipuitöka Paiute agreed to sign a treaty in early 1865. To avoid starvation,
Paulina and his group left the Klamath Reservation on April 22, 1866, in spite of the treaty agreement they considered unfair. When they left,
Chief Howluck contacted him looking for aid to exact revenge for the killing of his followers by California troops in the Guano Valley. On
September 15, 1866, Paulina and his band of fourteen Paiutes attacked the ranch of James N. Clark near the junction of Bridge Creek and the
John Day River. The raiders burned the house, stables, 40 short tons (36,000 kg) of hay, 1,000 imperial bushels (36 kl) of oats and barley, and
stole two horses and a cow, causing an estimated $6,494 of damage. Fortunately, Clark's wife was visiting her parents in the Willamette Valley at
the time, but an unarmed Clark and his 18-year-old brother-in-law were collecting driftwood on the John Day when they saw the Paiutes. Paulina
and his band spotted them and gave chase, but Clark managed to escape, and his brother-in-law hid in the river with only his nose out of the
water for several hours undetected, although nearing hypothermia. Clark was able to gather a posse to try to salvage some of his stolen property.
One year after Paulina left the Klamath Reservation on April 25, 1867, Clark shot and scalped Paulina in a retaliatory attack led by settlers and
Howard Maupin. Paulina’s last engagement took place at a cove later named Paulina Basin, located in northeastern Jefferson County near the
town of Madras, Oregon. Maupin took credit for killing Paulina and nailed Paulina's scalp to the wall of his barn as a trophy.
Cumshewa, also Go'mshewah, Cummashawa, Cummashawaas, Cumchewas, Gumshewa, Hlḵ'inul was an important chief of the Haida people
of Haida Gwaii on the North Coast of British Columbia, Canada. His name is believed to be of either Kwak'wala or Heiltsuk (Bella Bella) origin,
meaning "rich at the mouth of the river". He is mentioned by Captain George Dixon who traded with him in 1787. In 1794 Cumshewa and his
warriors massacred the crew of the American vessel Resolution. Cumshewa is commemorated on the map of the archipelago by Cumshewa
Inlet, Cumshewa Mountain, Cumshewa Head (a point), Cumshewa Island, the Cumshewa Rocks and the modern First Nations locality of
Cumshewa (which is on the inlet of that name).
Four Gunswas an Oglala Lakota chief. In 1891, he and two fellow chiefs, Pine Tree and Running Wolf were invited to dine with Clark Wissler,
an anthropologist. After the dinner, he stated the following: "I have visited the Great Father in Washington. I have attended dinners among white
people. Their ways are not our ways. We eat in silence, quietly smoke a pipe, and depart. Thus our host is honored. This is not the way of the
white man. After his food has been eaten, one is expected to say foolish things. Then the host feels honored. Many of the white man's ways are
past our understanding, but now that we have eaten at the White Man's table, it is fitting that we honor our host according to the ways of his
people. Our host has filled many notebooks with the sayings of our fathers as they came down to us. This is the way of his people; they put great
store upon writing; always there is a paper. But we have learned that there are many papers in Washington upon which are written promises to
pay us for our lands; no white man seems to remember them. He said, "The Indian needs no writings; words that are true sink deep into his heart
where they remain in silence; he never forgets them."
Ishtakhaba (Dakota: Ištáȟba), a.k.a. Chief Sleepy Eye (1780 - 1859) was a Native American chief of the Sisseton Dakota tribe. He was chief
from sometime between 1822 and 1825, receiving a commission from the Bureau of Indian Affairs as chief in 1824, and remained chief until his
death in 1860. His band, known as the Swan Lake or Little Rock Band, hunted "in southwestern Minnesota and southeastern Dakota ... between
Swan Lake and Coteau des Prairies," until forced to move to reservation land near the Minnesota River in the wake of the 1857 Spirit Lake
Massacre. Ishtabkhaba tried to promote peace with whites in and around the state of Minnesota. He was a signer of at least four treaties with the
United States government, including the Treaty of Traverse des Sioux, and met with President James Monroe in Washington, D.C. in 1824.[2]
Chief Sleepy Eyes was known for his friendships with "explorers, traders, missionaries and government officials". However, his nephew, who also
bore the name "Sleepy Eyes," was involved in the 1862 Sioux Uprising. According to Warren Upham, "'Sleepy Eyes died in Roberts County, South
Dakota, but many years after his death his remains were disinterred and relocated to Sleepy Eye, Minnesota, where they were buried under a
monument erected by the citizens." The monument, close to the railway station, bears this inscription beneath the portrait of the chief in bas-
relief sculpture: 'Ish-tak-ha-ba, Sleepy Eye, Always a Friend of the Whites. Died 1860." In 1852, Sleepy Eye helped select the site which became
today's Mankato, Minnesota. He advised traders not to build in low lying land near the Minnesota River, because it flooded, and suggested "the
bluff" of Mankato's "present day Front Street" for a trading post instead. A historical marker has been erected near the site which served as his
main village between 1857-1859, at Sleepy Eye Lake "(then called Pretty Water By The Big Trees, Minnewashte Chanhatonka)." His peace pipe
was returned to the city of Sleepy Eye by his "fourth great-granddaughter" in 2011.
Kinache (c. 1750-c. 1819) was a Seminole chieftain who commanded Seminole forces against the United States during the American
Revolution and later during the First Seminole War. He is also known as Kinhega, Kinheja, Kinhija, Opie Mico, Kapitca Mico, Capichee Mico,
Tom Perryman and Lye Drop Mico (the latter meaning "Far Off Warrior"). Kinache was a prominent chieftain among the Seminoles along the
mouth of the Apalachicola River during the late 18th century when he allied with Great Britain during the American Revolution. Following
Great Britain's defeat, Kinache moved to a Miccosukee village on the west side of Lake Miccosukee where he lived among the Seminole of
western Florida. During 1800 until 1802, the area would be used by Bolek as a base of operations in staging raids into Georgia. During the War of
1812, Kinache reportedly fought with British forces against General Andrew Jackson at the Battle of New Orleans. The following year, Kinache
defended the Seminole stronghold of Fort Negro against an attack by Col. Duncan L. Clinch when US troops attempted to capture escaped
slaves hiding among the Seminole. During the First Seminole War, Kinache commanded Miccosukee forces against the combined forces of
American and Creeks under the command of Gen. William McIntosh. Although reportedly killed in battle while leading the Miccosukee in
defense of their village, Kinache apparently survived the campaign later escaping to the Bahamas before returning to Florida in 1819 where he
died soon after.

Koyah, also Coya, Coyour, Kower, Kouyer (phonetically /xo’ya/, meaning "raven" (died 1795), was the chief of Ninstints or Skungwai, the main
village of the Kunghit-Haida during the era of the Maritime Fur Trade in the Haida Gwaii of the North Coast of British Columbia, Canada.
Koyah was involved in more conflicts with ship captains than any other chief of his period and so figures prominently in histories of the fur
trade and coastal exploration.
Old Owl (c. late 1790s - 1849) was a Native American Civil Chief of the Penateka band of the Comanche Indians. His name, Mo'pe-choko-pa, in
Comanche literally meant "Old Owl." Nothing is known of his youth or early years. Old Owl was a member of the same band of the Comanche as
the more famous Buffalo Hump and Santa Anna. Although known as a civil, or peace, Chief, he was known to lead war parties. He was an
important chief, though probably less influential than Buffalo Hump during the 1830s and 1840s. He was originally, along with Buffalo Hump
and Santa Anna, a leader of Comanche resistance to Anglo settlement in Texas, especially during the period following the Council House Fight.
Like most Comanche Chiefs, Old Owl came to white attention following the Council House Fight. He, along with Santa Anna, was part of the
Great Raid of 1840 which Buffalo Hump organized to take revenge for what the Comanche viewed as the "utter betrayal of their people at the
Council House." But Old Owl was the first among the Comanche Chiefs to recognize that defeating the whites was unlikely. He began
advocating peace around 1842, and is best known for his meeting with Robert Neighbors and his subsequent signing of the Meusebach-
Comanche Treaty." Robert Neighbors recorded one of the best known meetings with Old Owl. While he was a Texas Indian Agent for the
Republic in 1845, Major Neighbors was at a Tonkawa camp. Old Owl arrived with 40 warriors, and in a manner the Major called “most insolent,”
demanded that the Tonkawa feed the war party and their horses, and provide for them entertainment. The Tonkawas, in fear of their lives,
provided 40 women, food and shelter, and cared for the horses at once. Neighbors, who had just been appointed Indian Agent for all Texas
Indians including the Comanche, took this opportunity to meet some of his new charges, and told them he was hopeful of civilizing them. Old
Owl, introduced to Neighbors, complimented him on his fine blue coat. Neighbors, understanding the meaning of this compliment, presented
the Chief with the coat immediately. Other warriors admired his pants, boots, and other clothing, and soon Neighbors was standing only in a
nightshirt. Old Owl however, took a liking to the fearless Neighbors. He told him though most whites irritated him, he liked Neighbors, and
invited him to accompany the war party, and he proposed instead of Neighbors making a civilized man of him, that he would make a fine
Comanche, warrior and horse thief out of Neighbors. The war party with Neighbors, who felt this was no time to decline, went to Mexico, where
Neighbors attempted to buy beef on credit to feed the warriors. When the Mexicans declined to sell beef to a Republic of Texas official on credit,
Old Owl told them two beeves were to be forthcoming immediately, or the hacienda would be burned down and every living being killed. This
proved highly effective, and the food was immediately forthcoming. Neighbors, having left an indelible impression on Old Owl as the first
Republic of Texas official to ever ride with a Comanche War Party, (and the only Republic of Texas official to ever ride with a war party), took
his leave of them with thanks, and went home. When the Germans decided a treaty was possible with the fierce Comanche, Old Owl was one of
the Chiefs they negotiated with. Geologist Dr. Ferdinand von Roemer was present at those treaty talks, which resulted in the Meusebach-
Comanche Treaty, and left an enduring and vivid portrait of the three chiefs who were representing the Comanche bands, including Old Owl:
"The three chiefs, who were at the head of all the bands of the Comanches roaming the frontiers of the settlements in Texas looked very
dignified and grave. They differed much in appearance. [Old Owl] the political chief, was a small old man who in his dirty cotton jacket looked
undistinguished and only his diplomatic crafty face marked him. The war chief, Santa Anna, presented an altogether different appearance. He
was a powerfully built man with a benevolent and lively countenance. The third, Buffalo Hump, was the genuine, unadulterated picture of a
North American Indian. Unlike the majority of his tribe, he scorned all European dress. The upper part of his body was naked. A buffalo hide
was wound around his hips. Yellow copper rings decorated his arms and a string of beads hung from his neck. With his long, straight black hair
hanging down, he sat there with the earnest (to the European almost apathetic) expression of countenance of the North American savage. He
drew special attention to himself because in previous years he had distinguished himself for daring and bravery in many engagements with the
Texans." Like so many of the Comanche, including his compatriot and friend Santa Anna, Old Owl died during the epidemics of 1848-49. It is
believed, like Santa Anna, he died of cholera in 1849, but he may have died the previous year during the smallpox epidemic. It is estimated that
the overall Comanche population declined from approximately 20,000 to less than 12,000 in those two years.
Oureouharé (d. in Quebec, Canada, in 1697) was a Cayuga chief. He was one of the Iroquois chiefs that were seized treacherously and sent to
the galleys in France in 1687, after being invited to a conference at Fort Frontenac by Denonville, the Canadian governor. He was allowed to
return with Frontenac to Canada in 1689, became attached to the new governor, accompanied him to Montreal, and advised him to release the
other Indian captives that were then in Canada. His advice was followed; the Indians were sent back to their tribes, and were exhorted by
Oureouhare to persuade the latter to send an embassy to Montreal. This was done on 9 March 1690, and the envoy said that the French prisoners
that had been scattered in the other cantons were now all at Onondaga, and would be disposed of as Oureouhare should direct. The efforts of the
latter to reconcile the Iroquois to French rule were unsuccessful, and Frontenac began to have doubts of his fidelity. His conduct in 1691, when
the Iroquois invaded the French colony, dispelled all doubts, and his bravery at Repentigny contributed greatly to the defeat of the savages. He
commanded the Christian Hurons in an engagement at La Prairie in the same year, and afterward pursued a body of Iroquois and recaptured
several French prisoners. He then went to Quebec and received the thanks of Frontenac, as well as numerous presents. Several tribes offered to
make him their chief, but he replied that he would never leave Ononthio (Frontenac), for whom he seems to have felt a sincere affection. He
retired among the Christian Iroquois of the mountain in 1692, but made frequent excursions among the Cayugas and other tribes in the interest
of the French, persuading the Cayugas to release their French prisoners, and keeping them firm in their allegiance. He visited Quebec in 1697,
and fell sick after his arrival. He was a sincere Christian, and when the missionary who attended him spoke of the crucifixion, it is said that he
cried out: “Why was I not there? I would have prevented them from so treating my God.” He was buried with pomp. Frontenac regretted him all
the more that he relied on him principally for bringing about a treaty with the Iroquois.
Petalesharo (c. 1797 - c. 1832) was a Skidi Pawnee chief who rescued an Ietan Comanche girl from a ritual human
sacrifice in 1817 (in present-day Nebraska) and earned publicity for his act in national newspapers. In 1821, he was one
of numerous Great Plains tribal chiefs to go to Washington, DC as part of the O'Fallon Delegation where they met
President James Monroe. As was their traditional practice, the Pawnee had captured an enemy girl to sacrifice her as
part of the spring solstice Morning Star ceremony. They would care well for her before the sacrifice in the weeks or
months beforehand. Petalesharo’s father Knife Chief (Lachelasharo) opposed the ceremony, but the tribe ignored his
concerns. The ritual had a long tradition and the people believed that their crops and hunting would suffer if the

Morning Star did not receive a human sacrificial offering. The Comanche girl was tied to a pyre and prepared for execution when Petalesharo
approached the warriors gathered for the ritual. Announcing that his father, also a chief, disapproved of the ceremony, he released the woman
and led her away. Petalesharo gave the freed woman a horse and provisions, then sent her home to rejoin her tribe. Missionaries working in the
area heard the story of Petalesharo's bravery. The story circulated around the United States, appearing in newspapers that provided a
romanticized version of the rescue. Petalesharo's story first appeared in The Washington Daily National Intelligencer on November 22, 1821. In
the winter of 1821, the New York Commercial Advertiser published an eleven-stanza poem, "The Pawnee Brave." The poem became popular and
was read and recited in parlors of sentimental New Yorkers. Petalesharo was part of a delegation of Native American chiefs who traveled to
Washington DC in 1821 on a trip organized by the superintendent of Indian affairs, Thomas L. McKenney, and Indian Agent Benjamin O'Fallon
(it was sometimes called the O'Fallon Delegation). The US officials intended to impress the Natives with the power and wealth of the white man
and ideally persuade them to end their warfare against American settlers. Native Americans who participated in this delegation performed
traditional dances, which drew a reported six to ten thousand on-lookers. Many businesses and Congress closed for the day to allow staff to
attend the performances. During the visit to Washington, news of Petalesharo's rescue became a popular topic of discussion. At Miss White's
Select Female Seminary, the young students begged to attend the Native American dance performance. Afterward, they raised funds to have a
medal created for Petalesharo, to commemorate his brave act. Made of silver, the medal had images depicting his rescue, together with the
inscription, "bravest of the brave". McKenney accompanied Petalesharo to the home of one of the students' parents. There the young women
presented the medal to him. Petalesharo made a short speech, saying, "I did not know the act was so good. It came from my heart. I was ignorant
of its value. I now know how good it was. You make me know by giving me this medal." The BIA commissioned Charles Bird King to paint
portraits of Petalesharo and others in the delegation, including Young Omahaw, War Eagle, Little Missouri and Pawnees. Petalesharo is also
shown in the 1822 Samuel F.B. Morse painting, The Old House of Representatives, now held by the Corcoran Gallery of Art. During the trip,
Petalesharo met author James Fenimore Cooper, who was believed to be inspired to write his novel, The Prairie. The Comanche girl was not the
first whom Petalesharo had rescued from ritual sacrifice. In 1818, he prevented sacrifice of a young boy under similar conditions. Indian agents
had warned the tribes against continuing their sacrifices. In 1833, Petalesharo, with the help of an Indian agent, attempted to rescue a young
Cheyenne girl who had been taken in a raid. During his effort, Skidi Pawnee shot and killed the girl with arrows as she was being lifted onto a
horse. The last historic reference to Petalesharo is in 1825, when he and his father signed a treaty at Fort Atkinson, on the west bank of the
Missouri River. Petalesharo is believed to have died in 1832 and been buried in Nebraska. The medal given by the student girls in Washington
was excavated in 1883 from a gravesite in Howard County, Nebraska. A young farm boy, Olando Thompson, dug up the medal at the former site
of a Skidi village. By the 1920s, the American Numismatic Society in New York had purchased the medal for its collection. Earlier sources often
confused Petalesharo with two other 19th-century Pawnee with the same name. A second Petalesharo also accompanied the 1821 delegation to
Washington. A third Petalesharo was the head chief of the Grand Pawnees in the 1860s.
Pine Leaf was a chief of the Crow tribe who counted coup in the 1830s. She is described in the
autobiography of James Beckwourth as well as in Edwin T. Denig's chronicle on the tribes of the upper
Missouri River. She was born to the Gros Ventres and at the age of about 10 taken prisoner by a raiding party
of Crows. She grew up in this tribe and showed a disposition to assume masculine habits. While always
dressing in female clothing, she was learned in horse keeping, hunting and warfare, mostly against the
Blackfoot. She had at least four female wives and earned a strong voice in the tribes council, ranking the third
person in the whole tribe of 160 lodges. In 1854 she was killed by Gros Ventres Indians near Fort Union. She
was compared with the Berdêche and can be considered two spirited. Beckwourth describes her as a fearsome
warrior, and claims that as a child she took a vow to kill at least one hundred enemies by her own hand. He further describes adventures
experienced at her side, including a romantic relationship and marrying her immediately before he left the Crows. It is possible that Beckwourth
may have exaggerated this relationship, as historian Bernard DeVoto wrote that Beckwourth is reliable save for three areas: numbers, romance,
and his own importance.
Shikellamy (died December 6, 1748), also known as Swatana, was an Oneida chief and overseer for the Iroquois
confederacy. In his position as chief and overseer, Shikellamy served as a supervisor for the Six Nations, overseeing the
Shawnee and Lenape tribes in central Pennsylvania along the Susquehanna River and protecting the southern border of
the Iroquois Confederacy. While his birth date is not known, his first recorded historical appearance was in Philadelphia in
1728. In 1728 he was living in a Shawnee village in Pennsylvania near modern Milton, and moved in 1742 to the village of
Shamokin, modern day Sunbury, at the confluence of the West and North Branches of the Susquehanna. Shikellamy was
an important figure in the early history of the Province of Pennsylvania and served as a go-between for the colonial
government in Philadelphia and the Iroquois chiefs in Onondaga. He welcomed Conrad Weiser to Shamokin and served as
Weiser's guide on his journeys into the frontier of Pennsylvania and New York. Although it is not known when or where
Shikellamy was born, his first appearance in the historical record is his 1728 visit to Philadelphia, the provincial capital of
Pennsylvania. The Quaker leadership in Philadelphia soon realized that Shikellamy was an important Indian leader and he was invited back to
the capital in 1729. He was described as "Shekallamy,...a trusty good Man & great Lover of the English." Shikellamy was sent by the government
of Pennsylvania to invite the leaders of the Iroquois Confederacy to a council in 1732. The initial meeting was a success and both sides agreed to
meet once again in the future. These meetings were arranged by Conrad Weiser and Shikellamy. During a later meeting, Shikellamy, Weiser
and the Pennsylvanians negotiated a 1736 treaty in Philadelphia, including a deed whereby the Iroquois sold the land drained by the Delaware
River and south of the Blue Mountain. Since the Iroquois had never until then laid claim to this land, this purchase represented a significant
swing in Pennsylvanian policy toward the Native Americans. William Penn had never taken sides in disputes between tribes, but by this
purchase, the Pennsylvanians were favoring the Iroquois over the Lenape. Along with the Walking Purchase of 1737, also arranged with the
assistance of Shikellamy and Conrad Weiser, this treaty exacerbated Pennsylvania-Lenape relations. The results of this policy shift would help
induce the Lenapes to side with the French during the French and Indian Wars, which would result in many colonial deaths. It did, however,
help induce the Iroquois to continue to side with the British over the French. Shikellamy had originally lived in a Shawnee village in the vicinity
of modern Milton, along the West Branch Susquehanna River. The Shawnee moved to the west by 1742, and in that year Shikellamy moved to
Shamokin village, which was an important Lenape town and home of Sasoonan (also known as Allumapees), a leader who was regarded by
Pennsylvania authorities as the Delaware (Lenape) "king." This title had no traditional meaning for the Delawares, who lived in autonomous
villages. However, since British colonial governments preferred to deal with a single leader rather than numerous village elders, Sasoonan
emerged as the Delaware "king". Pennsylvania officials found Sasoonan useful because he could be induced (with the help of gifts and

abundantly free liquor) to sign away Indian lands. Shikellamy was rewarded for his efforts in the Walking Purchase and other treaties by the
colonial government of Pennsylvania. In 1744 Conrad Weiser supervised the construction of a house for Shikellamy at Shamokin. The house was
49.5 feet (15.1 m) long, 17.5 feet (5.3 m) wide, and was covered with a shingle roof. Shikellamy's position and status at Shamokin made him an
important person in the eyes of the Moravian missionaries who sought to spread the gospel to the Indians of Pennsylvania. Count Zinzendorf, a
bishop of Moravian Church and native of Germany, visited with him in 1742. The Count believed that Shikellamy, who had converted to
Christianity, could serve as a vital agent of change in converting all Indians to the Christian faith. Shikellamy permitted the Moravians to
maintain an outpost at Shamokin and served as an emissary between the Moravians and Madame Montour's village of Otstuagy at the mouth of
Loyalsock Creek and French Margaret's village at the mouth of Lycoming Creek. Shikellamy permitted the Moravians to stay at Shamokin
because he believed that they had the Indians' best interest at heart. He knew that, unlike other white men, the Moravians had no interest in the
Indians' furs and did not want to take their land. The missionaries also did not give Shikellamy's people any alcohol, which played a major role
in the devastation of the Native Americans all over North America. Shikellamy so admired the Moravians that he permitted them to stay in his
home, lent them horses for work, and helped them build their homes. Shikellamy formally converted to Christianity in November 1748 at the
Moravian city of Bethlehem. On his return journey Shikellamy became ill. Despite the efforts of his Moravian friends at Shamokin, the Indian
leader succumbed to the illness on December 6, 1748. Shikellamy converted to Christianity and attempted to live in peace with the encroaching
European colonists. He believed that the Indians should not become like the white man. It was his belief that his people needed to continue to
live according to their own ways in order to be the masters of their destiny. After his death, Shikellamy was succeeded by his son John
Shikellamy, also known as John Logan and Tachnachdoarus (spreading oak). Another one of Shikellamy's sons, James Logan, was named for
James Logan, the Quaker Provincial Secretary of Pennsylvania and de facto Superintendent of Indian Affairs. One of these two sons — historians
have disagreed which one — later became well known in American history as "Chief Logan," who played a pivotal role in Dunmore's War in 1774
and issued an oft-quoted speech known as "Logan's Lament." A third son was named John Petty, after a trader. Two of his sons were killed in
battle. Shikellamy is a prominent name in Northumberland County today. Shikellamy State Park, Shikellamy High School, and Chief
Shikellamy Elementary School carry on his name. In fact, the Shikellamy School District, which owns and operates both of the aforementioned
schools, was named after him when the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania commissioned it in 1958. In Berks County, there was a local Boy Scout
camp named after Shikellamy (Shikellamy Scout Reservation) that closed in 1978. Above the camp, there is an rock outlook that is named after
Shikellamy (Shikellamy Outlook) along the Appalachian Trail.
John Shikellamywas an Oneida chief in the second half 18th century. After death his father Shikellamy in 1748 he was succeeded him. He
was also known as John Logan and Tachnachdoarus (spreading oak).
Wapasha I (1718–1806) was the Mdewakanton Dakota chief in the second half 18th century and in early 19tth century. Wapasha (Dakota:
Wáȟpe Šá) was born in present-day Minnesota in 1718. During his youth he befriended the agents of King Louis XV of France and was a long-
time friend to the French against the British. Wapasha and his followers were allies of the French, and aided them in their conflicts with the
British. After the British defeated the French, they were both suspicious and fearful of the their Sioux allies. As a result, there were no English
trappers and traders among the Sioux. They had become more accustomed to hunting with rifles than bows and arrows. Fur trading with French
trappers brought provisions and ammunition and the Dakota found it difficult to survive without this commerce. Several incidents that took
place during the French and Indian War made English trappers apprehensive about returning to the Mississippi River valley. One such incident
took place in 1761. A Dakota named Ixkatapay had shot an English trader called Pagonta by the Sioux. The two had quarreled earlier, and
Pagonta was reportedly killed while sitting in his cabin smoking. Ixkatapay was turned over to the British for the killing. Wapasha I led the
party, composed of 100 men, to the English headquarters in Quebec. By the time Wapasha had reached Green Bay, Wisconsin, there were only
six of the original 100 left, Wapasha and five warriors. The others had drifted off in small groups. One of these deserting bands had taken
Ixkatapay with them and returned to their homelands. Wapasha and the remaining five continued to Quebec and offered themselves as
surrogates for Ixkatapay in the English court.[citation needed] Because Wapasha said he would have himself executed for Ixkatapay, the British
decided to release both Wapasha and the other warriors out of admiration. When he returned home, Wapasha became a war chief and his forces
fought in the American Revolution against the Loyalist-allied Ojibwe tribe as well as the Sauk and Fox tribes. Wapasha himself was greeted by
the salute of a cannon. The Dakota repelled their enemies, but Wapasha narrowly escaped a smallpox epidemic that struck his entire village.
Wapasha died of throat cancer at the age of 88, just after the dawn of the 19th century. He was succeeded by his son, Wapasha II.
Wapasha II (1768 -1855) was the Mdewakanton Dakota chief in 19th century. The son of Wapasha I, Wapasha II took the
place of his noble father as a mighty war chief, in present day Minnesota. He lost his eye in a game of lacross, some say
instead of getting an eyepatch he grew out his hair. He sided with the United States in the War of 1812 and the Black Hawk
War.
Wapasha III was the Mdewakanton (Dakota Sioux) chief also known as Joseph Wapasha in the second half 19th century.
Wapasha led his people to the Sioux reservation at the head of the Minnesota River.
Wapasha IV was the Mdewakanton Sioux chief also known as Napoleon Wapasha in te second half 19th century. Wapasha
became a United States citizen in 1909.

Wawatam(little goose) (fl. 1762 – 1764) was an Odawa chief in the northern region of present day Michigan's Lower Peninsula, then known as
Waganawkezee (it is bent) near Fort Michilimackinac. He is known through his rescue of and friendship with British fur trader Alexander Henry
the elder from the Ojibwas following the capture of Fort Michilimackinac in June 1763 during the Pontiac War. Wawatam, the leader and
patriarch of an extended family of Odawa, rescued Henry after he had initially become an Ojibwe possession as a spoil of war, and soon there
after, again came to Henry's rescue by hiding him in a Cave on nearby Mackinac Island. Henry became a member of Wawatam's family. In this
role Henry wintered with the Wawatam family in 1763-1764 in a hunting ground located near the eastern shore of Lake Michigan. Henry's
observations of the hunting and living practices of his friendly captors became a significant contribution to Algonquian anthropology. Henry
later returned to "civilization." Successful as a fur trader in later life, he always credited Wawatam with saving his life. The 18th century fort,
scene of Wawatam's rescue of Henry, has been reconstructed and is now an active living history museum. The site is located just west of
downtown Mackinaw City at the Lower Peninsula's headland. The Emmet County township in which Fort Michilimackinac is located is named
after Wawatam.
Derbent Khanate
Derbent Khanate was a khanate having the center at Derbent. It included the northern clans of Lezgian people.
List of Khans of the Derbent Khanate
Muhammad Hassan was a Khan of the Derbent Khanate from 1747 until 1765. In 1765, Fatali khan, ruler of Quba Khanate conquered
Derbent and united Derbent khanate to his possessions with the help of shamkhal, utsmi and Tabasaran’s qadi.Even by then he took a territories
on the right coast the Samur River – Mushkur, Niyazoba, Shabran, Rustau, Beshbarmag and also villages of Ulus mahal from Derbent’s khan
Muhammad Hassan who was blinded and soon after 1765 died.
Hasan-aga was a Khan of the Derbent Khanate from 1799 until 1802.
Republic of Ragusa (Republic of Dubrovnik)
The Republic of Ragusa, or Republic of Dubrovnik, was a maritime republic centered on the city of Dubrovnik (Ragusa in Italian and Latin) in
Dalmatia (today in southernmost modern Croatia), that existed from 1358 to 1808. It reached its commercial peak in the 15th and the 16th
centuries, under the protection of the Ottoman Empire, before being conquered by Napoleon's French Empire in 1808. It had a population of
about 30,000 people, of whom 5,000 lived within the city walls. It had the motto Non bene pro toto libertas venditur auro (Latin for "Liberty is
not well sold for all the gold"). Originally named Communitas Ragusina (Latin for "Ragusan municipality" or "community"), in the 14th century
it was renamed Respublica Ragusina, first mentioned in 1385,[6] (Latin for Ragusan Republic). In Italian it is called Repubblica di Ragusa; in
Croatian it is called Dubrovačka Republika. The name Ragusa owes its origins to the fugitive inhabitants of Epidaurus in Illyria, which was
destroyed in the 6th century and it was in use back to that period of regional history. The Croatian name Dubrovnik is derived from the word
dubrava, an oak grove; by a strange folk etymology, the Turks have corrupted this into Dobro-Venedik, meaning Good-Venice. It came into use
alongside Ragusa as early as the 14th century. The Latin, Italian and Dalmatian name Ragusa derives its name from Lausa (from the Greek ξαυ:
xau, "precipice"); it was later altered in Rausium (Appendini says that until after AD 1100, the sea passed over the site of modern Ragusa, if so, it
could only have been over the Placa or Stradun) or Rausia (even Lavusa, Labusa, Raugia and Rachusa) and finally into Ragusa. The official
change of name from Ragusa to Dubrovnik came into effect when the area became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes in 1918
after the First World War. Today the coat of arms of Ragusa, in its red and blue version, can be seen in the coat of arms on the Croatian flag as it
constitutes a historic part of Croatia. The Republic ruled a compact area of southern Dalmatia – its final borders were formed by 1426 –
comprising the mainland coast from Neum to the Prevlaka peninsula as well as the Pelješac peninsula and the islands of Lastovo and Mljet, as
well as a number of smaller islands off Lastovo and Dubrovnik such as Koločep, Lopud, and Šipan. In the 15th century the Ragusan republic
also acquired the islands of Korčula, Brač and Hvar for about eight years. However they had to be given up due to the resistance of local minor
aristocrats sympathizing with Venice which was granting them some privileges.
List of Rectors of Republic of Ragusa (Croatian Knez, Latin Rector, Italian Rettore) (elected for one month terms;
years persons known to have served are given)
Niccola de Sorgo was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa from 1358 until ?.
Marco de Bobali was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1370, during 1370s and in 1390.
Matteo de Giorgi (1329 - 1400) was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1372, in 1377 and in 1380.

Vittorio de Bobali was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa from 1403 until 1417.
Giunio Andrea de Bobali was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Simone Benessa from 1500 until 1501, from
1503 until 1504 and alone from 1506 until 1507.
Simone Benessa was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly wit Giunio Andrea de Bobali from 1500 until 1501 and from
1503 until 1504.
Bernardo Bona was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa from 1501 until 1502.
Francesco Andrea de Bobali was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa from 1505 until 1506.
Luca Bona was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Antonio Bona from 1509 until 1510.
Antonio Bona was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Luca Bona from 1509 until 1510 and alone from 1511 until
1512, from 1511 until 1512, from 1514 until 1515, from 1517 until 1518, from 1520 until 1521, jointly with Giacomo Bona from 1523 until 1524
and from 1526 until 1527.
Giacomo Bona was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa from 1521 until 1522, jointly with Antonio Bona from 1523 until 1524,
from 1526 until 1527 and jointly with Luigi Bona from 1532 until 1533.
Bartolo Bonawas the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa from 1522 until 1523 and jointly with Luigi Bona from 1525 until 1526.
Luigi Bona was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointky with Bartolo Bona from 1525 until 1526,from 1527 until 1528, jointly
with Francesco Bona from 1529 until 1530, jointly with Giacomo Bona from 1532 until 1533 and jointly with Damiano Beness, Matteo Francesco
de Bobali and Francesco Bona from 1534 until 1535.
Matteo Francesco de Bobali was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa from 1528 until 1529, jointly with Damiano Benessa,
Francesco Bona and Luigi Bona from 1534 until 1535, jointly with Damiano Benessa from 1537 until 1538, jointly with Michele Simone de
Bobali from 1539 until 1540, alone from 1543 until 1544, jointly with Bernardo Bona from 1546 until 1547 and alone in 1549.
Francesco Bona was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Luigi Bona from 1529 until 1530, jointly with Damiano
Benessa from 1531 until 1532, jointly with Damiano Benessa, Matteo Francesco de Bobali and Luigi Bona from 1534 until 1535, jointly with
Michele Simone de Bobali from 1536 until 1537 and jointly with Elio Bona and Girolamao Bona from 1538 until 1539.
Michele Giunio de Bobali was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa from 1530 until 1531 and from 1542 until 1543.
Damiano Benessa was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Francesco Bona from 1531 until 1532, jointly with
Matteo Francesco de Bobali, Francesco Bona and Luigi Bona from 1534 until 1535 and jointly with Matteo Francesco de Bobali from 1537 until
1538.
Zuppano Bonawas the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Girolamo Bona from 1535 until 1536, alone from 1547 until
1548 and from 1554 until 1555.
Girolamo Bona was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa joimtly witj Zuppano Bona from 1535 until 1536 and jointly with
Francesco Bona and Elio Bona from 1538 until 1539.
Michele Simone de Bobali was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Francesco Bona from 1536 until 1537, jointly
with Matteo Francesco de Bobali from 1539 until 1540 and alone from 1545 until 1546.
Elio Bona was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Francesco Bona and Girolamo Bona from 1538 until 1539.
Bernardo Bona was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Matteo Francesco de Bobali from 1546 until 1547.
Pasquale Francesco Cerva was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa from 1549 until 1550.
Geronimo Sigismondo de Bobali was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa from 1558 until 1559.
Giunio Michele de Bobaliwas the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1559, jointly with Lorenzo Michele de Bobali from 1561
until 1562, alone in 1565, from 1568 until 1569, from 1571 until 1572 and from 1573 until 1575.
Luciano Bona was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa from 1559 until 1560 and in 1580.
Lorenzo Michele de Bobali was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Giunio Michele de Bobali from 1561 until
1562, alone from 1564 until 1565 and in 1570.

Simone de Bobali was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa from 1562 until 1563.
Marin Držić(C roatian pronunciation: [mâriːn dř̩ ːʒitɕ]; also Marino Darza or Marino Darsa; 1508 - May 2,
1567) is considered the finest Croatian Renaissance playwright and prose writer. He was also the Rector (Head
of State) of Republic of Ragusa from 1565 until his death on May 2, 1567. Born into a large and well to do
family (with 6 sisters and 5 brothers) in Dubrovnik, Držić was trained and ordained as a priest — a calling
very unsuitable for his rebel temperament. Marin's uncle was another famous Croatian author Džore Držić.
Ordained in 1526, Držić was sent in 1538 to Siena in Tuscany to study the Church Canon Law, where his
academic results were average. Thanks to his extroverted and warm personality, he is said to have captured
the hearts of his fellow students and professors, and was elected to the position of Rector of the University.
Losing interest in his studies, Marin returned to the Dubrovnik Republic in 1543. Here he became an
acquaintance of Austrian adventurer Christoph Rogendorf, then at odds with Vienna court. After a brief
sojourn in Vienna, Držić came back to his native city. Other vagabond exploits followed: a connection with a
group of Dubrovnik outlaws, a journey to Constantinople and and a brief trip to Venice. After a career as an
interpreter, scrivener and church musician, he even became a conspirator. Convinced that Dubrovnik was governed by a small circle of elitist
aristocracy bent to tyranny, he tried to persuade in five letters (four of which survive) the powerful Medici family in Florence to help him
overthrow the government in his home town; they did not respond. Marin died suddenly in Venice on May 2, 1567. He was buried in the Church
of St. John and Paul. Držić's works cover many fields: lyric poetry, pastorals, political letters and pamphlets, and comedies. While his pastorals
(Tirena, Venera i Adon and Plakir) are still highly regarded as masterful examples of the genre, the pastoral has, as artistic form, virtually
vanished from the scene. However, his comedies are among the best in European Renaissance literature. As with other great comedy writers like
Lope de Vega, Ben Jonson or Molière, Držić's comedies are full of exuberant life and vitality, celebrating love, liberty and sincerity and mocking
avarice, egoism and petty tyrants — both in the family and in the state. His best-known comedies include: Pomet (1548 or 1553) - some Croatian
historiographers argue that Pomet is indeed Marin's oldest play, his debut, while others disagree. The fact that it's lost makes it harder to classify
it, Novela od Stanca (1550), Dundo Maroje (1551 or 1556) - in today's Croatia arguably Marin's most famous play. It was also played in some
international theatres and Skup (1554) - thematically similar to Plautus' Aulularia and Molière's The Miser. The gallery of young lovers, misers,
cuckolds, adventurers, senile tyrants, painted with the gusto of buoyant idiom that exemplifies richness of the Croatian language in the
Renaissance period has remained the pillar of Croatian high comedy theatre ever since. Since its independence Croatia has awarded the Marin
Držić Award for dramatic work. The Croatian Parliament also declared 2008 the Year of Marin Držić, as it is the 500th anniversary of his birth.
An avenue in Zagreb is named after him. In Draškovićeva street (centre of Zagreb) there is a scenical stage named after Marin's nickname Vidra.
Nicknames are given for various reasons. In Croatian word vidra could also point to a person who is perfidious and resourceful. However, we
would be prejudicing if we were to made that kind of assumptions about his character.
Nikola Vitov Gučetić (also Nicolò Vito Gozze; 1549 -1610) was a Croatian statesman, philosopher, science writer from
the Republic of Dubrovnik and author of one of the first scientific dissertations regarding speleology. He was also the
Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa from 1567 until 1568, from 1569 until 1570and jointly with Giorgio de Menze
from 1575 until 1576. He received most of his education in Dubrovnik and in Italy. He was the central person in the
cultural life in Dubrovnik in his time and owned probably the biggest private library in town. Rarely traveling outside the
limits of town, he was occupied by trade, finances, and other official duties for the city-state. Elected duke of Dubrovnik
seven times at the turn of the 17th century, he devoted his life to the prosperity of the city. Pope Clement VIII awarded him
an honorary doctorate in philosophy as well a master's degree in theology. Gozze was highly regarded for his works related
to philosophy, politics, sociology, and pedagogy. Gučetić married Marija Gundulić-Gučetić, who was a philosopher too, and wrote La querelle
des femmes u renesansnom Dubrovniku. The dedication written in her husband's book Discorsi di m. Nicolò ; Vito di Gozze sopra le metheore
d'Aristotile. Ridotti in dialogo e divisi in quatro giornate under the title "Alla non men bella, che virtuosa e gentil donna Fiore Zuzori in Ragugia"
Venetiis, 1582, is an extraordinary discourse in Ragusan heritage, given in the first place in the defence of the authors' friend Cvijeta Zuzorić
("Fiore Zuzori") but also the other women. Marija was uncompromisingly critical towards the Dubrovnik society that attacked her friend. Her
criticism was so sharp that censorship was imposed on it. Marija's dedication has a theoretical value as well because it constitutes a part of a huge
debate on the worth of women led in Europe from the 14th century on. The article puts her text in the context of this debate. Gučetić wrote in
the Italian and Latin: Commentaria in sermonem Auer. De substantia orbis, et in propositiones de causis - 1580, Dialogo d'amore detto Antos,
secondo la mente di Platone - 1581, Dialogo della Bellezza detto Antos, secondo la mente di Platone - 1581, Sopra le Metheore d' Aristotile
("About Aristotle's meteors"), first in 1584 and in 1585 the second edition, in Venice. This work is a comment on explanations of natural
phenomena according to the principles of natural philosophy given by Aristotle, Dello stato delle republiche secondo la mente di Aristotele
1591, Discorsi della penitenza 1589, Governo della famiglia 1589. In a part of the book "About Aristotle's meteors" relating to the meteorology
which discuss the phenomenon of wind, the writer mentions two caves noted to generate very strong winds at their entrances: Šipun cave near
Cavtat in the Dubrovnik area and unnamed cave in Popovo polje in Herzegovina – most probably today's Vjetrenica cave (vjetar=wind). Based on
these observations, Gučetić explained the origin of winds in general and winds in some caves by the process of evaporation of the Earth's
elements which is caused by the Sun. Being warm, dryer and denser, the evaporation medium is unable to penetrate the Earth through its
surface, but only through the large openings and that is what produces wind. Gučetić noted that wind cannot be observed deeper inside the cave,
but only at the entrance. He explained that by the acceleration of the air current in narrower passages, similar to the that one of the sea current
in narrow sea passages. In the case of a windless šipun cave, Gučetić stated that this phenomenon is not universal for all caves. He explained the
absence of wind on its entrance by its higher humidity and presence of a lake in one or more of possible passages. According to his opinion, the
bigger amount of water is favorable for the growth of stygobites and troglobites which are abundant in the šipun cave. Nikola Vitov Gučetić is
just one member of well known noble family, as is the writer Dživo Gučetić (1451–1502).The family is known for erecting the oldest arboretum
in the world, in Trsteno near Ragusa (see House of Gučetić).
Jacopo Antonio Benessa was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa from 1570 until 1571, from 1572 until 1573, in 1575 and
from 1578 until 1579.
Giorgio de Menze was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Nikola Vitov Gučetić (Nicolò Vito Gozze) from 1575
until 1576.

Antonio Bona was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Hieronimus de Ghetaldi from 1576 until 1577 and jointly
with Vladimius de Menze from 1579 until 1580.
Hieronimus de Ghetaldi was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Antonio Bona from 1576 until 1577.
Natalis de Proculo was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa from 1577 until 1578.
Vladimius de Menze was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Antonio Bona from 1579 until 1580.
Giovanni Binciola was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa from 1587 until 1588.
Matteo Benessa was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Pietro Benessa, Aloysius de Saraca and Petrus de Cerva
Pietro Benessa was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Matteo Benessa, Aloysius de Saraca and Petrus de Cerva
Aloysius de Saraca was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Pietro Benessa, Pietro Benessa and Petrus de Cerva
from 1588 until 1589 and alone in 1592.
Petrus de Cerva was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Pietro Benessa, Matteo Benessa and Aloysius de Saraca
Hieronimus de Buchia was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1591.
Francesco Gondola (died 1624) was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in late 16th century and in early 17th century.
Franciscus de Caboga was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1611.
Blasius de Gondola was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1612.
Đivo Franov Gundulić (Serbo-Croatian pronunciation: [ǐʋan dʒǐːʋo frâːnoʋ ɡǔndulitɕ]; also Gianfrancesco
Gondola; January 8, 1589 - December 8, 1638; Nickname: Mačica), better known today as Ivan Gundulić, was the
most prominent Croatian Baroque poet from the Republic of Ragusa and twice Rector (Head of State) of Republic
of Ragusa in the first half 17th century. His work embodies central characteristics of Roman Catholic Counter-
Reformation: religious fervor, insistence on "vanity of this world" and zeal in opposition to "infidels." Gundulić's
major works—the epic poem Osman, the pastoral play Dubravka, and the religious poem Tears of the Prodigal Son
(based on the Parable of the Prodigal Son) are examples of Baroque stylistic richness and, frequently, rhetorical
excess. Ivan Gundulić was born in Dubrovnik in a wealthy Ragusan noble family (see House of Gundulić) in
January 8, 1589. Son of Francesco di Francesco Gundulić (senator and diplomat, once the Ragusan envoy to
Constantinople and councilor of the Republic to the Pope Gregory VIII) and Djiva Gradic (de Gradi). He received
an excellent education. He probably studied the humanities with the Jesuit Silvestro Muzio and philosophy with
Ridolfo Ricasoli and Camillo Camilli (*Siena -+1615), who in late 1590 had been appointed rettore delle scuole e
professore di umane lettere in Ragusa. After that he studied Roman law and jurisprudence in general, where he
held numerous offices for the Great Council of the Republic. In 1608, when he was nineteen, he became a member of the Veliko vieće (Great
Council). Twice, in 1615 and 1619, he held the temporary function of knez (commissary or governor) of Konavle, an area southeast of the city. At
the age of thirty he married with Nicoleta Sorkočević (Sorgo)(+1644) who bore him three sons, Frano (Francesco), Matheo (Mato), Šiško
(Segismondo) and two daughters, Maria (Mara) Gondola and Dziva (Giovanna). Fran Dživo Gundulić and Mato Gundulić (1636–1684) fought in
the thirty-years war under Wallenstein; the youngest died on January 16, 1682, being by then the Rector of the Republic. From 1621 until his
death Ivan held various offices in the city government. In 1636 he became a senator, in 1637 a judge, and in 1638 a member of the Small
Council (Malo vieće). Had he lived a little longer – he died of an intense fever, product of an inflammation in his ribs ( Folio 15 Libr. Mort.
N°274, Adi le Xbre 1638 Ragusa) – he would probably have been elected knez of the Dubrovnik Republic, the highest function that was held for
one month only by meritorious gentlemen at least fifty years old. His father, who died in 1624, had been knez five times, and Ivan's son
Šišmundo Gundulić later four times. He began his literary career by writing poems and staging melodramas that became popular in Dubrovnik.
But Ivan published only his larger works. His earlier work, which he referred to as a "brood of darkness", is now lost. His first publications were in
1621, when he rewrote several of David's Psalms and wrote several religious poems. He then wrote his famous Suze sina razmetnoga (Tears of
the Prodigal Son) in 1622, composed of three "Cries": Sagriešenje (Sin), Spoznanje (Insight) and Skrušenje (Humility). In this poem Ivan
presented the three basic categories of Christian faith: sin, repentance and redemption through contrasts such as between life and death, purity
and sin, and Heaven and Hell. In 1637 when Ferdinand II of Tuscany married, Gundulić wrote a poem to honor the event, he noted that "all of
Slavic people (Slovinski narod) honor you on this occasion". Gundulić's most famous play is Dubravka, a pastoral written in 1628, where he
rhapsodises on the former glory of Dubrovnik and contains some of the most famous verses in Croatian literature. In his greatest work, Osman,
Gundulić presents the contrasts between Christianity and Islam, Europe and the Turks, West and East, and what he viewed as freedom and
slavery. Osman had 20 cantos, but the 14th and the 15th were never found. Judging from the modern perspective, two approaches seem to
dominate the contemporary appraisal of Gundulić's poetry: on one hand, his poetic influence has dimmed due to a change in aesthetic sensibility
(Gundulić's chief literary predecessor and influence, Torquato Tasso, has undergone similar reassessment, but his artistic integrity and
individuality have withstood the test of time better); while Gundulić's impact in the final standardisation of the Croatian language was
overwhelming. Osman is firmly rooted within the rich literary tradition of the Croatian Baroque in Dubrovnik and Dalmatia and is considered as
one of its apogees. By presenting the contrast of struggle between Christianity and Islam, Gundulić continued Marko Marulić's glorification of

the fights against the invading Ottoman Turks. Besides magnifying Slavdom and the battles against the conquerors, Gundulić described the life
of the Ottoman sultan Osman II. Gundulić constantly reminds the reader of the wheel of fortune and how the world is transient. Osman begins
with the Sultan's grasping of the situation caused by the 1621 Ottoman defeat at Chocim and descriptions of how the era of pre-Ottoman glory of
the Bulgarians, Serbs, Hungarians, Albanians and especially the Poles could be easily restored. According to the storyline, Sultan Osman
dispatched Ali-pasha to the Kingdom of Poland in order to negotiate peace and Kazlar-aga to choose which Polish noblewoman would suit him
best for marriage. Gundulić describes the travels of both Ali-pasha and Kazlar-aga while paying much attention to the battle of Chocim and the
enslaved Slavs that suffer under Ottoman rule. After numerous failed attempts to restore order in the empire, the army captures Osman and
executes him, bringing the imprisoned Mustafa as the new Sultan. Osman was printed for the first time in Dubrovnik in 1826, with the two
missing cantos being replaced by poems written by the poet Petar Ignjat Sorkočević-Crijević (1749–1826), a direct descendant of Ivan Gundulić
(his maternal grandmother Nikoleta Gundulić was Šišmundo Gundulić's daughter). Another descendant, Baron Vlaho Getaldić (grandson of
Katarina Gundulić) introduced a hexameter treaty into Osman in 1865. Ironically, Osman was not published in the integral edition until 1844,
when the Illyrian movement chose Gundulić's oeuvre as a role model of the Croatian language. One of the leading Illyrists' men of letters,
politician, linguist and poet Ivan Mažuranić, successfully completed Gundulić's Osman by composing the last two chapters, which were left
unfinished upon the poet's death. In September 1995 Luciano Pavarotti, who organized a grand charity concert almost every year in his
hometown of Modena, Italy, held a concert on behalf of the children of Bosnia & Herzegovina, particularly the War Child foundation and its
efforts in Mostar. That night started late and went well into the next day in presence of Italian TV cameras and surrounded by thousands. Many
musicians and celebrities were involved in the show including Princess Diana, Brian Eno, Michael Bolton, Meatloaf, Zucchero, Nenad Bach, The
Edge, and Bono, who recited at the end of the title song (Miss Sarajevo) the famous Ivan Gundulić verses: ”O liepa, o draga, o slatka slobodo”
(“Oh beautiful, oh precious, oh sweet Liberty”). The Sunčanica is a historical opera composed by Boris Papandopulo, with a libretto by Marko
Soljačić based on Ivan Gundulić's Osman and his son Šišmundo Gundulić, who continued Osman with the Sunčanica history. It was first
performed at the Croatian National Theatre in Zagreb (then the Croatian State Theatre in Zagreb) on June 13, 1942. The opera was produced by
Branko Gavella, choreographed by Ana Roje and Oskar Harmoš, and its main role was played by Srebrenka Jurinac. In 2008, the opera was fully
performed for the first time in 62 years when it opened the 16th Zajc's Days festival at the Croatian National Theatre Ivan pl. Zajc in Rijeka.
Gundulić like other writers from Dubrovnik and Bay of Kotor who wrote in Shtokavian dialect, are controversally claimed by Serbian scholars -
he has been included in The 100 most prominent Serbs list compiled by the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, and his works are included as
a part of the Serbian literature by the Matica srpska, together with other Ragusan writers, in the fifth volume of Deset vekova srpske književnosti
(Ten centuries of Serbian literature). Serbian editors, without official consensus with Croatian scholars, consider Dubrovnik and Bay of Kotor
literature as common heritage and explain the inclusion with the Shtokavian dialect being the basis of the modern Serbian language. Croatian
scholars and Matica hrvatska vehemently reject Serbian claims of dual belonging, and they assert the already known Serbian claiming and
reaving of Croatian culture. Gundulić's portrait is depicted on the obverse of the Croatian 50 kuna banknote, issued in 1993 and 2002.
Lucianus de Caboga was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1651.
Luca de Sorgo was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1652.
Savino de Bona was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1653.
Franciscus de Ghetaldi was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1654.
Marinus de Proculo was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1655 and in 1661.
Đivo Sarov Bunić (Italian: Giovanni Serafino Bona; early 1591 or 1592 - March 6, 1658), now known predominantly as
Ivan Bunić Vučić, was a Croatian politician and poet from the Republic of Ragusa (Dubrovnik). He was born into a large
family in Dubrovnik. He was a member of the Ragusean aristocracy (see House of Bunić), and was five times elected as Rector
(Knez) of the Republic of Ragusa during 1650s. He wrote poetry in the Croatian language. His most important work is
Plandovanja, a collection of 109 poems which included new motives in Croatian literature. Only his poem Mandaljena
pokornica was printed during his life, and is considered a well-versed example of Baroque style poetry. His complete works
were printed in 1849. He died at Dubrovnik in 1658. In 1992 the newly formed Croatian government released a
commemorative stamp in honor of the "400th anniversary since the birth of Ivan Bunić Vučić."
Luca di Gozze was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1660.
Franciscus de Segismundo Sorgo was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1662.
Benedictus de Bona was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1663.
Simeone de Menze was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1664.
Lucas de Restis was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1665.
Simone Ghetaldi (Šišmundo Getaldić) (died April 6, 1667) was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1663.
Marinus de Sorgo was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1670.
Johanes Matteo de Ghetaldi was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1671.
Hieronimuus de Menze was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1672.

Clemenens de Menze was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1680 and in 1683.
Matteo de Bona was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1681.
Sigismondo Gondola (Šiško Gundulić) (c.1634 - September 16, 1682) was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1682. He was
son of famous poet Ivan Gundulić and Nika Sorkočević, and brother of the Austrian Marshal Fran Dživo Gundulić. Following the footsteps of
his father, he also composed diverse poetry, poetry of both father and son was distinguished by the same similar elegance, some of their works
were translated in the L´Epithalame de Catulle, other great musical works in 1662 Sunčanica. His first wife is unknown but he remarried with
Katarina de Nale and had four children, Fran Gundulić II k.k General der Cav., Dživo Šiškov Gundulić (c.1678 c.1721), Hieronymus Gundulić
and Šiško Frano Gundulić II (1682 - 1758) was one of the founders the first Austrian Lodge Zu den drei in Vienna on September 17, 1742, in
March 7, 1743 became Master of the Lodge Zu den drei Kanonen of Freemasonry. Šišmundo married Pier An. Crijević and had the last Gundulić
male line, Šiško Dominko Gundulić, the daughter Katarina Gundulić married with Matej Getaldić, continued with the surname Getaldić-
Gundulić, by adoption for the son of Katarina, Frano Augustin Getaldić-Gundulić. He was also known by his bad habits, his public addiction to
alcohol and his public scandals in the city of Dubrovnik. Šiško died in the Sponza Palace (Rector's Palace) in 1682.
Nicolaus de Binciola was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1682.
Stefano de Tudisi was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1684.
Matteo Gondola was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in late 17th century.
Đivo (Ivan) Šiškov Gundulić (also Giovanni di Sigismondo Gondola), (February 13, 1678 - December 13, 1721) was the Rector (Head of
State) of Republic of Ragusa from 1696 until 1700. He was son of Šišmundo (Šiško) Gundulić and Katarina Nale, was the Rector of the Republic
of Ragusa between 1696–1700. Following his father and his grandfather, he also wrote poetry: Suze i tužbe Radmilove (1702), Radmio (1701),
Oton (1707) and Filomena. He also composed diverse folklore songs, that have been preserved from generation to generation until today by the
people of Dubrovnik. Đivo was accused of raping a young Sephardic Jew, Luna Židovka on March 13, 1699. Đivo Šiškov Gundulić was engaged at
the time to Marija Bosdari and what happened after the raping young Luna Židovka (Protocol of the Conference that was held by the Council on
Friday 13 March 1699). The Council found Gundulić guilty, all the Bosdari nobles were against him and wanted revenge. The sentence for
Gundulić was expulsion from Dubrovnikan aristocracy, exile from the Republic, a ban on selling or to giving his estate, an increased
punishment in the event of a repeated attack. The political confrontation between the aristocracy took place at the end of the 17th century,
primarily between the Salamankezi and Sorbonezi Dubrovnikan patrician clans.
Junius de Gozze was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1703 and in 1708.
Joannes de Menze was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1706 and in 1709.
Franciscus de Tudisi was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1707.
Lucas Marini de Sorgo was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1710.
Joannes de Gozze was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1726 and in 1729.
Joannes de Basilio was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1727.
Vladislaus de Sorgo was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1728.
Junius de Restis was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1730.
Joannes de Sorgo was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1761.
Matteo de Zamagna was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1762.
Michele de Zamagna was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Balthazar de Gozze in 1763.
Balthazar de Gozze was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Michele de Zamagna in 1763 and in 1777.
Nicolaus de Proculo was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1764.
Lucas de Giorgiis was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1765.
Antonius de Resti was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1767.
Savino de Giorgi was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1768.
Seraphin de Sorgo was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1769.

Marinus Natalis de Sorgo was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Joannes Raphaelle de Gozze in 1770.
Joannes Raphaelle de Gozze was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Marinus Natalis de Sorgo in 1770.
Nicolaus de Proculo was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1773.
Lucas de Giorgiis-Bona was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1774.
Martoliza de Bosdari was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1775.
Lucas de Zamagna was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1776.
Marinus de Georgi was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1797.
Joanes de Basilio was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Clemenes de Menze, Antonius Marinus de Caboga and
Matteo de Zamagna in 1798.
Clemenes de Menze was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Joanes de Basilio, Antonius Marinus de Caboga and
Matteo de Zamagna in 1798.
Antonius Marinus de Caboga was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Clemenes de Menze, Joanes de Basilio
and Matteo de Zamagna in 1798.
Matteo de Zamagna was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Clemenes de Menze, Antonius Marinus de Caboga
and Joanes de Basilio in 1798.
Raphael de Gozze was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Marinus de Bona in 1800.
Marinus de Bona was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with with Raphael de Gozze in 1800.
Franciscus de Gozze was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1801.
Matteo de Ghetaldi was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Martolizza de Cerva in 1802.
Martolizza de Cerva was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa jointly with Matteo de Ghetaldi in 1802.
Simone de Giorgi was the Rector (Head of State) of Republic of Ragusa in 1808 and from January 18 until January 29, 1814.
Afro-Bolivians
Afro-Bolivians are Bolivians of African ancestry, and therefore the descriptive "Afro-Bolivian" may refer to historical or cultural elements in
Bolivia thought to emanate from their community. It can also refer to the combining of African and other cultural elements found in Bolivian
society such as religion, music, language, the arts, and class culture. The Afro-Bolivians are recognized as one of the constituent ethnic groups of
Bolivia by the country's government, and are ceremonially led by a king who traces his descent back to a line of monarchs that reigned in Africa
during the medieval period.
List of Kings of Afro-Bolivians
Bonifacio Pinedo, also known as the Marqués de Pinedo of Bolivia (died 1962) was a king of Bolivia as the Afro Bolivian king. Born in the
tropical regions of Yungas in Bolivia, his monarchy is one of the few traditional African monarchies that has survived the vicissitudes of the
middle passage and subsequent slavery. He was the grandfather of the current king, Julio Pinedo. According to the story as told by Bonifacio
Pinedo, he was the oldest member of the Afro-Bolivian community, a direct descendant of a noble African tribe that resided in the Congo at a
time before France and Belgium colonized the region. In the colonial era, the dynasty was brought to the New World by the Spanish conquerors
as slaves.
Julio Pinedo (born 1953) is the ceremonial king of the Afro Bolivian people of the Nor Yungas province, crowned in 1992,
thirty years after the death of the previous king, his ancestor Bonifacio Pinedo. His position gained official recognition in 2007
when he was sworn in by the prefect of La Paz.

Rarotonga
Each island in the Cook Islands was ruled by a number of ariki (high chiefs). Rarotonga had about five or six, and most of the other islands had
about three. Each ariki ruled an ivi or ngati (tribe). Beneath each ariki in the social hierarchy were a number of mataiapo and rangatira (minor
chiefs) of noble rank. A chief's control over his people was related to his mana (power), which came not only from his birth but also from his
achievements and status, and could be gained or lost. An ariki who lost popularity with his people could also be seen as having a decline in
mana, which could have led to his loss of control. Having a control of tapu (sacred matters) was a powerful weapon for the ariki. For
supernatural reasons, certain activities were forbidden and since the ariki had control over what was or was not forbidden, this gave him
considerable power. It was the people's strong belief in an ariki's mana and control over all things tapu that allowed them to take control of their
people without the need for physical enforcement. The ariki, mataiapo and rangatira titles are passed down through the family to the present
day. Some of the ancient ceremonies and traditions are still being practiced in the Cook Islands. The House of Ariki (Are Ariki) is a
parliamentary body in the Cook Islands. It was established in 1967 shortly after self-government. It is composed of the Cook Islands high chiefs
and was created to marginalize the ariki, giving them dignity but very limited power. Rarotonga is the most populous island of the Cook Islands,
with a population of 13,095 (census 2011), out of the country's total population of 17,794. Rarotonga is divided into three main districts or vaka
(tribes). Te Au O Tonga on the northern side of the island (Avarua is the capital), Takitumu on the eastern and southern side and Puaikura on
the western side. On the other hand, the Island is also divided into 5 Land Districts. The Land District of Avarua is represented under vaka Te Au
O Tonga, The Land Districts of Matavera, Ngatangiia and Titikaveka are represented under vaka Takitumu and the Land District Arorangi is
represented under vaka Puaikura. Refer To Tapere, the lower subdivision of a Land District The Kingdom of Rarotonga, (Cook Islands
Māori: Mātāmuatanga Rarotonga) named after the island of Rarotonga, was an independent kingdom established in the present-day Cook
Islands in 1858. In 1888 it became aprotectorate of the United Kingdom by its own request, and in 1893 the name was changed to the Cook
Islands Federation.After the early conversion of a number of important ariki (high chiefs) support for Christianity increased rapidly throughout
the Southern Group. Working through the ariki the missionaries drew up draft legal codes which together with the abolition of violence as a
means of dispute settlement, led to unprecedented political stability. In 1881 theBritish Colonial Office decided that New Zealand interests in the
area needed some form of protection against foreign powers and the British Government granted a petition by local European traders and
planters for the appointment of an unpaid British Consul for the Hervey Islands, as the Southern Group was then known. In October 1885 the
Colonial Office accepted an offer by New Zealand, which was then a self-governing British colony, for New Zealand to pay for a British
Consul for Rarotonga on condition that he be nominated by New Zealand and act as the country's official agent. This "Resident" was also to act as
adviser to the ariki in drafting and administering laws and he would sign all acts of the local legislature in the name of the Governor of New
Zealand. He would also have the right to reject proposed legislation. In 1888 Queen Makea Takau formally petitioned the British to set up a
Protectorate to head off what she believed to be imminent invasion by the French. The British Government agreed to permit its then vice-consul
in Rarotonga to declare a Protectorate over the Southern Group islands to protect pro-British islanders and New Zealand trade. The Colonial
Office also decided that certain otherNorthern Group islands should be annexed for possible future use as trans-Pacific cable stations. In 1890 the
newly appointed British Resident, Frederick Moss, persuaded the ariki of Rarotonga to form a provisional Rarotongan legislature or General
Council, the first government for the entire island. The following year representatives of the ariki from Rarotonga and the Southern Group
islands agreed to form the first federal legislature in the islands. However the path through the last decade of the 19th century was far from
smooth and the numerous changes that took place were not well accepted by some ariki and members of the nobility.The British were reluctant
administrators and continued pressure was applied to them from New Zealand and from European residents of the islands to pass the Cook
Islands over to New Zealand. Ill feeling between the islanders and New Zealand reached a point where two ariki told the New Zealand
premier, Richard Seddon, that the traditional leaders wanted the Cook Islands to stay annexed to Great Britain. On September 27, 1900,
the Parliament of New Zealand approved the annexation of the islands to New Zealand and the following month the New Zealand
Governor, Lord Ranfurly, landed in Rarotonga. Without any discussion on its implications, the five ariki's and seven lesser chiefs signed a deed
of cession and the Cook Islands were annexed by New Zealand on 7 October 1900 without any debate or examination of its ramifications or
implications. On June 11, 1901 the boundaries of New Zealand were extended to include the Cook Islands, and the power of the ariki was
removed.
List of High Chiefs (title Ariki) of Rarotonga
List of Ariki (High Chiefs) of the dynasty Makea Nui (Great Makea), one of the three chiefdoms of the tribe Te Au O Tonga on
northern part of island of Rarotonga
Makea Te Rangi Tukivao was the Ariki (High Chief) of the dynasty Makea Nui (Great Makea), one of the three chiefdoms of the tribe Te
Au O Tonga on northern part of island of Rarotonga in the second half 18th century.
Rangi Makea was the Ariki (High Chief) of the dynasty Makea Nui (Great Makea), one of the three chiefdoms of the tribe Te Au O Tonga on
the northern part of island of Rarotonga in the second half 18th century.
Makea Te Patuakino was the Ariki (High Chief) of the dynasty Makea Nui (Great Makea), one of the three chiefdoms of the tribe Te Au O
Tonga on the northern part of island of Rarotonga in early 19th century.
Makea Pini was the Ariki (High Chief) of the dynasty Makea Nui (Great Makea), one of the three chiefdoms of the tribe Te Au O Tonga on
the northern part of island of Rarotonga jointly with Makea Ken in early 19th century.
Makea Ken was the Ariki (High Chief) of the dynasty Makea Nui (Great Makea), one of the three chiefdoms of the tribe Te Au O Tonga on
the northern part of island of Rarotonga jointly with Makea Pini in early 19th century.

Makea Tinirau was the Ariki (High Chief) of the dynasty Makea Nui (Great Makea), one of the three chiefdoms of the tribe Te Au O Tonga
on the northern part of island of Rarotonga jointly with Makea Tekao from ? until 1823.
Makea Tekao was the Ariki (High Chief) of the dynasty Makea Nui (Great Makea), one of the three chiefdoms of the tribe Te Au O Tonga on
the northern part of island of Rarotonga jointly with Makea Tinirau from ? until 1823.
Makea Pori (died October 28, 1839) was the Ariki (High Chief) of the dynasty Makea Nui (Great Makea), one of the three
chiefdoms of the tribe Te Au O Tonga on the northern part of island of Rarotonga from 1823 until his death on October 28,
1839 (jointly with Makea Karika II from 1823 until 1827). He succeeded his father Makea Tinirau Ariki after his death in
1823. In the same year, the English missionary John Williams arrived at Rarotonga, intending to convert the population to
Christianity. After agreeing to destroy their temple and the pagan idols of his tribe, Makea Pori Ariki was baptized in 1825. He
died on October 28, 1839 and was succeeded by his eldest son Makea Davida.
Makea Karika II was the Ariki (High Chief) of the dynasty Makea Nui (Great Makea), one of the three chiefdoms of the tribe Te Au O
Tonga on the northern part of island of island of Rarotonga jointly with Makea Pori from 1823 until around 1827.
Makea Davida was the Ariki (High Chief) of the dynasty Makea Nui (Great Makea), one of the three chiefdoms of the tribe Te Au O Tonga
on the northern part of island of Rarotonga jointly with Makea Pa from 1839 until 1849.
Makea Pawas the Ariki (High Chief) of the dynasty Makea Nui (Great Makea), one of the three chiefdoms of the tribe Te Au O Tonga on the
northern part of island of Rarotonga jointly with Makea Davida during 1840s.
Makea Te Vairua (died 1857) was the Ariki (High Chiefess) of the dynasty Makea Nui (Great Makea), one of the three chiefdoms of the tribe
Te Au O Tonga on the northern part of island of Rarotonga jointly with Makea Pori from 1849 until her death in 1857.
Makea Tuaiviwas the Ariki (High Chief) of the dynasty Makea Nui (Great Makea), one of the three chiefdoms of the tribe Te Au O Tonga on
the northern part of island of Rarotonga jointly with Makea Te Vairua around 1852.
Makea Daniela was the Ariki (High Chiefess) of the dynasty Makea Nui (Great Makea), one of the three chiefdoms of the tribe Te Au O
Tonga on the northern part of island of Rarotonga jointly with Makea Tavake from around 1857 until around 1866.
Makea Tavake (died 1890s) was the Ariki (High Chief) of the dynasty Makea Nui (Great Makea), one of the three chiefdoms of the tribe Te
Au O Tonga on the northern part of island of Rarotonga jointly with Makea Daniela from ? until around 1864, jointly with Makea Abera from
around 1864 until 1871 and with Makea Takau from 1868 until his death around 1890s.
Makea Abera(died 1871) was the Ariki (High Chief) of the dynasty Makea Nui (Great Makea), one of the three chiefdoms of the tribe Te Au
O Tonga on the northern part of island of Rarotonga jointly with Makea Pori from around 1866 until his death in 1871.
Makea Takau Ariki (1839 – 1911) was a sovereign of the Cook Islands. She was the ariki (High Chiefess)
of the dynasty Makea Nui (Great Makea), one of the three chiefdoms of the tribe Te Au O Tonga on the
northern part of island of Rarotonga from 1871 until her death on October 24, 1911. She succeeded her uncle
Makea Abera Ariki in 1871. Her reign lasted forty years during a crucial time in the history of Rarotonga and
the Cook Islands. It was under her reign that the Cook Islands became a British protectorate in 1888 before
being annexed to New Zealand in 1900. Makea Takau was adopted by her uncle, Makea Davida, her birth
mother was his sister, Makea Te Vaerua, Makea Takau's mother was the eldest daughter of Makea Pori Ariki.
Makea Davida, was ariki of Te Au O Tonga from 1839 until 1849 and succeeded by his sister, Te Vaerua, until
her death in 1857. She was succeeded by her younger brother Makea Daniela, until his death in 1866. He was
succeeded by another brother, Makea Abera (also spelled Abela), who was in office until his death in 1871. In
the 1860s she married Ngamaru Rongotini Ariki, one of the three high chiefs of Atiu and of the adjoining
islands of Mauke, and Mitiaro. The war-like Prince Consort, Ngamaru, was less civilized than she; it was his way
to threaten people who offended him, by making the "cannibal sign" at them—rapidly drawing his clenched fist
across his teeth; the significance being: "I will tear you with my teeth!". Prince Ngamaru Rongotini died in 1903.
According to Beatrice Grimshaw, a journalist from Ireland who visited in 1907, shortly after the death of Prince
Ngamaru, it seems that it was a happy marriage. "Their married life was a happy one, in spite of the prince's violent character, and when he died,
the widowed queen took all her splendid robes of velvet, silk, and satin gorgeously trimmed with gold, tore them in fragments, and cast them
into his grave, so that he might lie soft, as befitted the prince who had been loved so well by such a queen." France's armed takeover of Tahiti and
the Society Islands in 1843 caused considerable apprehension among the Cook Islands' ariki and led to requests from them to the British for
protection in the event of French attack. This nervousness continued for many years and the call for protection was repeated in 1865 in a petition
to Governor Grey of New Zealand. During the 1870s the Cook Islands enjoyed prosperity and peace under the authority of Queen Makea, Makea
Takau as she was known. A wily negotiator, she secured good prices for exports and cut the debts which had piled up before she became ariki. By
1882 four of the five ariki of Rarotonga were women. Since the sovereign of the British Empire was Queen Victoria, Makea probably found it
easier to achieve a paramount status. In 1888 she formally petitioned the British to set up a Protectorate to head off what she believed to be
imminent invasion by the French. The British were reluctant administrators and continued pressure was applied to them from New Zealand and
from European residents of the islands to pass the Cook Islands over to New Zealand. The first British Resident was Frederick Moss, a New
Zealand politician who tried to help the local chiefs form a central government. In 1898another New Zealander, Major W.E. Gudgeon, a veteran

of the New Zealand Wars, was made British Resident with the aim of paving the way for New Zealand to take over from Britain as part of the
expansionist ambitions of New Zealand's Prime Minister, Richard Seddon. This was not favored by Makea Takau who preferred the idea of being
annexed to Britain. One of the results of the British annexation was freedom of religion and a new influx of missionaries from different
denominations. The first Roman Catholic church was dedicated in 1896. After much maneuvering and politicking, the Cook Islands was
formally annexed by New Zealand on October 7, 1900 when a deed of cession was signed by five ariki and seven lesser chiefs without any debate
or examination of its ramifications or implications. In a shady park-like setting, in Avarua, are the Para O Tane Palace and its surrounding area,
the Taputapuatea marae. Named after a marae in the Society Islands, Taputapuatea was once the largest, most scared marae in Rarotonga. The
palace is where Makea Takau, signed the treaty accepting the Cook Islands' status as a British protectorate on tOctober 26, 1888. Beatrice
Grimshaw gives a brief description of the palace during her visit to Rarotonga in 1907. "We walked through the blazing hot sun of the tropic
afternoon, down the palm-shaded main street of Avarua town, to the great grassy enclosure that surrounds the palace of the queen. One enters
through a neat white gate; inside are one or two small houses, a number of palms and flowering bushes, and at the far end, a stately two-storeyed
building constructed of whitewashed concrete, with big railed-in verandahs, and handsome arched windows. This is Makea's palace, but her
visitors do not go there to look for her. In true South Sea Islander fashion, she keeps a house for show and one for use." The palace was reputedly
a lively place when Queen Makea was around in the 19th century. The building was a picturesque ruin for many years, and was closed to the
public, although officially it remained one of the island's main seats of power. In 1990 a group of Auckland University Students joined with local
volunteers inspired to rebuild the important structure. Over a period of 3 years the building was restored and is now largely as it was in its
heyday. After a prolonged illness, Queen Makea died at midnight on May 1, 1911. During her illness she was looked after by Doctor Perceval, the
Chief Medical Officer in Rarotonga. The Resident Commissioner, Captain J. Eman Smith, visited the Palace daily for several weeks and was with
her when she passed away. She was 72 years of age. Her body lay in state until Wednesday on May 3, 1911 and viewed by numbers of the
residents. She was buried in the family graveyard on the Palace grounds. Queen Makea named Rangi Makea as her successor. On the of October
24, 1911 he was installed as Ariki. The late Queen was head of Government and her successor did not receive a similar appointment, but was of
equal status to all the other Arikis.
Rangi Makea(died 1921) was the Ariki (High Chief) of the dynasty Makea Nui (Great Makea), one of the three chiefdoms of the tribe Te Au
O Tonga on the northern part of island of Rarotonga from 1911 until his death in 1921.
Makea Nui Tinirau Teremoana Ariki (died 1939) was the Ariki (High Chiefess) of the dynasty Makea Nui (Great Makea), one of the
three chiefdoms of the tribe Te Au O Tonga on the northern part of island of Rarotonga from 1921 until her death in 1939.
Makea Nui Takau Margaret Tinirau Rio Ariki (died 1947) was the Ariki (High Chiefess) of the dynasty Makea Nui (Great Makea),
one of the three chiefdoms of the tribe Te Au O Tonga on the northern part of island of Rarotonga from 1939 until her death in 1947.
Makea Nui Tapumanoanoa Teremoana Ariki (died 1994) was the Ariki (High Chiefess) of the dynasty Makea Nui (Great Makea),
one of the three chiefdoms of the tribe Te Au O Tonga on the northern part of island of Rarotonga from 1950 until her death in 1994.
Makea Karika Margaret (from December 31, 2011, Dame Makea Karika Margaret) (born 1919) is the Ariki (High
Chiefess) of the dynasty Makea Nui (Great Makea), one of the three chiefdoms of the tribe Te Au O Tonga on the northern
part of island of Rarotonga since 1996.
List of Ariki (High Chiefs) of the Pa dynasty, one of the two chiefdoms of the Takitumu tribe (The mist of the eastern) on the island
of Rarotonga
Pa Tepou Ariki (died 1855) was a sovereign of the Cook Islands. He was the ariki of the Pa dynasty, one of the two chiefdoms of the
Takitumu tribe on the island of Rarotonga in 19th century until his death in 1855.
Pa Upoko (also known as Mere Pa or Mary Pa) (died March 19, 1896) was a sovereign of the Cook Islands. She was the ariki
of the Pa dynasty, one of the two chiefdoms of the Takitumu tribe on the island of Rarotonga from 1855 until 1895. Pa Upoko
(also known as Mere Pa or Mary Pa) was the daughter of Pa Tepou Ariki. She succeeded her father after his death in 1855,
becoming the second female chieftainess in Rarotonga. She married Obura (also spelled Opura) in 1871, a missionary and son
of Maretu I, one of the first Christian converts in 1823. They had no children but adopted Pa Maretu and Pa Tetianui. The
following address of welcome was given by Pa Upoko Takau Ariki (Queen Pa) to Lord Glasgow, the Governor of New Zealand,
and his family who visited the Cook Islands in 1894. "Welcome, O son of Pa and Kainuku; welcome, O Governor of New
Zealand! Come and repose under the Pu-ara (screw-pine tree). Look round and see the vaka-nui (large canoes) Takitumu,
Puaikura, and Te Au-o-Tonga. The canoes are good, O, Ariki; let us live in peace! Welcome to the high-sided canoe of Takitumu; welcome our
son; let us thank the Lord in his goodness for thus bringing us together. Welcome! O, son; here are Pa and Kainuku, the Ariki of Takitumu, with
our chiefs, and all the people under us from Taakarua to Torea-iva, to receive you, your lady, family, and all who are with you! Welcome in the
love of friendship! Welcome!". Pa Upoko abdicated in 1895 due to old age and illness. She was the oldest recorded reigning chieftainess in
Rarotonga, having ruled for at least 40 years. She was succeeded by her adopted son, Pa Maretu. She died on Thursday on March 19, 1896. Pa
Upoko's husband, Obura, died in 1888. Her obituary said she had ruled her people with justice and care.
Pa Maretu Ariki (December 15, 1848 - February 7, 1906) was a sovereign of the Cook Islands. He was the ariki of the Pa
dynasty, one of the two chiefdoms of the Takitumu tribe on the island of Rarotonga from 1895 until his death on February 7,
1906. Pa Maretu was originally born at Aitutaki on the December 15, 1848, his father being Mataka, a Rarotongan native, and
his mother Maria, a native of Aitutaki. Shortly after his birth he was brought to Rarotonga, where he was adopted by Pa

Upoko (also known as Mere Pa or Mary Pa) the daughter of Pa Te Pou Ariki and her husband Obura, who was the son of Maretu I (1802–1880),
one of the first Christian converts in 1823. He was educated by European missionaries and taught native lore by the missionary Maretu. Pa
Maretu succeeded his adoptive mother Pa Upoko in 1895. He was appointed native missionary of Ngatangiia, and remained so until his death.
He married at an early age to Pati More, a woman of high rank, but they had no children. In 1901 he visited New Zealand, accompanying
Lieutenant colonel Walter Edward Gudgeon to welcome the Duke and Duchess of York to the colony. He was a member of the Federal Council
of the Cook Islands and of the Rarotonga Council. He was also a native judge of the High Court and of the Land Titles Court, and took a great
interest in the government of the islands. He was always of great assistance to Walter Edward Gudgeon in settling native disputes, and things in
general, as he was able to view things from a European and native standpoint. Pa Maretu retained the title until his death. He passed away on
February 7, 1906 after suffering from heart and lung afflictions for some weeks, he succumbed at last very quickly. He was buried on Friday
afternoon on February 9, 1906 and the funeral was officially attended by the Resident Commissioner and the Government officers. He was
succeeded by Pa Tetianui (also adopted by Pa Upoko) on February 16, 1906.
Pa Tetianui Arikiwas a sovereign of the Cook Islands. He was the ariki of the Pa dynasty, one of the two chiefdoms of the Takitumu tribe on
the island of Rarotonga in the first half 20th century.
Pa Tapaeru Marie Arikiis the Ariki (High Chief) of the dynasty Makea Nui (Great Makea), one of the three chiefdoms of
the tribe Takitumu (The mist of the eastern) on the island of Rarotonga since June 27, 1990.
Kainuku Kapiriterangi Ariki is the Ariki (High Chiefess) of the dynasty Makea Nui (Great Makea), one of the three
chiefdoms of the tribe Takitumu (The mist of the eastern) on the island of Rarotonga since May 6, 2006.
List of Ariki (High Chiefs) of the dynasty Makea Nui (Great Makea), one of the three chiefdoms of the tribe Puaikura (The mist of
the western) on the island of Rarotonga
Tinomana Napa was a sovereign of the Cook Islands. He was the ariki of the Tinomana dynasty, a chiefdom of the Puaikura tribe on the
island of Rarotonga.
Tinomana Ru was a sovereign of the Cook Islands. He was the ariki of the Tinomana dynasty, a chiefdom of the Puaikura tribe on the island
of Rarotonga.
Tinomana Temutu was a sovereign of the Cook Islands. He was the ariki of the Tinomana dynasty, a chiefdom of the Puaikura tribe on the
island of Rarotonga
Tinomana Au Te Ariki was a sovereign of the Cook Islands. He was the ariki of the Tinomana dynasty, a chiefdom of the Puaikura tribe
on the island of Rarotonga.
Tinomana Enuarurutiniwas a sovereign of the Cook Islands. He was the ariki of the Tinomana dynasty, a chiefdom of the Puaikura tribe
on the island of Rarotonga in 1823. Born in 1780 against, was the ariki in 1823, during the stay of John Williams in Rarotonga.
Tinomana Teariki Tapurangi (also known as Setepano, died 1868) was a sovereign of the Cook Islands. He was the ariki of the Tinomana
dynasty, a chiefdom of the Puaikura tribe on the island of Rarotonga from 1854 until his death in 1868.
Tinomana Makea Tamuera (died 1881) was a sovereign of the Cook Islands. He was the ariki of the Tinomana dynasty, a chiefdom of the
Puaikura tribe on the island of Rarotonga from 1868 until his death in 1881.
Tinomana Mereana Ariki (1848 - 1908) was a sovereign of the Cook Islands. She was the ariki of the Tinomana
dynasty, a chiefdom of the Puaikura tribe on the island of Rarotonga from 1881 until her death in 1908. She was the second
ariki of importance and position next to Makea Takau. Tinomana Mereana was the younger daughter of Tinomana Teariki
Tapurangi (also known as Setepano) and a granddaughter of Makea Te Vaerua on her mother's side, making her a niece or
cousin of Makea Takau. She succeeded her brother Tinomana Makea Tamuera after his death in 1881. She married Anglo-
American John Mortimer Salmon, a grandson of a Ramsgate sea captain, Thomas Dunnett. The high chiefs of Rarotonga did
not agree with their union at first, the couple had attempted to elope, but were caught and returned to Rarotonga, they were
eventually allowed to marry with Queen Makea's blessing at Atiu. Tinomana had five children with her husband, but all died
before her without issue. After a short illness, Tinomana Mereana Ariki died on the 5th of September 1908 at Para O Tane Palace. She was 60
years of age. She was buried on the 8th of September in the family graveyard at Queen Makea's Palace grounds. After her death, the title was
disputed between the three historic lines of the Tinomana family (Ngati Papehia - Ngati Napa - Ngati Tuoro), each line descending from one the
three wives of Tinomana Enuarurutini Ariki (ca. 1780–1854). "During the last few days friction has arisen amongst the kopu-ariki or ariki family
as to who, should succeed to the title. They were advised to hold a family meeting, and select one 1 of their number to fill the office. The Ngati
Tauei (Napa family) and Ngati Papehia held a family council, as advised, and invited the other family named Take (Tuoro family) to take part.
They refused, and allied themselves with the Mataiapos in hopes of one of their number being elected. The Ngati-Tauei and Ngati-Papehia
decided upon Napa as their candidate, and submitted his name for the approval of the Governor of New Zealand, for, according to regulations

dealing with these matters, the election of arikis, kavanas, and mataiapos must now have the approval of His Excellency. On the other hand, the
mataiapos, without referring the matter to the authorities, forthwith elected and anointed their ariki, choosing a young man named Tuoro, from
the Take family, thus by their action refusing to recognise the 'right of the Governor to approve of the ariki elected, at the same time
disregarding the ancient custom that had been observed for hundreds of years, which was that, in the event of electing an ariki for either the
district, or avarua, or arorangi, the approval of Pa Ariki and Kainuku Ariki had first to be obtained before the ceremony of anointing and
installation could take place." Finally she was succeeded by Tinomana Napa II. Near to the Arorangi Church, built in 1849, is the old residence of
Tinomana Mereana Ariki, Tinomana Palace, built for the Tinomana Ariki by the British. The traditional Māori name of the Palace is Au Maru,
which means "The Peace Brought by Christianity".
Tinomana Napa Ariki (died 1909) was a sovereign of the Cook Islands. He was the ariki of the Tinomana dynasty, a chiefdom of the
Puaikura tribe on the island of Rarotonga from 1808 until his death in 1809. His reign lasted just a few months. After his death the title passed to
another line.
Tinomana Pirangi (died 1915) was a sovereign of the Cook Islands. He was the ariki of the Tinomana dynasty, a chiefdom of the Puaikura
tribe on the island of Rarotonga from 1910 until his death in 1915.
Tinomana Ngataraiau (died 1916) was a sovereign of the Cook Islands. He was the ariki of the Tinomana dynasty, a chiefdom of the
Tinomana Tuor (died 1934) was a sovereign of the Cook Islands. She was the ariki of the Tinomana dynasty, a chiefdom of
the Puaikura tribe on the island of Rarotonga from 1916 until his death in 1934.
Tinomana Pirangi John (died 1948) was a sovereign of the Cook Islands. He was the ariki of the Tinomana dynasty, a chiefdom of the
Tinomana Tepai (died 1970) was a sovereign of the Cook Islands. He was the ariki of the Tinomana dynasty, a chiefdom of the Puaikura
tribe on the island of Rarotonga from 1848 until his death in 1970. After his death there was a succession dispute between the lines Te Pori /
Papehia, Oakirangi and Akaiti, decided that the three lines would follow one another in turn.
Tinomana Tauei Konitanitai Ariki Napa or Napa Constantin (died 1991) was a sovereign of the Cook Islands. He was the ariki of the
Tinomana dynasty, a chiefdom of the Puaikura tribe on the island of Rarotonga from 1975 until his death in 1991.
Tinomana Ruta Tuoro Ariki is the Ariki (High Chiefess) of the dynasty Makea Nui (Great Makea), one of the three
chiefdoms of the tribe Puaikura (The mist of the western) on the island of Rarotonga since 1991.
Mauke Island
Mauke (Ma'uke also Akatokamanava) is an island of the Cook Islands archipelago, lying in the central-southern Pacific Ocean. Its geography is
characterized by a central volcanic plateau, deep underground caves and lakes, as well as jagged fossilised coral which extends 1,000 metres
(3,300 ft) inland. Mauke has four districts: Areora, Makatea, Ngatiarua, and Vaimutu. It has a population of 300.
List of Cook Islands Ariki (High Chiefs) from Mauke Island
Tamuera Ariki is a Cook Islands Ariki (High Chief) from Mauke Island.
Tararo Temaeva Ariki is a Cook Islands Ariki (High Chief) from Mauke Island.
Te Au Marae Ariki is a Cook Islands Ariki (High Chief) from Mauke Island.
Mitiaro Island
Mitiaro, the fourth island in the Cook Islands group, is of volcanic origin. Standing in water 14,750 feet deep (4500 m) it is four miles (6.4 km)
across at its widest point. The native islanders had a pre-European history of harassment and subjugation by the warlike Atiuans, there were
significant deaths in the population. The island was discovered by missionary John Williams on June 20, 1823 who brought Christian beliefs and
encouraged the settlers to leave their original faith. The estimated population at that time was less than 100 inhabitants. During 1840s the island
was attacked again by Atiuans. On October 31, 1888 HMS Hyacinth commanded by Captain Bourke, hoisted the United Kingdom flag in the
island. It was later merged to the Cook Islands until its annexation to New Zealand in 1901.
List of Cook Islands Ariki (High Chiefs) from Mitiaro Island
Tou Travel Ariki is a Cook Islands Ariki (High Chief) from Mitiaro Island. He is currently president of the House of Ariki. He served as
President of the House of Ariki between 2002 and 2006, and again from 2008. He was most recently re-elected in December 2009.

Tetava Poitirere Ariki is a Cook Islands Ariki (High Chief) from Mitiaro Island.
Temaeu Teikamata Ariki is a Cook Islands Ariki (High Chief) from Mitiaro Island.
Pukapuka Island
Pukapuka is a coral atoll in the Cook Islands in the Pacific Ocean, with three small islets threaded on a reef that encloses a beautifully clear
lagoon. It is the most remote island of the Cook Islands, situated about 1140 kilometres northwest of Rarotonga.
Tāwaki was the Ariki (High Chief) of Pukapuka, coral atoll in the Cook Islands in the second half 18th century. On June 21, 1765 the British
Naval expedition under Commodore John Byron (Dolphin and Tamar) sighted the island. Byron gave the name "Islands of Danger" because of
the high surf that made it too dangerous to land. The name "Danger Island" still appears on some maps. According to oral tradition, an unknown
ship called at Pukapuka in the 18th century, and when the lineage chief Tāwaki boldly took the captain's pipe out of his mouth, he was shot.
(Tāwaki's grandson, Pania, and great-grandson, Vakaawi, protected the Aitutakian mission teacher, Luka, in 1857).
List of Ariki (High Chiefs) of Pukapuka
Pania was the Ariki (High Chief) of Pukapuka, coral atoll in the Cook Islands in the 19th century.
Vakaawi was the Ariki (High Chief) of Pukapuka, coral atoll in the Cook Islands in the 19th century.
Tetio Kaitara Pakitonga Paulo Paulo Ariki is the ceremonial Ariki (High Chief) of Pukapuka, coral atoll in the Cook Islands since
December 24, 2008.
Manihiki Island
Manihiki is an island in the Cook Islands known as the Island of Pearls. It is a triangular atoll 1,160 kilometres (720 mi) north of Rarotonga. It is
believed that Pedro Fernandes de Queirós discovered the island in 1606 and called it Gente Hermosa (Beautiful People). However, on 13 October
1822, when it was sighted by the U.S. ship Good Hope it was named Humphrey Island by captain Patrickson. In 1928 the whale ship Ganges
spotted the island and named it Great Ganges Island, as other whale ships named it Liderous, Gland, Sarah Scott and pescado. Despite repeated
renaming by explorers, the island now retains its aboriginal name. The name has two possible meanings: It's believed that the original name of
the island was Manuhiki, inspired by the aboriginal discovers Manu coming from the word Rua Manu (a kind of canoe) and Hiki meaning
ashore, so the literal translation would be canoe carried ashore. The second interpretation is that the original discoverers were from Manihi, an
island in Tuamotus, so the name of the island would mean Little Manihi. In 1889, a portion of the population opposed missionaries and made an
agreement with the French stationed in Tahiti to annex the island. In response a ship was sent but the missionaries on Manihiki hoisted the
British Flag, causing the ship to return to Tahiti without coming ashore. On August 9, 1889 the island was proclaimed a British protectorate by
Commander A. C. Clarke, captain of the HMS Espiegle. On the request of the Rarotongan Ariki, Manihiki was included in New Zealand's
boundaries in 1901. One of the Survivor: Cook Islands tribes was named Manihiki, but was dissolved soon after its formation. The island had
been claimed by the United States in 1822 but in 1980 the U.S. signed a treaty with the Cook Islands in which it recognized Cook Island
sovereignty over Manihiki and three other islands.
Cook Islands Ariki (High Chiefs) from Manihiki Island
Te Fakaheo Trainee Ariki is a Cook Islands Ariki (High Chief) from Manihiki Island.
Mangaia Island
Mangaia (traditionally known as A'ua'u Enua, which means terraced) is the most southerly of the Cook Islands and the second largest, after
Rarotonga. Geologists estimate the island is at least 18 million years old, making it the oldest in the Pacific. It rises 4750 m (15,600 ft) above the
ocean floor and has a land area of 51.8 km2. It has a central volcanic plateau and, like many of the southern Cook Islands, it is surrounded by a
high ring of cliffs of fossil coral 60 m (200 ft) high, known as the makatea. The highest point is Rangi-motia, 169 m above sea level, near the
centre of the island. Lake Tiriara is a body of fresh water in the south. The population of Mangaia comprises about 700 people. The capital is the
village of Oneroa, on the west coast, containing about half the population. There are two more villages, Tamarua in the south and Ivirua in the
northeast.
List of Ariki (High Chiefs) of the Numangatini dynasty, a chiefdom on the island of Mangaia
Numangatini Ariki(died 1878) was Ariki (High Chief) of the Numangatini dynasty, a chiefdom on the island of Mangaia in
the second half 19th century. He had two sons Tione (known as John) and Numangatini Tione Ariki (also known as John). Before
Missionaries had arrived on the island, his father was married to a Mangaian woman and had a son named Tavita. After the event
of Christianity Numangatini married a Rarotongan woman in a church wedding ceremony. The Missionaries didn't recognize
Tavita as rightful heir, on the excuse that he was not born in church wedlock. The opposition opposed Tione as heir, on the
grounds that he was part Rarotongan. Tavita, however, died before his father. On the death of Numangatini, in 1878, a district
chief installed No'oroa as ariki on the grounds that he was of senior descent, and full Mangaian.
Numangatini Tione Ariki was Ariki (High Chief) of the Numangatini dynasty, a chiefdom on the island of Mangaia
from 1878 until early 1900s. Tione (also known as John) was a son of Numangatini Ariki. Before Missionaries had arrived on
the island, his father was married to a Mangaian woman and had a son named Tavita. After the event of Christianity
Numangatini married a Rarotongan woman in a church wedding ceremony. The Missionaries didn't recognize Tavita as

rightful heir, on the excuse that he was not born in church wedlock. The opposition opposed Tione as heir, on the grounds that he was part
Rarotongan. Tavita, however, died before his father. On the death of Numangatini, in 1878, a district chief installed No'oroa as ariki on the
grounds that he was of senior descent, and full Mangaian. The seat of Numangatini was made ready for No'oroa, but Miringatangi, a bigotted
Church judge, as described by Frederick Moss, placed another chair besides that of No'oroa, his excuse was that Tione was the older man and an
uncle and felt sorry for him. When No'oroa was installed in his seat, Tione was sitting beside him. Thus a double-arikiship was created. Both
ruled, but Tione being the older and more dominant person wielded the greater influence. King John paid Her Majesty Queen Victoria a visit in
London. After his audience at Buckingham Palace he was careful to walk backwards and so continue facing the Queen. Victoria was so impressed
at his courtesy that she presented him with a Union Flag with her picture on it, and told him that Mangaia would from that day forward forever
be part of Great Britain.
Numangatini Davida-iti Arikiwas Ariki (High Chief) of the Numangatini dynasty, a chiefdom on the island of Mangaia in the first half
20th century.
Numangatini Nooroa Ariki is a Cook Islands Ariki (High Chief) from Mangaia Island.
Aitutaki Island
Aitutaki, also traditionally known as Araura, Ararau and Utataki, is one of the Cook Islands, north of Rarotonga. It has a population of
approximately 2,000. Aitutaki is the second most visited island of the Cook Islands. The main village is Arutanga (Arutunga) on the west side.
List of Ariki is a Cook Islands Ariki (High Chiefs) from Aitutaki Island
Manarangi Tutai Ariki is a Cook Islands Ariki (High Chief) from Aitutaki Island since 2000.
Tamatoa Purua Ariki is a Cook Islands Ariki (High Chief) from Aitutaki Island.
Vaeruarangi Teaukura Ariki is a Cook Islands Ariki (High Chief) from Aitutaki Island.
Atiu (Enuamanu) Island
Atiu, also known as Enuamanu (meaning land of the birds), is an island 187 km northeast of Rarotonga, in the Southern Islands group of the
Cook Islands Archipelago. Atiu is a raised volcanic island surrounded by a reef from which rise 6-m high cliffs of fossilized coral (makatea). The
makatea cliff forms a mile-wide ring round the island, creating a virtual plateau. Erosion at the innerside of the ring has formed dip of about 30
m into fertile land, which gradually rises again to a central 70-m high flat-topped hill.
List of Cook Islands Ariki (High Chief) from Atiu (Enuamanu) Island
Parua Mataio Kea Ariki is a Cook Islands Ariki (High Chief) from Atiu (Enuamanu) Island.
Rongomatane Ada Ariki is a Cook Islands Ariki (High Chief) from Atiu (Enuamanu) Island since 1972.
Ngamaru Henry Ariki is a Cook Islands Ariki (High Chief) from Atiu (Enuamanu) Island since 1995.
Funafuti
Funafuti is an atoll on which the capital of the island nation of Tuvalu is located. It has a population of 6,194 people, making it the most
populated atoll with 57.2 percent of Tuvalu. It is a narrow sweep of land between 20 and 400 metres (66 and 1,312 feet) wide, encircling a large
lagoon 18 km (11 miles) long and 14 km (9 miles) wide. With a surface of 275 square kilometres (106.2 sq mi), it is by far the largest lagoon in
Tuvalu. The land area of the 33 islets aggregates to 2.4 square kilometres (0.9 sq mi), less than one percent of the total area of the atoll. The
capital of Tuvalu is sometimes given as Fongafale or Vaiaku, but the entire atoll of Funafuti is officially the capital. As Funafuti is an atoll, cargo
ships can enter the lagoon and dock at the port facilities on Fongafale.The founding ancestor of the people of Funafuti is described as being
from Samoa. The name of one of the islets Funafala means 'the pandanus of Funa', the name of a chief, after whom also the atoll has been
named Funafuti. The first European to visit Funafuti was Arent Schuyler de Peyster, of New York, captain of the armed brigantine or privateer
Rebecca, sailing under British colours. Arent Schuyler de Peyster passed through the southern Tuvalu waters in May 1819 sighting Funafuti,
which he named Ellice's Island after an English Politician, Edward Ellice, the Member of Parliament for Coventry and the owner of the Rebecca's
cargo. The United States Exploring Expedition under Charles Wilkes visited Funafuti in 1841.The US claimed Funafuti under the Guano Islands
Act from the 19th century until a treaty of friendship was concluded in 1979, coming into effect in 1983. John (also known as Jack) O'Brien was
the first European to settle in Tuvalu, he became a trader on Funafuti in the 1850s. He married Salai, the daughter of the paramount chief of
Funafuti. Alfred Restieaux was a trader on Funafuti from July 1881. Thomas Andrew (photographer) visited Funafuti in about 1885-86. In 1892
Captain Davis of HMS Royalist, reported on trading activities and traders on each of the islands visited. Captain Davis identified Jack O'Brien as
being a trader on Funafuti. In 1894, Count Rudolph Festetics de Tolna, his wife Eila (née Haggin) and her daughter Blanche Haggin visited
Funafuti aboard the yacht Le Tolna. The Count spent several days photographing men and woman of Funafuti. The boreholes on Funafuti at the
site now called Darwin's Drill, are the result of drilling conducted by the Royal Society of London for the purpose of investigating whether traces
of shallow water organisms could be found at depth in the coral, as a test of Darwin's theory of coral atoll formation. Drilling occurred in 1896,
1897 and 1898. Professor Edgeworth David of the University of Sydney was a member of the 1896 expedition and was the leader of the 1897
expedition. Photographers on the expeditions recorded people, communities and scenes at Funafuti. Harry Clifford Fassett, captain's clerk and

photographer, recorded people, communities and scenes at Funafuti during a visit of USFC Albatross when the US Fish Commission was
investigating the formation of coral reefs on Pacific atolls. The population of Funafuti from 1860 to 1900 is estimated to be between 280 and 300
people.
List of Chiefs of Funafuti (title Aliki tupu) of Chiefdom of Funafuti
Telematua was the Chief (Aliki tupu) of Chiefdom of Funafuti.
Kaitosuga was the Chief (Aliki tupu) of Chiefdom of Funafuti.
Tailoa I was the Chief (Aliki tupu) of Chiefdom of Funafuti.
Tailoa II was the Chief (Aliki tupu) of Chiefdom of Funafuti.
Tepaolo was the Chief (Aliki tupu) of Chiefdom of Funafuti.
Salaika was the Chief (Aliki tupu) of Chiefdom of Funafuti.
Polau was the Chief (Aliki tupu) of Chiefdom of Funafuti.
Tauasa was the Chief (Aliki tupu) of Chiefdom of Funafuti.
Silimaiau was the Chief (Aliki tupu) of Chiefdom of Funafuti.
Tila was the Chief (Aliki tupu) of Chiefdom of Funafuti.
Sokomani was the Chief (Aliki tupu) of Chiefdom of Funafuti.
Talafou was the Chief (Aliki tupu) of Chiefdom of Funafuti.
Featule was the Chief (Aliki tupu) of Chiefdom of Funafuti.
Teleke was the Chief (Aliki tupu) of Chiefdom of Funafuti.
Matavai was the Chief (Aliki tupu) of Chiefdom of Funafuti.
Iakopo was the Chief (Aliki tupu) of Chiefdom of Funafuti.
Manu was the Chief (Aliki tupu) of Chiefdom of Funafuti.
Elia (died 1902) was the Chief (Aliki tupu) of Chiefdom of Funafuti from 1892 until his death in 1902.
Nanumea
Nanumea is the northwesternmost atoll in the Polynesian nation of Tuvalu, a group of nine coral atolls and islands spread over about 400 miles
(640 km) of Pacific Ocean just south of the equator and west of the International Date Line. Nanumea has 660 people on 4 km sq. The rich
mythical history of Nanumea describes settlement led by an explorer/adventurer and warrior from the south named Tefolaha. Some accounts
say Tefolaha and his crew came from Tonga, others name Samoa, but whether these names refer to today's Tonga and Samoa is not certain.
Tefolaha, traditional accounts say, found the island of Nanumea populated by two women, Pai and Vau, whom it was believed had formed it
from baskets of sand. Tefolaha wagered with them for the island and eventually won it through trickery, whereupon Pai and Vau departed.
Tefolaha's sons and daughters are today the founding ancestors of leading families and the seven chiefly lineages of Nanumea. Today's
population also traces descent from crew members who arrived with Tefolaha, and from later visitors from the far distant and more recent past.
Nanumean traditions describe the islets, Motu Foliki, Lafogaki and Te Afua-a-Taepoa, as being formed when sand spilled from the baskets of two
women, Pai and Vau, when they were forced off Nanumea by Tefolaha. The legendary, miracelous spear Kaumaile came with the hero Tefolaha
on the South Pacific island Nanumea. He fought with about 1.80 meters long weapon on the islands of Samoa and Tonga. As Tefolaha died, went
"Kaumaile" to his heirs, then to his heirs and on and on - 23 generations. It's about 880 years old and the tree was cut on Samoa. First recorded
sighting by Europeans of Nanumea was by Spanish naval officer Francisco Mourelle de la Rúa who sailed past it on May 5, 1781 with frigate La
Princesa, when attempting a southern crossing of the Pacific from the Philippines to New Spain. He charted Nanumea as San Augustin. In 1809
Captain Patterson in the brig Elizabeth sighted Nanumea while passing through the northern Tuvalu waters on a trading voyage from Port
Jackson, Sydney, Australia to China. From 1879 to 1881 Alfred Restieaux was the resident trader on Nanumea. 19th century resident Palagi
traders also included: Tom Day (c.1872) and Jack Buckland (c.1895). The population of Nanumea from 1860-1900 is estimated to be between 500
and 650 people. During World War II the American forces build an airfield on Nanumea, and the people moved to live on Lakena. USS LST-203

was grounded on the reef at Nanumea on October 2, 1943 in order to land equipment. The rusting hull of the ship remains on the reef. The
'American Passage' was blasted through the reef by a Naval Construction Battalion (Seabees), who were assisted by local divers. This passage
improved access to Nanumea. B-24 Liberator aircraft of 30th Bombardment Group flew from Nanumea Airfield. After the war the airfield was
dismantled and the land returned to its owners, however as the coral base was compacted to make the runway the land now provides poor
ground for growing coconuts.
List of High Chiefs (Ulu Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Nanumea
Taitai was the High Chief (Ulu Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Nanumea.
Tuinanumea was the High Chief (Ulu Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Nanumea from around 1865 until around 1869.
Lie was the High Chief (Ulu Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Nanumea from around 1870 until around 1876.
Manatu was the High Chief (Ulu Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Nanumea from around 1877 until around 1879.
Heiloa was the High Chief (Ulu Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Nanumea from around 1880 until around 1881.
Maheu was the High Chief (Ulu Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Nanumea from around 1882 until around 1883.
Tauila was the High Chief (Ulu Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Nanumea from around 1884 until around 1885.
Vaetolo was the High Chief (Ulu Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Nanumea from around 1886 until around 1895.
Niti was the High Chief (Ulu Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Nanumea from around 1896 until around 1903.
Pou was the High Chief (Ulu Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Nanumea from around 1904 until around 1905.
Tukia was the High Chief (Ulu Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Nanumea from around 1906 until around 1907.
Sosene was the High Chief (Ulu Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Nanumea from around 1908 until around 1917.
Metai was the High Chief (Ulu Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Nanumea from around 1918 until around 1928.
Malulu was the High Chief (Ulu Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Nanumea from around 1929 until around 1931.
Malesa was the High Chief (Ulu Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Nanumea from around 1931 until around 1936.
Maiau was the High Chief (Ulu Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Nanumea from 1936 until 1947.
Kaipati was the High Chief (Ulu Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Nanumea from1948 until 1951.
Hepikia was the High Chief (Ulu Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Nanumea in 1951 and from 1952 until 1953.
Esekia was the High Chief (Ulu Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Nanumea in 1952.
Samuela was the High Chief (Ulu Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Nanumea from 1954 until 1957.
List of Administrative Chiefs (Ariki Kaupule) of the Chiefdom of Nanumea
Takitua was the Administrative Chief (Ariki Kaupule) of the Chiefdom of Nanumea from 1958 until 1960.
Uini was the Administrative Chief (Ariki Kaupule) of the Chiefdom of Nanumea from 1961 until 1965.
Paitela was the Administrative Chief (Ariki Kaupule) of the Chiefdom of Nanumea in 1966.
Nanumanga
Nanumanga or Nanumaga is a reef island and a district of the Oceanian island nation of Tuvalu. It has a surface area of about 3 km² with a
population of almost 600. On May 9, 1824 a French government expedition under Captain Louis Isidore Duperrey of the ship La Coquille
sighted Nanumaga. Louis Becke, who later became a writer, became the resident trader for the Liverpool firm of John S. de Wolf and Co. on
Nanumaga from about April 1880 until the trading-station was destroyed later that year in a cyclone. Becke later wrote The Rangers of the Tia
Kau that describes a shark attack at the Tia Kau reef between Nanumea and Nanumaga. The population of Nanumaga from 1860–1900 is

estimated to be between 300 to 335 people. Nanumaga Post Office opened around 1925. In 1986 it became a centre of debate by Pacific
archaeologists who discovered the submerged Caves of Nanumanga, and found what they argued was the remains of fire created by pre-historic
inhabitants.
High Chief (Aliki tupui) of the Chiefdom of Nanumanga
Talivai Sovola is the High Chief (Aliki tupui) of the Chiefdom of Nanumanga.
Niutao
Niutao is a reef island in the northern part of Tuvalu. It is one of the nine districts (islands) of Tuvalu. It is also one of the three districts that
consist of only one island - not counting the three islets inside the closed lagoon. Niutao has a population of 663 (2002 census).
High Chief (Aliki tupui) of the Chiefdom of Niutao
Iosefa Lagafaoa is the High Chief (Aliki tupui) of the Chiefdom of Niutao.
Nui
Nui is an atoll and one of nine districts of the Pacific Ocean state of Tuvalu. It has a land area of 3.37 km² and a population of 548 (2002 census).
High Chief (Aliki tupui) of the Chiefdom of Nui
Falani Mekuli is the High Chief (Aliki tupui) of the Chiefdom of Nui.
Nukufetau
Nukufetau is an atoll that is part of the nation of Tuvalu. The atoll was claimed by the US under the Guano Islands Act some time in the 19th
century and was ceded in a treaty of friendship concluded in 1979 and coming into force in 1983. It has a population (2002 census) of 586 who
live on Savave islet. In 1951 the school that was located on Motumua islet was transferred to Savave and became the government primary school
for Nukufetau. It was named the Tutasi Memorial School in honour of its predecessor. The traditional history of Nukufetau is that a party of
Tongans were the first people to settle. When they landed they found only one fetau (or fetaʻu in Tongan) tree growing on the atoll, so they
called the place Nukufetau - the island of the fetau. They planted coconut trees and settled on Fale on the western side of the atoll. Arent
Schuyler de Peyster, of New York, captain of the armed brigantine or privateer Rebecca, sailing under British colours, passed through the
southern Tuvalu waters in May 1819 sighting Nukufetau. In 1820 the Russian explorer Mikhail Lazarev visited Nukufetau as commander of the
Mirny. The United States Exploring Expedition under Charles Wilkes visited Nukufetau in 1841. Louis Becke, who later became a writer,
operated a store on Nukufetau from February 1881 to August 1881. Becke later wrote a story about a fishing expedition: The Fisher Folk Of
Nukufetau. The population of Nukufetau from 1860-1900 is estimated to be 250 people. Alfred Restieaux was a trader on Nukufetau in the late
19th century from 1873 to 1879 and met his wife Litia. He returned sometime in the 1880s; in 1892 Captain Davis, of HMS Royalist, recorded
Alfred Restieaux and Emile Fenisot as trading on Nukufetau. Restieaux died on Nukufetau in 1911.
High Chief (Aliki tupui) of the Chiefdom of Nukufetau
Valoaga Fonotapu is the High Chief (Aliki tupui) of the Chiefdom of Nukufetau.
Nukulaelae

Nukulaelae is an atoll that is part of the nation of Tuvalu, and has a population (2002 census) of 393. It has the form of an oval and consists of at
least 15 islets. The inhabited islet is Fagaua, which is 1.5 kilometres long and 50 to 200 meters wide. The easternmost point of Tuvalu is Niuoko
islet. The Nukulaelae Conservation Area covers the eastern end of the lagoon. A baseline survey of marine life in the conservation zone was
conducted in 2010. The traditional history of Nukulaelae is that a white-skinned man was the first person to sight the island, but he did not settle
as there were no trees. Nukulaelae means 'the land of sands'. Later, according to tradition, Valoa from Vaitupu discovered Nukulaelae while on a
fishing expedition. He returned to Nukulaelae and planted coconut trees and eventually settled on Nukulaelae with his family. On the islet of
Tumuiloto was a malae named Fagafale where religious rights honouring ancestral spirits were practiced. On the islet of Niuoka is a large stone
at a place called Te Faleatua - 'the house of the gods.' In 1821 Nukulaelae was visited by Captain George Barrett of the Nantucket whaler
Independence II He named the atoll ‘Mitchell’s Group’. Christianity first came to Tuvalu in 1861 when Elekana, a deacon of a Congregational
church in Manihiki, Cook Islands became caught in a storm and drifted for 8 weeks before landing at Nukulaelae on May 10, 1861. The
population of Nukulaelae in 1860 is estimated to be 300 people. For less than a year between 1862–63, Peruvian ships, engaged in what became
to be called the "blackbirding" trade, came to the islands seeking recruits to fill the extreme labour shortage in Peru, including workers to mine
the guano deposits on the Chincha Islands. While some islander were voluntary recruits the "blackbirders" were notorious for enticing islanders
on to ships with tricks, such as pretending to be Christian missionaries. About 200 were taken from Nukulaelae as there were fewer than 100 of
the 300 recorded in 1861 as living on Nukulaelae. In 1865 a trading captain acting on behalf of the German firm of J.C. Godeffroy & Sohn
obtained a 25-year lease to the eastern islet of Niuoko. For many years the islanders and the Germans argued over the lease, including its the
terms and the importation of labourers, however the Germans remained until the lease expired in 1890. Nukulaelae Post Office opened around
1923. The atoll was claimed by the United States under the Guano Islands Act from the 19th century until 1983, when claims to the atoll were
ceded to Tuvalu.
High Chief (Aliki tupui) of the Chiefdom of Nukulaelae
Aifou Tafia is the High Chief (Aliki tupui) of the Chiefdom of Nukulaelae.
Vaitupu
Vaitupu is the largest atoll of the nation of Tuvalu. It is located at 7.48 degrees south and 178.83 degrees west. There are almost 1,600 people
living on 5.6 km2 with the main village being Asau. The exact date of Vaitupu's first settlement is unknown. According to oral history, the
founder of the Vaitupuan community was a Samoan by the name of Telematua, who arrived in the 16th or 17th century. However, it is possible
that Tongans may have first reached the atoll during the mid-13th century. Vaitupu has maintained contacts with Tonga throughout its history,
both peaceful (marriage alliances) and hostile (visits by Tongan slave-seekers). Vaitupu was also visited by I-Kiribati, and was thus far from
isolated. Vaitupu means 'the fountain of water'. Obed Starbuck, a whaling captain, visited Vaitupu on the Loper in 1825, naming it 'Tracy Island'.
The United States Exploring Expedition under Charles Wilkes visited Vaitupu in 1841. Samoan pastors from the London Missionary Society
successfully introduced Christianity in the 1860s. The pastors implemented religious regulations, outlawing many cultural practices. They also
introduced the Samoan language, as their Bibles were written in Samoan. Vaitupuans became literate in Samoan rather than in their own
language. Vaitupuans celebrate Te Aso Fiafia (Happy Day) on 25 November of each year. Te Aso Fiafia commemorates 25 November 1887
which was the date on which the final instalment of a debt of $13,000 was repaid to H. M. Ruge and Company, a German trading firm that
operated from Apia, Samoa. Vaitupu history is that Thomas William Williams, the Ruge agent, pretended to do his customers a favour by
allowing them to obtain goods on credit. In 1883 the debt of the Vaitupuans was $13,000 and H. M. Ruge and Company had threatened to seize
the entire island unless the debt was repaid. Neemia, a Vaitupuan pastor living in Samoa, returned and organised working parties to collect
coconuts and prepare copra to sell to pay off the debt, with Henry Nitz, the Webber & Co agent on Vaitupu, contributing money to meet the final
payment. The Vaitupuans, with the help of their friends from Funafuti, repaid the debt by the due date. Seven thousand dollars was repaid by
1886 and the balance was paid on November 25, 1887.
High Chief (Aliki tupui) of the Chiefdom of Vaitupu
Londoni Panapa is the High Chief (Aliki tupui) of the Chiefdom of Vaitupu.
Abemama (Apamama)
Abemama (Apamama), original name Roger Simpson Island, is an atoll, one of the Gilberts group in Kiribati, and is located 152 kilometres
southeast of Tarawa and just north of the Equator. Abemama has an area of 27.37 square kilometres and a population of 3,213 as of 2010. The
islets surround a deep lagoon. The eastern part of the atoll of Abemama is linked together by causeways making automobile traffic possible
between the different islets. The outlying islands of Abatiku and Biike are situated on the southwestern side of the atoll. The village of
Kariatebike serves as the government center for the atoll which includes an administration building, the police station and a hospital. Abemama
was formerly known as Roger Simpson Island, Dundas Island, Hopper Island, or Simpson Island.
List of Chiefs of Abemama (title Uea) of the Chiefdom of Abemama
Mangkia was the Chief (Uea) of the Chiefdom of Abemama.
Mwea was the Chief (Uea) of the Chiefdom of Abemama.
Teannaki was the Chief (Uea) of the Chiefdom of Abemama.

Tetabo was the Chief (Uea) of the Chiefdom of Abemama.
Namoriki was the Chief (Uea) of the Chiefdom of Abemama.
Karotu (1791 - died after1840) was the Chief (Uea) of the Chiefdom of Abemama from ? until 1840.
Tawaia (died 1850) was the Chief (Uea) of the Chiefdom of Abemama from 1840 until his death in 1850.
Baiteke was the Chief (Uea) of the Chiefdom of Abemama from 1850 until 1878.
Binoka (around 1838 - November 10, 1891) was the Chief (Uea) of the Chiefdom of Abemama from 1878 until his death on November 10,
1891.
Timon (Simon) (around 1840 - May 15, 1892) was the Regent of the Chiefdom of Abemama from November 10, 1891 until his death on May
15, 1892.
Paul Bauro I (1882 - 1895) was the Chief (Uea) of the Chiefdom of Abemama from May 1892 until his death in 1895.
John R. Tokatake was the Chief (Uea) of the Chiefdom of Abemama from arounnd 1895 until 1911.
Tekinaiti was the Chief (Uea) of the Chiefdom of Abemama from 1911 until 1944.
Taburimai was the Chief (Uea) of the Chiefdom of Abemama from 1944 until ?.
Butaritari
Butaritari is an atoll located in the Pacific Ocean island nation of Kiribati. It is the most fertile of the Gilbert Islands, with relatively good soils
(for an atoll) and high rainfall. Butaritari atoll has a land area of 13.49 km² and a population of 4,346 as of 2010. During World War II, Butaritari
was known by American forces as "Makin Atoll", and was the site of the Battle of Makin. Locally, Makin is the name of a separate atoll to the
Northeast of Butaritari.
List of Chiefs of Butaritari (title Uea) of the Chiefdom of Butaritari
Atanga was the Chief (Uea) of the Chiefdom of Butaritari.
Kakiaba was the Chief (Uea) of the Chiefdom of Butaritari.
Tetabakea was the Chief (Uea) of the Chiefdom of Butaritari.
Teauoki was the Chief (Uea) of the Chiefdom of Butaritari.
Teatumateatata was the Chief (Uea) of the Chiefdom of Butaritari.
Teitimaroroa was the Chief (Uea) of the Chiefdom of Butaritari.
Kaiea I was the Chief (Uea) of the Chiefdom of Butaritari.
Teitei was the Chief (Uea) of the Chiefdom of Butaritari.
Bakatokia was the Chief (Uea) of the Chiefdom of Butaritari.
Bureimoa was the Chief (Uea) of the Chiefdom of Butaritari.
Tabu (died 1912) was the Chief (Uea) of the Chiefdom of Butaritari from ? until his death in 1912.
Kaiea II (died 1954) was the Chief (Uea) of the Chiefdom of Butaritari from 1912 until his death in 1954.
Koriri (died 1959) was the Chief (Uea) of the Chiefdom of Butaritari from 1954 until his death in 1959.
Nan Uraura (died 1963) was the Chief (Uea) of the Chiefdom of Butaritari from 1959 until his death in 1963.

Fakaofo
Fakaofo, formerly known as Bowditch Island, is a South Pacific Ocean atoll located in the Tokelau Group. The actual land area is only about 3
km², consisting of islets on a coral reef surrounding a central lagoon of some 45 km². According to the 2006 census 483 people officially live on
Fakaofo (however just 370 were present at census night). Of those present 70% belong to the Congregational Church and 22% to the Catholic
Church.
List of Rulers (title Aliki) of the Chiefdom of Fakaofo
Letaiolo was the Chief (Aliki) of the Chiefdom of Fakaofo.
Poufau was the Chief (Aliki) of the Chiefdom of Fakaofo.
Taupe was the Chief (Aliki) of the Chiefdom of Fakaofo around 1841.
Havaiki I was the Chief (Aliki) of the Chiefdom of Fakaofo from 1846 until 1852.
Lika was the Chief (Aliki) of the Chiefdom of Fakaofo around 1858.
Longotahi was the Chief (Aliki) of the Chiefdom of Fakaofo around 1871.
Vaopuka was the Chief (Aliki) of the Chiefdom of Fakaofo from ? until May 1881.
Te Taulu was the Chief (Aliki) of the Chiefdom of Fakaofo from 1881 until 1890.
Tavita Te Fuli was the Chief (Aliki) of the Chiefdom of Fakaofo around 1892.
Ielemia Havaiki II was the Chief (Aliki) of the Chiefdom of Fakaofo from 1902 until February 29, 1916.
List of Chief Heads of Council (Faipule) of the Chiefdom of Fakaofo
Peniuto Semisi was the Chief Head of Council (Faipule) of the Chiefdom of Fakaofo from January 1987 until January 1996.
Falima Teao (born 1931) was the Chief Head of Council (Faipule) of the Chiefdom of Fakaofo from January 1996 until January 1999.
Kolouei O'Brien (born 1939) was the Chief Head of Council (Faipule) of the Chiefdom of Fakaofo from January 1999 until December 2007.
Foua Toloa is the Chief Head of Council (Faipule) of the Chiefdom of Fakaofo since January 2008.
Nukunonu
Nukunonu is the largest atoll within Tokelau, a dependency of New Zealand, in the south Pacific Ocean. It comprises 30 islets surrounding a
central lagoon, with about 5.5 km2 (2.1 sq mi) of land area and a lagoon surface area of 109 km2 (42 sq mi).
List of Rulers (title Aliki) of the Chiefdom of Nukunonu
Sunga was the Chief (Aliki) of the Chiefdom of Nukunonu.
Kakaia was the Chief (Aliki) of the Chiefdom of Nukunonu.
Ngala was the Chief (Aliki) of the Chiefdom of Nukunonu.
Ulua was the Chief (Aliki) of the Chiefdom of Nukunonu.
Falevai was the Chief (Aliki) of the Chiefdom of Nukunonu.
Takua was the Chief (Aliki) of the Chiefdom of Nukunonu from ? until February 29, 1916.
List of Chief Heads of Council (Faipule) of the Chiefdom of Nukunonu

Salesio Lui was the Chief Head of Council (Faipule) of the Chiefdom of Nukunonu from January 1990 until January 1996 and from January
2011 until 2014.
Pio Tuia (born 1943) was the Chief Head of Council (Faipule) of the Chiefdom of Nukunonu from January 1996
until January 2011.
Sio Perez is the Chief Head of Council (Faipule) of the Chiefdom of Nukunonu since 2014.
Atafu
Atafu, formerly known as the Duke of York Group is a group of 42 coral islets within Tokelau in the south Pacific Ocean, 500 km north of
Samoa. Covering 2.5 km², it is the smallest of the three islands that constitute Tokelau, and is composed of an atoll surrounding a central
lagoon, which itself covers some 15 km². The atoll lies some 800 kilometres south of the equator at 8° 35' South, 172° 30' West.
List of Rulers (title Aliki) of the Chiefdom of Atafu
Toniua was the Chief (Aliki) of the Chiefdom of Atafu.
Foli was the Chief (Aliki) of the Chiefdom of Atafu.
Tongia was the Chief (Aliki) of the Chiefdom of Atafu.
Fafie was the Chief (Aliki) of the Chiefdom of Atafu.
Tuilaka was the Chief (Aliki) of the Chiefdom of Atafu from ? until February 29, 1916.
List of Faipule (Chief Heads of Council) of the Chiefdom of Atafu
Kuresa Nasau was the Chief Head of Council (Faipule) of the Chiefdom of Atafu from January 1987 until January 1993, from January 1996
until 2003, from 2005 until January 2011 and currently since 2014.
Lepaio Simi was the Chief Head of Council (Faipule) of the Chiefdom of Atafu from January 1993 until January 1996.
Patuki Isaako was the Chief Head of Council (Faipule) of the Chiefdom of Atafu from 2003 until 2005.
Keli Kalolo was the Acting Chief Head of Council (Faipule) of the Chiefdom of Atafu from 2004 until 2005.
Kelihiano Kalolo (born 1946) was the Chief Head of Council (Faipule) of the Chiefdom of Atafu from January 2011 until 2014.
Koror (Oreor)
Palau is divided into two regions, Eoueldaob and Babeldaob (Babelthuap; dominated by one big island). The highest chief in Eoueldaob (and in
his own estimation in all Palau) is the Ibedul, the chief of Koror (Oreor) (ritual name Ngerekldeu); the highest chief in Babeldoab is the Reklai,
the chief of Melekeok (ritual name Ngetelngal), following an earlier line of chiefs with the style Tmekei. Koror is the state comprising the main
commercial centre of the Republic of Palau. It consists of several islands, the most prominent being Koror Island (also Oreor Island). The state
of Koror (population 14,000 as of 2004) contains about 70% of the population of the country. The nation's former capital and largest town, also
called Koror, is located here. The town has a population of 11,200 and is located at 7°21′38″N 134°28′45″ECoordinates: 7°21′38″N 134°28′45″E. On
October 7,2006, Ngerulmud replaced Koror as Palau's capital city. First sighting of Koror, Babeldaob, and Peleliu recorded by Westerners was by
the Spanish expedition of Ruy López de Villalobos at the end of January of 1543. They were then charted as Los Arrecifes (The Reefs in Spanish).
In November and December of 1710 these three islands were again visited and explored by the Spanish missionary expedition commanded by
Sargento Mayor Francisco Padilla on board of the patache Santísima Trinidad. Two years later they were explored in detail by the expedition of
Spanish naval officer Bernardo de Egoy.
List of Chiefs (title Ibedul) of the Chiefdom of Koror (Oreor)
Mlad ra ulekadei "ibedul re kerel" was the Chief (Ibedul) of the Chiefdom of Koror (Oreor) around 1710.
Kemangel ibedul was the Chief (Ibedul) of the Chiefdom of Koror (Oreor) in the first half 18th century.

Mlad reksom "mlad raksong" was the Chief (Ibedul) of the Chiefdom of Koror (Oreor) in the first half 18th century.
Bokelolom ngiragolival was the Chief (Ibedul) of the Chiefdom of Koror (Oreor) in the fsecond half 18th century.
Ngiraidid Chorot "mlad er a burek) (died 1791) was the Chief (Ibedul) of the Chiefdom of Koror (Oreor) from 1783 until his death in 1791.
Kingsos "King George" was the Chief (Ibedul) of the Chiefdom of Koror (Oreor) from 1791 until ?.
Ngiratachadong was the Chief (Ibedul) of the Chiefdom of Koror (Oreor) in the first half 19th century.
Meang Merikl "meringel a kemedil" was the Chief (Ibedul) of the Chiefdom of Koror (Oreor) in the first half 19th century.
Ngirachosarech "mlad er a soldau" (died 1867) was the Chief (Ibedul) of the Chiefdom of Koror (Oreor) from ? until his death in 1867.
Meresou was the Chief (Ibedul) of the Chiefdom of Koror (Oreor) from 1862 until 1872.
Ngirchokebai (around 1830 - 1911) was the Chief (Ibedul) of the Chiefdom of Koror (Oreor) from 1872 until ?.
Ilengelekei was the Chief (Ibedul) of the Chiefdom of Koror (Oreor) from 1883 until 1900.
Louch Semelemoch (died 1917) was the Chief (Ibedul) of the Chiefdom of Koror (Oreor) from 1911 until his death in 1917.
Tem was the Chief (Ibedul) of the Chiefdom of Koror (Oreor) from 1917 until January 29, 1939.
Ngiraked was the Chief (Ibedul) of the Chiefdom of Koror (Oreor) from 1939 until ?.
Mariur (died 1956) was the Chief (Ibedul) of the Chiefdom of Koror (Oreor) from 1950 until his death in 1956.
Ngoriakl (1917 - 1972) was the Chief (Ibedul) of the Chiefdom of Koror (Oreor) from 1956 until his death in 1972.
Yutaka Miller Gibbons (born 1944) is the Chief (Ibedul) of the Chiefdom of Koror (Oreor) since 1972.
Takeo Yano was the Acting Chief (Ibedul) of the Chiefdom of Koror (Oreor) from 1972 until 1973.
Gloria Gibbons (born 1950) was the Acting Chief (Ibedul) of the Chiefdom of Koror (Oreor) in 1973.
Babeldaob
Babeldaob (also Babelthuap) is the largest island in the islands nation of the Republic of Palau. It is in the eastern Caroline Islands Archipelago,
and the second largest island in the Micronesia region of Oceania. Palau's capital, Ngerulmud, is located on Babeldaob, in Melekeok State.
Babeldaob is one of the most undeveloped populated islands in the Pacific Ocean, even though it is the second largest island in Micronesia (only
Guam is larger in area). The area of Babeldaob, 331 km² (128 mi²), makes up over 70% of the area of the entire Republic of Palau. It has about
30% of the country's population, with about 6,000 people living on it.First sighting of Babeldaob, Koror and Peleliu recorded by Europeans was
by the Spanish expedition of Ruy López de Villalobos at the end of January of 1543. They were then charted as Los Arrecifes ("The Reefs" in
Spanish).[2] In November and December of 1710 these three islands were again visited and explored by the Spanish missionary expedition
commanded by Sargento Mayor Francisco Padilla on board of the patache Santísima Trinidad. Two years later they were explored in detail by
the expedition of Spanish naval officer Bernardo de Egoy.[3] It was in the Spanish East Indies from 1686 to 1899. Babeldaob was the location to
which 426 members of the Sokehs tribe were banished by the German Empire following the Sokehs Rebellion on Sokehs Island and Pohnpei in
German New Guinea. Imperial Japan, as a League of Nations mandatory power after World War I, administered the return of the Sokehs in
stages between 1917 and 1927. During World War II a Japanese garrison on Babeldaob was composed of 21,449 Imperial Japanese Army men
under the command of Lieutenant-General Sadae Inoue and 8,286 Imperial Japanese Navy men under the command of Vice-Admiral Kenmi
Itoh. Babeldaob was bypassed by the Allied forces during the war.
List of Chiefs (title Reklai) of the Chiefdom of Babeldaob
Tangesechel was the Chief (Reklai) of the Chiefdom of Babeldaob in the first half 18th century.
Orakiruu was the Chief (Reklai) of the Chiefdom of Babeldaob in the first half 18yh century.
Omekerall was the Chief (Reklai) of the Chiefdom of Babeldaob in the second half 18th century.
Busechesuch was the Chief (Reklai) of the Chiefdom of Babeldaob in the second half 18th century.

Cheltuk was the Chief (Reklai) of the Chiefdom of Babeldaob in the first half 19th century.
Okerangel (died 1862) was the Chief (Reklai) of the Chiefdom of Babeldaob from ? until his death in 1862.
Temol was the Chief (Reklai) of the Chiefdom of Babeldaob from 1880 until 1890.
Ngirachermang was the Chief (Reklai) of the Chiefdom of Babeldaob in late 19th century.
Soilokel was the Chief (Reklai) of the Chiefdom of Babeldaob in late half 19th century.
Ngiratrang was the Chief (Reklai) of the Chiefdom of Babeldaob in early 20th century.
Ruluked (Rrull) was the Chief (Reklai) of the Chiefdom of Babeldaob from ? until 1914.
Tellei was the Chief (Reklai) of the Chiefdom of Babeldaob from 1914 until 1934.
Rekewis Brel was the Chief (Reklai) of the Chiefdom of Babeldaob from 1934 until 1960.
Ngiratelbadel Lomisang (died 1970s) was the Chief (Reklai) of the Chiefdom of Babeldaob from 1968 until 1973.
Eusevio Nguakl Termeteet (1914 - 1989) was the Acting Chief (Reklai) of the Chiefdom of Babeldaob from 1974 until 1980.
Siangeldeb Basilius (1918 - 1992) was the Chief (Reklai) of the Chiefdom of Babeldaob from 1983 until his death in 1992.
Raphael Bao Ngirmang (born 1932) is the Chief (Reklai) of the Chiefdom of Babeldaob since 1993.
Monarch of Nauru
Aweida (born Aweijeda, 1850, Boe, Nauru -1921, Gabab Channel, Nauru) was a monarch in the Pacific nation of Nauru
from ? until 1887 and from 1888 until his death in 1921. Before Nauru came under European rule, it was governed by a
king who made laws that were enforced by local chiefs. When Germany annexed Nauru to German New Guinea,
Aweida retained his sovereignty as king and remained the chieftain of the Nauruan people, although very little else is
known about him. Aweijeda was born to Chief Jim and his wife, Eidingab of the Emea tribe. His first marriage was to a
chieftain's daughter, Eibinua of the Eamwit tribe from Bush village. They had several children. After Eibinua died,
Aweijeda re-married, this time to Eidukiri, also of the Eamwit tribe but they had no children. In the second photograph,
King Aweida is wearing the top hat. His wife, Ebinua, the chiefly woman, is wearing a white robe. This photograph is
the right hand image of a stereoscopic pair.
List of Head Chiefs of the Council of Chiefs of Nauru
Daimon was the Head Chief of the Council of Chiefs of Nauru from 1927 until 1931.
Timothy Detudamo (died 1953) was the Head Chief of the Council of Chiefs of Nauru from 1931 until 1951 and Head Chief of the Local
Government Council of Nauru from 1951 until his death in 1953. From 1942 until June 30, 1943 he was "Governor of the Nauruans"; in Truk,
Micronesia exile.
Head Chief of the Local Government Council of Nauru
Raymond Gadabu (died 1964) was the Head Chief of the Local Government Council of Nauru from 1953 until December 1955.

Niue
This is a list of monarchs who have reigned over the Pacific island of Niue. The island today is a self-governing territory in free association with
New Zealand, and recognises the Queen of New Zealand as monarch. Before this, however, the island previously had an indigenous monarchy,
established around the beginning of the 18th century. Before that time, there appears to have been no national government or national leader in
Niue. Chiefs and heads of family exercised authority over segments of the population. Around 1700, the concept and practice of kingship
appears to have been introduced through contact with Samoa or Tonga. From then on, a succession of patu-iki (kings) ruled the island, the first
of whom was Puni-mata. The function of monarch was non-hereditary; patu-iki were reportedly elected by the Niuean population, with the
candidates being issued from influential families. As described by Stephenson Percy Smith in 1903, Niue appears therefore to have been a
democratic elective monarchy.
List of Kings (title Patu-iki) of Niue
Tihamau was the King (Patu-Iki) of Niue around 1650.
Tepunua Mutalau was the King (Patu-Iki) of Niue in the second half 17th century.
Leivalu was the King (Patu-Iki) of Niue in the second half 17th century.
Hetalangi was the King (Patu-Iki) of Niue in the second half 17th century.
Fakahinaiki was the King (Patu-Iki) of Niue in the second half 17th century.
Punimata was the King (Patu-Iki) of Niue in the first half 18th century. His death, of old age, was followed by an interregnum of significant
but indeterminate length.
Ihunga was the King (Patu-Iki) of Niue in the second half 18th century.
Patuavalu was the King (Patu-Iki) of Niue in the 19th century. He was nominated for kingship by the population's elected choice, Tage-lagi,
who declined the position and opted instead to be Patua-valu's lifelong bodyguard. Patua-valu died of old age.
Ngaliangaaiki (Galiga) also known as Galiaga-a-Iki and Galiaga of Palūki was the King (Patu-Iki) of Niue in the 19th century. This patu-iki
was murdered by a person called Tikomata. Following his death, Fakana-iki and Hetalaga vied to replace him, but failed to secure the approval
of the population. Foki-mata eventually became the fourth patu-iki instead. He was the last king elected in times of peace.
Fokimata was the King (Patu-Iki) of Niue in the second half 19th century. Foki-mata eventually became the fourth patu-iki instead. He was the
last king elected in times of peace.
Pakieto (died 1875) was the King (Patu-Iki) of Niue from 1874 until his death in 1875. He was patu-iki for only a year. Following his death, a
war of succession occurred. He was one of the Tama-lagau people.
Mataio Tuitonga also known as Ta-tagata (died June 13, 1887) was the King (Patu-Iki) of Niue from March 2, 1876 until his death on June
13, 1887. He was the first Christian King of Niue.
Fataaiki (died December 15, 1896) was the King (Patu-Iki) of Niue from 1887 (de facto), from November 21, 1888 (de jure) until his death on
December 15, 1896. He was anointed on November 21, 1888, although he began ruling the island the previous year, following the death of his
predecessor, Tui-toga. One of his first acts as patu-iki, in 1887, was to write a letter to the British monarch Queen Victoria, requesting that Niue
become a protectorate of the British Empire, so as to prevent annexation by another colonial power. His letter read: "We the chiefs and rulers and
governors of Niue-Fekai desire to pray Your Majesty and Your Majesty's Kingdom, if it be your pleasure to stretch out towards us your mighty
hand that Niue may hide herself in it and be safe." The letter was not answered, and King Fata-a-iki repeated his request in 1895, to no avail.
Tongia Puluteaki(died 1917) was the King (Patu-Iki) of Niue from 1896 (de facto), from June 30, 1898 (de jure) until his death in 1917. He
was taking power in 1896 following the death of the previous incumbent, Fata-a-iki, and formally ordained on June 30, 1898. Under Togia-Pule-
toaki's reign, laws were adopted forbidding the sale of Niuean lands to foreigners, and the sale of liquor to Niueans. His reign saw the formal
relinquishing of Niuen independence to the British Empire on April 21, 1900 after several failed attempts by his predecessor to make Niue a
protectorate of the British Empire, and, on September 11, 1900, Togia-Pulu-toaki formally welcomed a resident representative of the imperial
government to the island. Togia-Pule-toaki remained alive in Niue in 1903, when Stephenson Percy Smith published his study on the island,
Niuē-fekai (or Savage) Island and its People. It remains uncertain if the title of patu-iki was succeeded after his death, or if it was allowed to lapse.
New Caledonia

New Caledonia (French: Nouvelle-Calédonie) is a special collectivity of France located in the southwest Pacific Ocean, 1,210 km (750 mi) east of
Australia and 16,136 km (10,026 mi) east of Metropolitan France. The archipelago, part of the Melanesia subregion, includes the main island of
Grande Terre, the Loyalty Islands, the Chesterfield Islands, the Belep archipelago, the Isle of Pines, and a few remote islets. The Chesterfield
Islands are in the Coral Sea. Locals refer to Grande Terre as "Le Caillou" ("the stone"). The earliest traces of human presence in New Caledonia
date back to the Lapita period. The Lapita were highly skilled navigators and agriculturists with influence over a large area of the Pacific. Two
Kanak warriors posing with penis gourds and spears, around 1880 British explorer Captain James Cook was the first European to sight New
Caledonia, on September 4, 1774, during his second voyage. He named it "New Caledonia", as the north-east of the island reminded him of
Scotland. The west coast of Grande Terre was approached by Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse in 1788, shortly before his
disappearance, and the Loyalty Islands were first visited in 1796.[10] From then until 1840, only a few sporadic contacts with the archipelago
were recorded.[10] Contacts became more frequent after 1840, because of the interest in sandalwood from New Caledonia. As trade in
sandalwood declined, it was replaced by a new form of trade, "blackbirding", a euphemism for enslaving people from New Caledonia, the Loyalty
Islands, New Hebrides, New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands to work in sugarcane plantations in Fiji and Queensland. The trade ceased at the
start of the 20th century. The victims of this trade were called 'Kanakas' like all the Oceanian people, after the Hawaiian word for 'man'. The first
missionaries from the London Missionary Society and the Marist Brothers arrived in the 1840s. In 1849, the crew of the American ship Cutter
was killed and eaten by the Pouma clan. Cannibalism was widespread throughout New Caledonia. On September 24, 1853, under orders from
Napoleon III, Admiral Febvrier Despointes took formal possession of New Caledonia and Port-de-France (Nouméa) was founded June 25, 1854. A
few dozen free settlers settled on the west coast in the following years. New Caledonia became a penal colony, and from the 1860s until the end
of the transportations in 1897, about 22,000 criminals and political prisoners were sent to New Caledonia, among them many Communards
arrested after the failed Paris Commune, including Henri de Rochefort and Louise Michel. Between 1873 and 1876, 4,200 political prisoners were
"relegated" in New Caledonia. Only 40 of them settled in the colony; the rest returned to France after being granted amnesty in 1879 and 1880.
In 1864, nickel was discovered on the banks of the Diahot River and with the establishment of the Société Le Nickel in 1876, mining began in
earnest. The French imported labourers to work in the mines, first from neighbouring islands, then from Japan, the Dutch East Indies, and
French Indochina. The French government also attempted to encourage European immigration, without much success. The indigenous
population was excluded from the French economy, even as workers in the mines, and they were ultimately confined to reservations. This
sparked a violent reaction in 1878 as High Chief Atal of La Foa managed to unite many of the central tribes and launched a guerrilla war which
cost 200 Frenchmen and 1,000 Kanaks their lives. The Europeans brought new diseases such as smallpox and measles. Many people died as a
result of these diseases. The Kanak population declined from around 60,000 in 1878 to 27,100 in 1921, and their numbers did not increase again
until the 1930s.
List of Grand chefs (High Chiefs) of the New Caledonia (Isle of Pines)
Waweya Vendégou I was the Grand Chief (High Chief) of the New Caledonia (Isle of Pines) in the first half 18th century.
Konyii Vendégou II was the Grand Chief (High Chief) of the New Caledonia (Isle of Pines) in the first half 18th century.
Keewa Vendégou III was the Grand Chief (High Chief) of the New Caledonia (Isle of Pines) in the second half 18th century.
Toorou Vendégou IV (Kwattè Micüwaét, died 1775) was the Grand Chief (High Chief) of the New Caledonia (Isle of Pines) from ? until his
death in 1775.
Ouatchium(Wacumé) (died 1850) was the Grand Chief (High Chief) of the New Caledonia (Isle of Pines) from 1775 until his death in 1850.
Kadua Vendégou V (Këëwa Vâdëku) ("Louis-Philippe")(around 1821 - May 30, 1855) was the Grand Chief (High Chief) of the New
Caledonia (Isle of Pines) from 1850 until his death on May 30, 1855.
Kanejö ("Hortense") Vendégou VI (1848 - 1900) was the Grand Chief (High Chief) of the New Caledonia (Isle of Pines) from May 30,
1855 until her death on April 23, 1883.
Jerome Vendégou was the Grand Chief (High Chief) of the New Caledonia (Isle of Pines) from May 30, 1855 until 1870.
Philippo Vendégou was the Regent of the New Caledonia (Isle of Pines) from May 30, 1855 until 1870.
Samuel Kwaneye Vendégou VII (died July 1882) was the Grand Chief (High Chief) of the New Caledonia (Isle of Pines) from 1870 until
his death in July 1882.
Abel (1840 - 1926) was the Grand Chief (High Chief) of the New Caledonia (Isle of Pines) from 1883 until his death in 1926.
Samuel Trouro was the Grand Chief (High Chief) of the New Caledonia (Isle of Pines) from 1926 until 1927.
Barthélémy Vendégou VIII (1903 - June 20, 1974) was the Grand Chief (High Chief) of the New Caledonia (Isle of Pines) from 1927 until
his death on June 20, 1974.
Jean-Marie Vendégou (died September 26, 1976) was the Grand Chief (High Chief) of the New Caledonia (Isle of Pines) (in rebelion) from
September 1974 until his death on September 26, 1976.
Hilarion Tumi Vendégou (born September 4, 1941, Isle of Pines) is the present high chief of the Isle of Pines, in New
Caledonia since 1974 , and the incumbent mayor the commune L'Île-des-Pins since 1989. He was recognised as grand chef in

1974, but, due to a violent succession dispute with his relative Jean-Marie Vendégou, was not formally enthroned until later, on July 7, 1979. He
is also the incumbent mayor of the island commune, until 2014.
Madolenihmw
Madolenihmw is one of the administrative divisions and former Chiefdom of the Micronesian island of Pohnpei. It is located in the central east
of the island, to the east of Mount Nahna Laud and south of Mount Kapwuriso. The coast of Madolenihmw includes a large bay which contains
the island of Temwen, famous for its Nan Madol ruins.
Chief (title Sau Deleur) of the Chiefdom of Madolenihmw
San Memuo was the Chief (Sau Deleur) of the Chiefdom of Madolenihmw from ? until 1628.
List of Chiefs (title Nahnmwarki, alternate title Isipau) of the Chiefdom of Madolenihmw
Isohkelekel "the Liberator" was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Isipau) of the Chiefdom of Madolenihmw from 1628 until ?.
Musei Maur was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Isipau) of the Chiefdom of Madolenihmw in the second half 17th century.
Luhkenmalada was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Isipau) of the Chiefdom of Madolenihmw in the 18th century.
Luhkenkasik was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Isipau) of the Chiefdom of Madolenihmw from ? until 1836.
Luhkenkidu (died 1854) was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Isipau) of the Chiefdom of Madolenihmw from 1836 until his death in 1854.
Luhkenmweiu (died June 5, 1855) was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Isipau) of the Chiefdom of Madolenihmw from September 1854 until his
death on June 5, 1855.
Paul was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Isipau) of the Chiefdom of Madolenihmw from 1855 until 1896.
Hezekiah was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Isipau) of the Chiefdom of Madolenihmw in the late 19th century.
Solomon was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Isipau) of the Chiefdom of Madolenihmw in early 20th century.
Alexander was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Isipau) of the Chiefdom of Madolenihmw in the first half 20th century.
Moses Hadley (1894 - 1966) was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Isipau) of the Chiefdom of Madolenihmw from 1932 until his death in 1966.
Samuel Hadley (died May 1980) was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Isipau) of the Chiefdom of Madolenihmw from 1966 until his death in May
1980.
Salter Salvador Hadley (1924 - May 31, 1990) was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Isipau) of the Chiefdom of Madolenihmw from 1980 until his
death on May 31, 1990.
Kerpet Hebel is the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Isipau) of the Chiefdom of Madolenihmw since 2009.
U (Uh)
U also written Uh, is one of the administrative divisions and Chiefdom of Pohnpei State, Federated States of Micronesia. U bears the shortest
place name in the Federated States of Micronesia, and one of the shortest in the world.
List of Chiefs (Nahnmwarki, Sangoro) of the Chiefdom of U (Uh)
Luhkenmusei was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Sangoro) of the Chiefdom of U (Uh).
Eluit was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Sangoro) of the Chiefdom of U (Uh).
Edmond was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Sangoro) of the Chiefdom of U (Uh) from 1953 until 1960.

Johnny Moses (1900 - September 30, 1991) was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Sangoro) of the Chiefdom of U (Uh) from 1960 until his death on
September 30, 1991.
Manasa Edgar (died November 3, 1999) was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Sangoro) of the Chiefdom of U (Uh) from early 1990s until his death
on November 3, 1999.
Welter John is the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Sangoro) of the Chiefdom of U (Uh) since 1999.
Kitti
Kitti also written as Kiti, is one of the twelve administrative divisions and Chiefdom of the Micronesian island of Pohnpei. it is located in the
southwest of the island, to the south of Mount Nanlaud.
List of Chiefs (title Nahnmwarki, alternate title Soukiseleng) of the Chiefdom of Kitti
Luhkenmweimwahu(Penena) (died 1852) was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Soukiseleng) of the Chiefdom of Kitti from around 1840 until his
death in 1852.
Hezekiah was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Soukiseleng) of the Chiefdom of Kitti from 1852 until ?.
Mikel (Mensile) was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Soukiseleng) of the Chiefdom of Kitti in the second half 19th century.
Paul was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Soukiseleng) of the Chiefdom of Kitti in the first half 20th century.
Sigismundo was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Soukiseleng) of the Chiefdom of Kitti around middle 20th century.
Benito was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Soukiseleng) of the Chiefdom of Kitti in the second from 1965 until 1968.
Albert Domsin (died 1972) was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Soukiseleng) of the Chiefdom of Kitti from 1968 until his death in 1972.
Benido Peter (1928 - February 1, 1992) was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Soukiseleng) of the Chiefdom of Kitti from 1972 until his death on
February 1, 1992.
Weldemar Thomson (October 8, 1996) was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Soukiseleng) of the Chiefdom of Kitti from around 1992 until his
death on October 8, 1996.
Ropohl Luhk was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Soukiseleng) of the Chiefdom of Kitti from 1996 until ?.
Bernard Ioakim (died 2000) was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Soukiseleng) of the Chiefdom of Kitti from ? until his death in 2000.
Alter Paul is the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Soukiseleng) of the Chiefdom of Kitti since 2000.
Pingelap
Pingelap is an atoll and Chiefdom in the Pacific Ocean, part of Pohnpei State of the Federated States of Micronesia, consisting of three islands:
Pingelap Island, Sukoru and Daekae, linked by a reef system and surrounding a central lagoon, although only Pingelap Island is inhabited. The
entire system has a land area of 1.8 km² (455 acres) at high-tide, and is less than 2.5 miles (4.0 km) at its widest point.[2] The atoll has its own
language, Pingelapese, spoken by most of the atoll's 250 residents.
List of Chiefs (title Nahnmwarki) of the Chiefdom of Pingelap
Iengirsandeir was the Chief (Nahnmwarki) of the Chiefdom of Pingelap.
Pakispok was the Chief (Nahnmwarki) of the Chiefdom of Pingelap.
Naniok was the Chief (Nahnmwarki) of the Chiefdom of Pingelap.
Mwungesamarou (died around 1750) was the Chief (Nahnmwarki) of the Chiefdom of Pingelap in the first half 18th century.
Semenuhwe (died during 1770's) was the Chief (Nahnmwarki) of the Chiefdom of Pingelap from 1750 until his death in 1770s.

Mwanenised was the Chief (Nahnmwarki) of the Chiefdom of Pingelap from 1790s until ?.
Sralik was the Chief (Nahnmwarki) of the Chiefdom of Pingelap in the first half 19th century.
Okonomwaun (1799 - 1870) was the Chief (Nahnmwarki) of the Chiefdom of Pingelap from ? until his death in 1870.
Iengiringit was the Chief (Nahnmwarki) of the Chiefdom of Pingelap from 1870 until 1924.
Doahkasa was the Chief (Nahnmwarki) of the Chiefdom of Pingelap in late 20th century.
Sokehs
Sokehs is a village, municipality and chiefdom on the main island in the state of Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia. It is the location of
Palikir, the federal capital. The namesake Sokehs Island is located north of the main island.
List of Chiefs (title Nahnmwarki, alternate title Lepen Palikir) of the Chiefdom of Sokehs
Keimw Sapwasap was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Lepen Palikir) of the Chiefdom of Sokehs around 1875.
Francisco was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Lepen Palikir) of the Chiefdom of Sokehs around 1900.
Somatau (died February 23, 1911) was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Lepen Palikir) of the Chiefdom of Sokehs from October 17, 1910 until his
death on February 23, 1911. He was head of the rebellion against German colonial power.
Kalio Artui (died 1972) was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Lepen Palikir) of the Chiefdom of Sokehs from 1963 until his death in 1972.
Ioanis Artui was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Lepen Palikir) of the Chiefdom of Sokehs around 1984.
Herculano C. Kohler is the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Lepen Palikir) of the Chiefdom of Sokehs since 1997.
Nett
Nett also written as Net, is one of the administrative divisions and Chiefdom of Pohnpei State, Federated States of Micronesia. Nett is one of the
six municipalities located in the main island of Pohnpei. It corresponds to the north-central sector of the island. The population was 5,139 as of
2000. Nett municipality formerly included Kolonia, now a separate administrative division.
List of Chiefs (title Nahnmwarki, alternate title Lepen Nett) of the Chiefdom of Nett
Keim Sapwasap was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Lepen Nett) of the Chiefdom of Nett around 1875.
Nicholas was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Lepen Nett) of the Chiefdom of Nett around 1910.
Kalisto was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Lepen Nett) of the Chiefdom of Nett in the first half 20th century.
Eduardo was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Lepen Nett) of the Chiefdom of Nett in the first half 20th century.
Saturlino was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Lepen Nett) of the Chiefdom of Nett from ? until 1946.
Max Iriarte was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Lepen Nett) of the Chiefdom of Nett from 1946 until 1969.
Frederick Iriarte was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Lepen Nett) of the Chiefdom of Nett around 1984.
Ioanis Iriarte (died 1996) was the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Lepen Nett) of the Chiefdom of Nett from ? until his death in 1996.
Constantino Oyama is the Chief (Nahnmwarki, Lepen Nett) of the Chiefdom since 1996.
Kapingamarangi

Kapingamarangi is an atoll, municipality and chiefdom in the state of Pohnpei of the Federated States of Micronesia. It is by far the most
southerly atoll or island of the country and of the Caroline Islands, 300 km south of the next southerly atoll, Nukuoro, and 740 km southwest of
the main island of Pohnpei state. The total area of the atoll, including the lagoon, is 74 km². Out of this, 1.1 km² is land area, spread over 33
wooded islets on the eastern side of the atoll. The western reef rim of the atoll is almost submerged at high water.
List of Chiefs (title Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi
Tukia was the Chief (Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi.
Rangatau was the Chief (Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi.
Kaukau was the Chief (Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi.
Inaina was the Chief (Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi.
Heriri was the Chief (Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi.
Rongotapu was the Chief (Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi.
Tuira was the Chief (Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi.
Tikioto was the Chief (Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi.
Hakatautai was the Chief (Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi.
Takame-ara was the Chief (Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi.
Mihe was the Chief (Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi.
Takataka was the Chief (Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi.
Tairot was the Chief (Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi.
Inatua was the Chief (Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi.
Hoira was the Chief (Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi.
Petok was the Chief (Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi.
Taurakina was the Chief (Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi.
Makiatia was the Chief (Ariki) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi.
List of Chiefs (title Tangata e Putu Tana Henua; from 1910, Kingi) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi
Makiatia was the Chief (Tangata e Putu Tana Henua) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi in the first half 19th century.
Takahihi was the Chief (Tangata e Putu Tana Henua) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi from ? until 1860.
Tikoro "Totonu" was the Chief (Tangata e Putu Tana Henua) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi from 1860 until around 1870.
Hakana was the Chief (Tangata e Putu Tana Henua) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi from around 1870 until ? and from 1880 until ?.
Hakapeke was the Chief (Tangata e Putu Tana Henua) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi during 1870s.
Wekeia was the Chief (Tangata e Putu Tana Henua) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi during 1870s.
Poiaka was the Chief (Tangata e Putu Tana Henua) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi from 1870s until 1880.
Maehua was the Chief (Tangata e Putu Tana Henua) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi from ? until 1890.
Tawehi (Tikepa) was the Chief (Tangata e Putu Tana Henua, Kingi) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi from 1890 until 1922.
Atiuro was the Chief (Kingi) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi from 1922 until 1927.

Hetapuae was the Chief (Kingi) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi from 1927 until 1929.
Deved (Tiararua, then Tepiha) (died 1949) was the Chief (Kingi) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi from 1929 until his death in 1949.
Tuiai was the Chief (Kingi) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi from 1949 until 1954.
Andrew Lucky is the Chief (Kingi) of the Chiefdom of Kapingamarangi since 1997.
Zufar (Dhofar, Dhufar)
Zufar (Dhofar, Dhufar) was Sultanate in present Oman
List of Sultans of Zufar (Dhofar, Dhufar)
Saiyid Muhammad Àqil Àdjaybi (died 1829) was Sultan of the Sultanate of Zufar (Dhofar, Dhufar) from 1804 until his death in 1829.
Saiyid Fadl ibn Àlawi Moplah (died 1900) was Sultan of the Sultanate of Zufar (Dhofar, Dhufar) from 1885 until 1886 (in rebelion).
Bani Bu Àli (Ghafiri Arabs)
Bani Bu Àli (Suhar Sultanate) was Chiefdom and Sultanate in present Oman.
List of Paramount chiefs (Tamimah) of the Bani Bu Àli
Salim was the Paramount Chief (Tamimah) of the Bani Bu Àli in the second half 19th century.
Àbd Allah (died 1913) was the Paramount Chief (Tamimah) of the Bani Bu Àli from ? until his death in 1913.
Àliwas the Paramount Chief (Tamimah) of the Bani Bu Àli from 1913 until 1932 and Sultan of Sultanate of Suhar from 1920 until 1932 (in
rebellion at Suhar as Sultan).
Muhammad ibn Nasir was the Paramount Chief (Tamimah) of the Bani Bu Àli and Sultan of the Sultanate of Suhar from after 1932 until
1971.
Bani Hina
Bani Hina was Chiefdom in present Oman.
List of Paramount chiefs (Tamimah) of the Chiefdom of Bani Hina
Saìd ibn Muhammad was the Paramount Chief (Tamimah) of the Chiefdom of Bani Hina in the second half 19th century.
Hilal ibn Zahir (died 1894) was the Paramount Chief (Tamimah) of the Chiefdom of Bani Hina from ? until his death in 1894.
Badr was the Paramount Chief (Tamimah) of the Chiefdom of Bani Hina from 1894 until 1890s.
Àbd Allah was the Paramount Chief (Tamimah) of the Chiefdom of Bani Hina from 1890s until 1920s.
Zahir ibn Ghusn al-Hini'a was the Paramount Chief (Tamimah) of the Chiefdom of Bani Hina from 1930s until ?.

Àbd Allah was the Paramount Chief (Tamimah) of the Chiefdom of Bani Hina from 1950s until 1971.
al-Hiri (al-Harith tribe of al-Sharquiyyah)
al-Hiri (al-Harith tribe of al-Sharquiyyah) was Chiefdom in present Oman.
List of Paramount chiefs (tamimah) of al-Hiri (al-Harith tribe of al-Sharquiyyah)
Àli ibn Nasir was the Paramount Chief (Tamimah) of the Chiefdom of al-Hiri (al-Harith tribe of al-Sharquiyyah) from ? until 1850s.
Salih I ibn Àli al-Harithi(died 1896) was the Paramount Chief (Tamimah) of the Chiefdom of al-Hiri (al-Harith tribe of al-Sharquiyyah)
from 1850s until his death in 1896.
Ìsa ibn Salih al-Harithi (1874 - 1946) was the Paramount Chief (Tamimah) of the Chiefdom of al-Hiri (al-Harith tribe of al-Sharquiyyah)
from 1896 until his death in 1946.
Muhammad ibn Ìsa al-Hirithi (died 1947) was the Paramount Chief (Tamimah) of the Chiefdom of al-Hiri (al-Harith tribe of al-
Sharquiyyah) from 1946 until his death in 1947.
Salih II ibn Ìsa al-Hirithiwas the Paramount Chief (Tamimah) of the Chiefdom of al-Hiri (al-Harith tribe of al-Sharquiyyah) from 1947
until December 1955.
Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Hirithi was the Paramount Chief (Tamimah) of the Chiefdom of al-Hiri (al-Harith tribe of al-Sharquiyyah)
Bani Riyam (Ghafiri Arabs)
Bani Riyam (Ghafiri Arabs) was Chiefdom and Emirate in present Oman from 1920 until 1959.
List of Paramount chiefs (Tamimah) of the Chiefdom of Bani Riyam (Ghafiri Arabs)
Nasir ibn Sayf an-Nabhani was the Paramount Chief (Tamimah) of the Chiefdom of Bani Riyam (Ghafiri Arabs) in the first half 19th
century.
Sulayman ibn Sayf was the Paramount Chief (Tamimah) of the Chiefdom of Bani Riyam (Ghafiri Arabs) during 1850s.
Sayf was the Paramount Chief (Tamimah) of the Chiefdom of Bani Riyam (Ghafiri Arabs) from 1860s until 1871.
Himyar ibn Nasir was the Paramount Chief (Tamimah) of the Chiefdom of Bani Riyam (Ghafiri Arabs) from after 1895 until 1920.
Emir of the Emirate of Bani Riyam (Ghafiri Arabs)
Sulayman ibn Himyar al-Nabhani was the Emir of the Emirate of Bani Riyam (Ghafiri Arabs) from 1920 until 1959.
Bani Ruwaha
Bani Ruwaha was Chiefdom in present Oman.
List of Paramount chiefs (Tamimah) of Bani Ruwaha
Saìd ibn Khalifah al-Khalili was the Paramount Chief (Tamimah) of the Chiefdom of Bani Ruwaha from ? until 1871.
Àbd Allah was the Paramount Chief (Tamimah) of the Chiefdom of Bani Ruwaha from 1871 until ?.
Àbd Allah ibn Àli was the Paramount Chief (Tamimah) of the Chiefdom of Bani Ruwaha from 1954 until 1971.

Oman proper
Oman proper (Arabic: ‫مُع‬‫ا‬‫ن‬ ‫ىطسولا‬ ʿUmān al-Wusṭā) refers to a historical area within the present-day Sultanate of Oman. It lay inland from Muscat
beyond the Jebel Akhdar (Green Mountains) and was centered on the city of Nizwa in the area of the current region of Ad Dakhiliyah. Along
with Muscat and Dhofar, it was a constituent part of the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman, but with the 1970 palace coup, the term Oman alone was
applied to the entire country. Oman proper was ruled by Ibadite imams who exercised spiritual and often temporal authority over the region.
The Imamate is a thousand-year-old system of government pioneered by the Ibadi religious leaders of Oman, and is based upon the Islamic
Shariah. It governed parts or the whole of Oman and other lands for interrupted periods of time for over 1000 years. There were often tensions
between these imams and the sultans of Muscat, and in 1913, the election of Salim ibn Rashid al-Kharusi as imam led to the Seeb Peace Treaty
between Imamate of Oman (Arabic: ‫إمُمة‬ ‫مُع‬‫ا‬‫ن‬ Imāmat ʿUmān) with its capital at Nizwa and the Sultanate of Oman with its capital in Muscat. In
1954, a new imam, Ghalib bin Ali, defended the Imamate from attack from Muscat, after oil was discovered in his lands. Sultan Said Bin Taimur
of Muscat with the help of the colonial British forces were able to win eventually. In 1957, Nizwa was taken, the imam had exiled to Saudi
Arabia, but continued to lead the Imamate and guide the war efforts with a temporary government set-up in Dammam, Saudi Arabia. In 1959,
the last forces of the Imamate were defeated and the name of the whole of Muscat and Oman was changed to the Sultanate of Oman in 1970.
State of Oman postage stamp with the capital of Nizwa shown as "Nazwa" In current usage, Oman proper can also refer to the whole of the
present-day sultanate minus the exclaves of Musandam and Madha. Following its overthrow, the Imamate of Oman issued postage stamps under
the name of the State of Oman (Arabic: ‫ة‬ ‫دوط‬ ُ‫م‬‫ا‬‫ن‬‫ع‬ Dawlat ʿUmān).
List of Imams of the Imamate of Oman
Salim ibn Rashid al-Kharusi (died July 23, 1920) was the Imam of the Imamate of Oman from May 24, 1913 until his death on July 23,
1920.
Abu Àbd Allah Muhammad ibn Àbd, Allah al-Khalili al-Kharusi (1885 - 1954) was was the Imam of the Imamate of Oman from and
Paramount Chief (Tamimah) of the Chiefdom of Bani Riyam (Ghafiri Arabs) from around 1920 until his death in 1954.
Ghalib bin Ali bin Hilal Al Hinai (Arabic: ‫ب‬ ‫غُط‬ ‫ن‬ ‫ب‬ ‫لي‬ ‫ن‬ ‫)ىطانُلي‬ (c. 1908 or 1912 - November 29, 2009) was the last elected Imam of the
Imamate of Oman from May 3, 1954 until December 17, 1955 and from July until August 11, 1957. Since 1954, he led the Imamate of Oman in
Nizwa and Oman proper in the Jebel Akhdar revolt against Sultan Said Bin Taimur's attack on his lands. The war lasted 5 years until the Sultan
of Oman's Armed Forces, aided by colonial British soldiers from the Special Air Service, had put down the Jebel Akhdar revolt in 1959, and
Imam Ghalib Al Hinai managed to escape to Saudi Arabia. He continued for a short time to lead a temporary government-in-exile from
Dammam, Saudi Arabia while the fighting continued in Oman. He continued to receive many visitors from Oman up until his death and was
deeply respected by the people of Oman. He died on November 29, 2009 at the age of 96 or 101 in Dammam.
Oman
List of Wazirs (Chief Ministers) of Oman
Thuwayni ibn Muhammad Al Bu Said was the Chief Mnister (Wazir) of the Sultanate of Oman from ? until 1868, from 1872 until 1873
and from 1896 until around 1900.
Saìd ibn Khalfan al Khalili was the Chief Minister (Wazir) of the Sultanate of Oman from 1868 until 1871.
Saìd ibn Muhammad Al Bu Said was the Chief Minister (Wazir) of the Sultanate of Oman from 1868 until 1871.
Muhammad ibn Àzzan Al Bu Said was the Chief Minister (Wazir) of the Sultanate of Oman from 1888 until 1895.
Muhammad ibn Ahmad al Ghashsham(died 1929) was the Chief Minister (Wazir) of the Sultanate of Oman from 1900 until 1920 and
Chairmen of the Council of Ministers of Sultanate of Oman from 1926 until 1928.
List of Chairmen of the Council of Ministers of Oman
Nadir ibn Faysal Al Bu Said (1888 - 1971) was the Chairmen of the Council of Ministers of the Sultanate of Oman from April 1920 until
1926.
Barayq ibn Hamad was the Acting Chairmen of the Council of Ministers of the Sultanate of Oman from July 28 until August 17, 1970.

American Samoa
American Samoa (Listeni/əˈmɛrɨkən səˈmoʊ.ə/; Samoan: Amerika Sāmoa, [aˈmɛɾika ˈsaːmʊa]; also Amelika Sāmoa or Sāmoa Amelika) is an
unincorporated territory of the United States located in the South Pacific Ocean, southeast of Samoa. American Samoa consists of 5 main islands
and 2 coral atolls. The largest and most populous island is Tutuila, with the Manuʻa Islands, Rose Atoll, and Swains Island also included in the
territory. American Samoa is part of the Samoan Islands chain, located west of the Cook Islands, north of Tonga, and some 300 miles (500 km)
south of Tokelau. To the west are the islands of the Wallis and Futuna group. The pre-Western history of Eastern Samoa (now American Samoa)
is inextricably bound with the history of Western Samoa (now independent Samoa). The islands of Tutuila and Aunu'u were politically
connected to 'Upolu island in what is now independent Samoa. It can be said that all the Samoa islands are politically connected today through
the faamatai chiefly system and through family connections that are as strong as ever. This system of the faamatai and the customs of faasamoa
originated with two of the most famous early chiefs of Samoa, who were both women and related, Nafanua and Salamasina. Early Western cotact
included a battle in the 18th century between French explorers and islanders in Tutuilna, for which the Samoans were blamed in the West,
giving them a reputation for ferocity. Early 19th century Rarotongan missionaries to the Samoa islands were followed by a group of Western
missionaries led by John Williams (missionary) of the (Congregationalist) London Missionary Society in the 1830s, officially bringing
Christianity to Samoa. Less than a hundred years later, the Samoan Congregationalist Church became the first independent indigenous church
of the South Pacific. In 1872 the high chief of the tribes of the eastern Samoan islands gave America permission to establish a naval base in
exchange for military protection. In 1878 the U.S. Navy built a coaling station on Pago Pago Bay for its Pacific Squadron and appointed a local
Secretary. American Samoa is the result of the Second Samoan Civil War and an agreement made between Germany, the United States, and the
United Kingdom in the Tripartite Convention of 1899. The international rivalries were settled by the 1899 Treaty of Berlin in which Germany
and the U.S. divided the Samoan archipelago. The eastern Samoan islands became territories of the United States and later became known as
American Samoa. The U.S. formally occupied its portion, with the noted harbor of Pago Pago, the following year. The western islands are now
the independent state of Samoa. 1904 Several chiefs of the island of Tutuila swore allegiance, and ceded the island, to the United States in the
Treaty of Cession of Tutuila of 1900. The last sovereign of Manuʻa, the Tui Manuʻa Elisara, signed the Treaty of Cession of Manuʻa of 1904
following a series of US Naval trials, known as the "Trial of the Ipu", in Pago Pago, Taʻu, and aboard a Pacific Squadron gunboat. The treaties
where ratified by the United States in the Ratification Act of 1929. After World War I, during the time of the Mau movement in Western Samoa
(then a New Zealand protectorate), there was a corresponding American Samoa Mau movement, led by Samuel Sailele Ripley, who was from
Leone village and was a WWI war veteran.
List of Paramount chiefs (title Tui Manuà) of the Chiefdom of the Eastern Samoa (now American Samoa)
Taalolomana Fanaese was the Paramont Chief (Tui Manuà) of the Chiefdom of the Eastern Samoa (noe American Samoa) around 1828.
Tauveve was the Paramount Chief (Tui Manuà) of the Chiefdom of the Eastern Samoa (now American Samoa) around 1836.
Tauilima Alalamua was the Paramount Chief (Tui Manuà) of the Chiefdom of the Eastern Samoa (now American Samoa) around 1888.
Matelita(1872 - October 29, 1895) was the Paramount Chief (Tui Manuà) of the Chiefdom of the Eastern Samoa (now American Samoa) from
July 1, 1891 until her death on October 29, 1895.
Elisara (died 1909) was the Paramount Chief (Tui Manuà) of the Chiefdom of the Eastern Samoa (now American
Samoa) from 1899 until his death in 1909. The last sovereign of Manuʻa, the Tui Manuʻa Elisara, signed the Treaty of
Cession of Manuʻa of 1904 following a series of US Naval trials, known as the "Trial of the Ipu", in Pago Pago, Taʻu, and
aboard a Pacific Squadron gunboat. The treaties where ratified by the United States in the Ratification Act of 1929.
Kingdom of Redonda
The Kingdom of Redonda is the name for the micronation associated with the tiny uninhabited Caribbean island of Redonda. The island lies
between the islands of Nevis and Montserrat, within the inner arc of the Leeward Islands chain, in the West Indies. Redonda is currently legally a
dependency of the country of Antigua and Barbuda. The island is just over one mile long and a third of a mile wide, rising to a 971-foot peak.
The island teems with bird life, but is more or less uninhabitable by humans because there is no source of freshwater other than rain, and most
of the island is extremely steep and rocky, with only a relatively small, sloping plateau area of grassland at the summit. Landing on the island is
a very challenging process, possible only via the leeward coast on days when the seas are calm. Climbing to the top of the island is also very
arduous. Despite these difficulties, from 1865 until 1912 Redonda was the centre of a lucrative trade in guano mining, and many thousands of
tons of phosphates were shipped from Redonda to Britain. The ruins associated with the mineworkings can still be seen on the island. Redonda
also is a micronation which may, arguably and briefly, have existed as an independent kingdom during the 19th century, according to an
account told by the fantasy writer M.P. Shiel. The title to the supposed kingdom is still contested to this day in a half-serious fashion. The
"Kingdom" is also often associated with a number of supposedly aristocratic members, whose titles are awarded by whomever is currently the
"King". Currently there are a number of individuals in different countries who claim to be the sole legitimate "King" of Redonda.

List of Kings of the Kingdom of Redonda
Matthew Dowdy Shiell, Matthew I (1824 - 1888) was the King of the Kingdom of Redonda from June 2, 1865 until March 26, 1872. On June
2, 1865 Matthew Dowdy Shiel (s.a.), an Irish merchant in Montserrat dedicated to shipping, was on the island or Redonda, which that at that time
did not belong to any country. In celebration of the birth of his son, and with certain influence of the abundance of the alcohol, Matthew Shiel
proclaimed the island for himself as a kingdom, and himself as King Matthew I. Seven years later Britain took possession from the island
ignoring the claim of Shiel. Following the British annexation, several dubious events occurred. Matthew abdicated on July 21, 1880 in favor of
his son, Philippe Shiel (Matthew Phipps Shiel) (1865 - 1947), who was proclaimed king Felipe I.
Matthew Phipps Shiell, Felipe I (July 21, 1865 - February 17, 1947), known as M. P. Shiel – was a prolific British
writer of West Indian descent and the King of the Kingdom of Redonda from 1880 until his death on February 17, 1947.
His legal surname remained "Shiell" though he adopted the shorter version as a de facto pen name. He is remembered
mostly for supernatural and scientific romances. His work was published as serials, novels, and as short stories. The
Purple Cloud (1901; 1929) remains his most famous and often reprinted novel. Born on the island of Montserrat in the
West Indies, Matthew Phipps Shiell's mother was Priscilla Ann Blake; his father was Matthew Dowdy Shiell, most likely
the illegitimate child of an Irish Customs Officer and a slave woman. Shiell was educated at Harrison College, Barbados.
Shiell moved to England in 1885, eventually adopting Shiel as his pen name. After working as a teacher and translator
he broke into the fiction market with a series of short stories published in The Strand and other magazines. His early
literary reputation was based on two collections of short stories influenced by Poe published in the Keynote series by
John Lane – Prince Zaleski (1895) and Shapes in the Fire (1896) – considered by some critics to be the most flamboyant
works of the English decadent movement. His first novel was The Rajah's Sapphire (1896), based on a plot by William Thomas Stead, who
probably hired Shiel to write the novel. Shiel's popular reputation was made by another work for hire. This began as a serial contracted by Peter
Keary (1865–1915), of C. Arthur Pearson Ltd, to capitalise on public interest in a crisis in China (which became known as the Scramble for
Concessions.) The Empress of the Earth ran weekly in Short Stories from 5 February – 18 June 1898. The early chapters incorporated actual
headline events as the crisis unfolded, and proved wildly popular with the public. Pearson responded by ordering Shiel to double the length of
the serial to 150,000 words, but Shiel cut it back by a third for the book version, which was rushed out that July as The Yellow Danger. Some
contemporary critics described this novel as a fictionalisation of Charles Henry Pearson's National Life and Character: A Forecast (1893). Shiel's
Asian villain, Dr. Yen How, has been cited as a possible basis for Sax Rohmer's much better-known Dr. Fu Manchu. Dr. Yen How was probably
based on the Chinese revolutionary Sun Yat-sen (1866–1925), who had first gained fame in England in 1896 when he was kidnapped and
imprisoned at the Chinese embassy in London until public outrage pressured the British government to demand his release. Similar kidnapping
incidents occurred in several of Shiel's subsequent novels. The Yellow Danger was Shiel's most successful book during his lifetime, going
through numerous editions, particularly when the Boxer Rebellion of 1899–1901 seemed to confirm his fictional portrayal of Chinese hostility to
the West. Shiel himself considered the novel hackwork, and seemed embarrassed by its success. It was a likely influence on H. G. Wells in The
War in the Air (1908), Jack London in The Unparalleled Invasion (1910),[11] and others. His next novel was another serial contracted by Pearson
to tie into the Spanish-American War. Contraband of War ran in Pearson's Weekly May 7 - July 9, 1898, again incorporating headline events into
the serial as the war progressed. It was published as a book the following year. Around 1899–1900 Shiel conceived a loosely linked trilogy of
novels which were described by David G. Hartwell in his introduction to the Gregg Press edition of The Purple Cloud as possibly the first future
history series in science fiction. Each was linked by similar introductory frame purporting to show that the novels were visions of progressively
more distant (or alternative?) futures glimpsed by a clairvoyant in a trance. Notebook I of the series had been plotted at least by 1898, but would
not see print until published as The Last Miracle (1906). Notebook II became The Lord of the Sea (1901), which was recognised by contemporary
readers as a critique of private ownership of land based on the theories of Henry George. Shiel's lasting literary reputation is largely based on
Notebook III of the series which was serialised in The Royal Magazine in abridged form before book publication that autumn as The Purple
Cloud (1901). The Purple Cloud is a landmark text of early British science fiction, a dystopian, post-apocalytic novel that tells the tale of Adam
Jeffson, who, returning alone from an expedition to the North Pole, discovers that a worldwide catastrophe has left him as the last man alive.
Demonstrative of the speculative, philosophical impulse that pervades Shiel's work, The Purple Cloud engages with Victorian developments in
the sciences of geology and biology, tending to hone in on their dark sides of geological cataclysm and racial decline in keeping with what has
been termed the fin-de-siècle 'apocalyptic imaginary', while ultimately putting forward a positive if unorthodox view of catastrophe. Shiel had
married a young Parisian-Spaniard, Carolina Garcia Gomez in 1898, who was the model for a character in Cold Steel (1900) and several short
stories. (The Welsh author and mystic Arthur Machen and decadent poet Theodore Wratislaw were among the wedding guests.) They separated
around 1903 and his daughter was taken to Spain after Lina's death around 1904. Shiel blamed the failure of the marriage on the interference of
his mother-in-law, but money was at the heart of their problems. Shiel was caught between his desire to write high art and his need to produce
more commercial fare. When his better efforts did not sell well, he was forced to seek more journalistic work, and began to collaborate with
Louis Tracy on a series of romantic mystery novels, some published under Tracy's name, others under the pseudonyms Gordon Holmes and
Robert Fraser. The last of their known collaborations appeared in 1911. In 1902 Shiel turned away from the more dramatic future war and
science fiction themes which had dominated his early serial novels and began a series which have been described as his middle period romantic
novels. The most interesting was the first, serialised as In Love's Whirlpool in Cassell's Saturday Journal, May 14 - September 3, 1902, and
published in book form as The Weird o'It (1902). Shiel later described it as a "true Bible or Holy Book" for modern times, in which he had
attempted to represent "Christianity in a radical way." This novel was far from hackwork, and besides apparent autobiographical elements
(including a minor character based on Ernest Dowson with whom Shiel is rumoured to have roomed briefly in the 1890s), contains some of his
finest writing, but it was not reprinted in England, nor formally published in America. Shiel returned to contemporary themes in The Yellow
Wave (1905), an historical novel about the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. The novel was a recasting of Romeo and Juliet into the on-going
war with leading families of the two nations standing in for the feuding Capulets and Montagues of Shakespeare's play. Shiel modelled his hero
on Yoshio Markino (1874–1956), the Japanese artist and author who lived in London from 1897–1942. In February 1904 Shiel had offered to
Peter Keary to go to the front as a war correspondent with letters of introduction from Markino.[19] He may have met Markino through Arthur
Ransome who dedicated Bohemia in London (1907) to Shiel and used him as the model for the chapter on "The Novelist." Faced with declining
sales of his books, Shiel tried to recapture the success of The Yellow Danger when China and Sun Yat-sen returned to the headlines during the
Chinese Revolution of 1911–1912. Though a better novel in most respects, The Dragon (1913), serialised earlier that year as To Arms! and
revised in 1929 as The Yellow Peril, failed to catch the public's interest. As the hero of the story had oddly predicted, Shiel turned away from
novels for ten years. It had been popularly believed that Shiel had spent time in prison for fraud. However, it was discovered in 2008 that in 1914
Shiel had actually been convicted under the Criminal Law Amendment Act (1885) for 'indecently assaulting and carnally knowing' his 12-year-
old de facto stepdaughter. Unrepentant, Shiel served sixteen months hard labour in prison, complaining to the Home Secretary about the law,

though he assured his publisher Grant Richards in a letter that he had been treated well. Shiel's discussion of his crime is disingenuous; he
conceals from Richards the identity of his victim in addition to misleading him about her age. Instead he refers to 'love-toyings' with an older
girl on the cusp of maturity. Nor does Shiel mention the fact that he had known both the girl and her mother's sisters long before his conviction,
perhaps intimately, as contemporary letters from one of the sisters to Shiel suggests. Court records described Shiel as a 'clerk and metal worker',
though one of the witnesses was a metal worker and the records may have transposed some information. He appealed the conviction
unsuccessfully. It is too early to assess whether this new revelation about Shiel will have an impact upon his literary legacy. However, as
Macleod argues in her essay, young heroines abound in Shiel's novels, where they are romanticised, idealised and sexualised through the eyes of
the male author. She cites the example of the two thousand-year-old Rachel in 'This Above All' (1933), who is portrayed as part "child," part
"harlot," part "saint", since she still inhabits the young girl's body she possessed when raised from the dead and thus rendered immortal by the
Biblical Christ. Lazarus (also a 2,000-year-old immortal for the same reason) is warned ruefully against her: “If Rachel and you co-habit without
some marriage-rite, you may see yourself in prison here in Europe, since it cannot be believed that she is as old as fourteen.” Over the next
decade Shiel wrote five plays, dabbled in radical politics and translated at least one, though probably more, pamphlets for the Workers Socialist
Federation. In 1919 he married his second wife, Esther Lydia Furley (1872–1942). They travelled in Italy in the early 1920s, probably living
largely off her income, and separated amicably around 1929, but do not seem to have divorced. He returned to writing around 1922 and between
1923 and 1937 published a further ten or so books, as well as thorough revisions of five of his older novels. Shiel spent most of his last decade
working on a "truer" translation of the Gospel of Luke with extensive commentary. He finished it, but half of the final draft was lost after his
death in Chichester. In 1931 Shiel met a young poet and bibliophile, John Gawsworth, who befriended him and helped him obtain a Civil List
Pension. Gawsworth talked Shiel into allowing him to complete several old story fragments, sometimes roping literary friends like Oswell
Blakeston into helping. The results were largely unsuccessful, but Gawsworth used them as filler in various anthologies with his name
prominently listed as co-author. As King Felipe, Shiel was purportedly the king of Redonda, a small uninhabited rocky island in the West Indies,
situated a short distance northwest of the island of Montserrat, where Shiel was born. The Redonda legend was probably created out of whole
cloth by Shiel himself, and was first mentioned publicly in a 1929 booklet advertising the reissue of four of his novels by Victor Gollancz.
According to the story Shiel told, he was crowned King of Redonda on his 15th birthday in 1880. However, there is little evidence that Shiel took
these claims seriously, and his biographer, Harold Billings, speculates that the story may have been an intentional hoax foisted on the gullible
press. At this late date, either verifying or discrediting the story may be impossible. On his death John Gawsworth became both his literary
executor and his appointed heir to the "kingdom". Gawsworth took the legend of Redonda to heart. He never lost an opportunity to further
elaborate the tale and spread the story to the press. According to John Sutherland's 'Lives of the Novelists', "the excessively minor poet John
Gawsworth" kept the ashes of M. P. Shiel "in a biscuit tin on his mantelpiece, dropping a pinch as condiment into the food of any particularly
honoured guest". Excluding the collaborations with Tracy, Shiel published over 30 books, including 25 novels and various collections of short
stories, essays and poems. Arkham House issued two posthumous collections, Xelucha and Others (1975) and Prince Zaleski and Cummings
King Monk (1977). The Purple Cloud remains his most famous and often reprinted novel. It has been variously described as both a neglected
masterpiece and the best of all Last Man novels. It was credited as the loose inspiration for the 1959 MGM film, The World, the Flesh and the
Devil, starring Harry Belafonte, Inger Stevens, and Mel Ferrer. Stephen King cited it as an influence on his novel The Stand. A number of the
short stories continue to be reprinted, but many of his other novels, including the middle period romantics, have been nearly forgotten. Under
UK copyright law his works will enter the public domain in 2017. He has written the following novels: The Rajah's Sapphire (1896), with W. T.
Stead, The Yellow Danger (1898), Contraband of War (1899), Cold Steel (1899, revised, 1929), The Man-Stealers (1900), Lord of the Sea (1901,
revised, 1924), The Purple Cloud (1901, revised, 1929), The Weird o' It (1902), Unto the Third Generation (1903), The Evil That Men Do (1904),
The Lost Viol (1905), The Yellow Wave (1905), The Last Miracle (1906, revised, 1929), The White Wedding (1908), The Isle of Lies (1909), This
Knot of Life (1909), The Dragon (1913), revised as The Yellow Peril (1929), Children of the Wind (1923), How the Old Woman Got Home (1927),
Dr. Krasinski's Secret (1929), The Black Box (1930), Say Au R'Voir But Not Goodbye (1933), This Above All (1933), reissued as Above All Else
(1943), The Young Men Are Coming! (1937), The New King (1981), alternately entitled The Splendid Devil, written c. 1934–45. He has written
the following short colections: Prince Zaleski (1895), "The Race of Orven," "The Stone of the Edmundsbury Monks," and "The S.S.", Shapes in the
Fire (1896), "Xélucha," "Maria in the Rose-Bush," "Vaila," "Premier and Maker (An Essay)," "Tulsah," "The Serpent Ship" (poem), and "Phorfor", The
Pale Ape and Other Pulses (1911), "The Pale Ape," "The Case of Euphemia Raphash," the three-part "Cummings King Monk," "A Bundle of
Letters," "Huegenin's Wife," "Many a Tear", "The House of Sounds" (revision of "Vaila"), "The Spectre Ship," "The Great King," and "The Bride.",
Here Comes the Lady (1928), "The Tale of Hugh and Agatha," "The Tale of Henry and Rowena," "The Tale of Gaston and Mathilde," "No. 16
Brook Street," "The Tale of One in Two," "The Tale of Charley and Barbara," "The Bell of St. Sépulcre," "The Primate of the Rose," "The Corner in
Cotton," "Dark Lot of One Saul," and "The Tale of Adam and Hannah.", The Invisible Voices (1935), "The Panel Day," "The Adore Day," "The Rock
Day (The Vulture's Rock)," "The Diary Day," "The Cat Day," "The Lion Day," "The Place of Pain Day," "The Vengeance Day," "The Venetian Day,"
"The Future Day," and "The Goat Day.", The Best Short Stories of M. P. Shiel (1948), "The Race of Orven," "The Stone of the Edmundsbury Monks,"
"The S.S.," "Xélucha," "Vaila," "Tulsah," "Phorfor," "Huegenin's Wife," "Monk Wakes an Echo," "The Bride," "Dark Lot of One Saul," and "The Primate
of the Rose.", Xelucha and Others (1975), Prince Zaleski and Cummings King Monk (1977), The Empress of the Earth; The Purple Could; and
Some Short Stories (1979), The Works of M. P. Shiel Vol. I, Writings – offprints of the original periodical editions, with period illustrations; The
Empress of the Earth was the original serial version of The Yellow Danger; stories from 1893–1911: "Guy Harkaway's Substitute," "The Eagle's
Crag," "A Puzzling Case," "Huguenin's Wife," "The Case of Euphemia Raphash," "Wayward Love," "The Spectre Ship," "The Secret Panel," "A Night
in Venice," "The Battle of Waterloo," "Ben," "The Bride," "Many a Tear," "Miche," and "A Good Thing.", Xélucha and The Primate of the Rose (1994),
Xélucha, The Primate of the Rose, The House of Sounds and Others (2005) and Xélucha, The Pale Ape, The Case of Euphemia Raphash,
Huguenin's Wife,The House of Sounds, The Great King, The Bride, The Purple Cloud, Vaila. He has written the following sshort stories: The
Race of Orven (1895), The S.S. (1895), The Stone of the Edmundsbury Monks (1895), Xélucha (1896), Vaila (1896), Huguenin's Wife (1895), A
Shot at the Sun (1903), The Case of Euphemia Raphash (1911), The Pale Ape (1911), The House of Sounds (1911), The Great King (1911), The
Bride (1911), The Place of Pain (1914), The Primate of the Rose (1928), The Flying Cat (1932), A Night in Venice (1932), Dark Lot of One Saul
(1933) and The Globe of Gold-Fish (1930s). He has written the two Miscellaneous works: Richard's Shilling Selections from Edwardian Poets -- M.
P. Shiel (1936) and Science, Life and Literature (1950), essays, with a Foreword by John Gawsworth.
Terence Ian Fytton Armstrong,, Juan I (June 29, 1912 - September 23, 1970), better known as John
Gawsworth (and also sometimes known as T. I. F. Armstrong), was a British writer, poet and compiler of anthologies,
both of poetry and of short stories and the King od the Kingdom of Redonda from 1947 until his death on
September 23, 1970 He also used the pseudonym Orpheus Scrannel (alludes to Milton's Lycidas). He became the
king of Redonda in 1947 and became known as King Juan I. Armstrong grew up in Colville Gardens, Notting Hill,
and at number 40 Royal Crescent, Holland Park. He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School. As a very young man
he moved in London literary circles championing more traditional verse and writing against modernism. He ran the
Twyn Barlwm Press, a small press publishing some well-known poets, its title inspired by the mountain Twyn

Barlwm in South Wales, beloved by one of his literary idols Arthur Machen. Machen was one of the remaining writers of the 1890s he admired
and befriended. Gawsworth's longest piece of written work was a biography of Machen, but he could find no publisher for it in the thirties. It was
finally published by Tartarus Press in 2005, to much critical acclaim. Other writers Gawsworth admired were Edgar Jepson and M. P. Shiel,
whose literary executor he would later become. In 1931 he had the poem In Winter by W. H. Davies privately printed in a limited edition of 290
numbered copies, illustrated by Edward Carrick and all individually signed by Davies. A further special limited edition of 15 were printed on
handmade paper and also hand-coloured by Carrick. Three companion titles appeared in similar editions at the same time: In Spring by Edith
Sitwell, In Summer by Edmund Blunden and In Autumn by Herbert Palmer. He gave Hugh MacDiarmid a roof over his head in London in 1934
(MacDiarmid returned the compliment in When the Rat-Race Is Over; an essay in honour of the fiftieth birthday of John Gawsworth (1962)). At
this time he was very much involved in compiling story collections, generally of the fiction of the supernatural. Poetry collections of this time
were Lyrics to Kingcup (1932), Mishka and Madeleine. A Poem Sequence for Marcia (1932), Poems 1930–1932 (1936), New Poems 1939. Later he
published through the Richards Press. He met and befriended the young Lawrence Durrell in 1932, when Gawsworth was living in Denmark
Street. He made friends as well as enemies (Dylan Thomas, George Woodcock) throughout literary London. During World War II, he served in
the RAF as an aircraftsman in North Africa. As one of the Cairo poets, he made a more serious name for himself, being part of the Salamander
group. Later he returned to a picturesque eccentricity as a Fitzrovian. His Collected Poems appeared in 1949. A later volume is Toreros (1990).
The Known Signatures anthology (reactionary, quite literally) was prompted by the Michael Roberts New Country collection. The Edwardian
Poetry Book One (1936) (edited anonymously) and Neo-Georgian Poetry 1936–1937 are extraordinary for their retrospective vision. As literary
executor to M. P. Shiel, Armstrong also inherited the throne of the Kingdom of Redonda styling himself H.M. Juan I. The independent publisher
Jon Wynne-Tyson became Gawsworth's literary executor in 1970, also becoming H.M. Juan II. But Wynne-Tyson 'abdicated' in favour of the
Spanish novelist and translator Javier Marías— H.M. Xavier I – who became both Shiel's and Gawsworth's literary executor. According to John
Sutherland's 'Lives of the Novelists', "the excessively minor poet John Gawsworth" kept the ashes of M. P. Shiel "in a biscuit tin on his
mantelpiece, dropping a pinch as condiment into the food of any particularly honoured guest".
Jon Wynne-Tyson, Juan II (born 1924) is a British author, publisher, activist, pacifist who founded Centaur Press in 1954 and King of the
Kingdom of Redonda from 1970 until 1989. He ran Centaur Press from his home in Sussex and is a distinguished independent publisher.
Centaur Press was a full-time independent publishing company until it was sold in 1998. The output from Centaur Press ranged from small
stories illustrated by his first wife Joan Stanton to the substantial hardback series Centaur Classics, which included such titles as Leland's five
volume Itinerary in England and Wales, Tyndale's translation of the Pentateuch, and Burns' Commonplace Book. The company expanded into
humane education releasing titles on topics such as vegetarianism, animal rights and related philosophy. The firm also published works of
fiction (So Say Banana Bird), classical literature and philosophy (The Myths of Plato) and poetry. At one time Wynne-Tyson held the title of
"King of Redonda", a literary title referencing a small island. Jon Wynne-Tyson subsequently visited Redonda in 1979, on an expedition organized
by the philanthropist and Shielian publisher A. Reynolds Morse. Wynne-Tyson ruled as King Juan II until abdicating in favour of the novelist
Javier Marias of Madrid in 1997, transferring the literary executorship of Gawsworth and Shiel along with the title. He has written 14 books in
total, including books about vegetarianism and animal rights. His most recent book, published by Michael Russel Publishing Ltd, is an
autobiography entitled Finding the Words: A Publishing Life and focuses on his life in publishing. His autobiography also describes the
relationship between his mother Esmé Wynne-Tyson and her close friend Noël Coward.
Cedric Boston (Cedric I, born 1960) is the King of the Kingdom of Redonda since 1984. In 1984 "nobility" recognized Cedric Boston (Cedric
I) as king. Boston claimed the Redondan throne in 1984, winning the allegiance of a number of Gawsworth’s peers.
William Leonard Gates (Leo V) is professor of History and King of the Kingdom of Redonda since 1984. Juan II abdicated abdicated in
favor of history professor William Leonard Gates (Leo V) in 1989.
Margaret Parr, Queen Maggie (born 1954) is the Queen of the Kingdom of Redonda since 1993. In 1993 Matthew Phipps Shiel's
granddaughter, Lancashire housewife Margaret Parry, came to the fore and was hailed as "Queen Maggie" of Redonda by various newspapers.
Javier Marias, Xavier (born September 20, 1951) is novelist, translator, and columnist and King of the
Kingdom of Redonda from 1997 until 2012. Javier Marías was born in Madrid. His father was the philosopher
Julián Marías, who was briefly imprisoned and then banned from teaching for opposing Franco (the father of the
protagonist of Your Face Tomorrow was given a similar biography). Parts of his childhood were spent in the
United States, where his father taught at various institutions, including Yale University and Wellesley College. His
mother died when Javier was 26 years old. Marías's first literary employment consisted in translating Dracula
scripts for his maternal uncle, Jesús Franco. He was educated at the Colegio Estudio in Madrid. Marías began
writing in earnest at an early age. "The Life and Death of Marcelino Iturriaga", one of the short stories in While the
Women are Sleeping (2010), was written when he was just 14. He wrote his first novel, Los dominios del lobo (The
Dominions of the Wolf), at age 17, after running away to Paris. His second novel, Travesía del horizonte (Voyage Along the Horizon), was an
adventure story about an expedition to Antarctica. After attending the Complutense University of Madrid, Marías turned his attention to
translating English novels into Spanish. His translations included work by Updike, Hardy, Conrad, Nabokov, Faulkner, Kipling, James,
Stevenson, Browne, and Shakespeare. In 1979 he won the Spanish national award for translation for his version of Sterne's Tristram Shandy.
Between 1983 and 1985 he lectured in Spanish literature and translation at the University of Oxford.In 1986 Marías published El hombre
sentimental (The Man of Feeling), and in 1988 Todas las almas (All Souls), which was set at Oxford University. The Spanish film director Gracia
Querejeta released El Último viaje de Robert Rylands, adapted from Todas las almas, in 1996. His 1992 novel Corazón tan blanco was a
commercial and critical success and for its English version A Heart So White, translated by Margaret Jull Costa, Marías and Costa were joint
winners of the 1997 International IMPAC Dublin Literary Award. His 1994 novel, Mañana en la batalla piensa en mí, won the Venezuelan
Rómulo Gallegos Prize. The protagonists of the novels written since 1986 are all interpreters or translators of one kind or another, based on his
own experience as a translator and teacher of translation at Oxford University. Of these protagonists, Marías has written, "They are people who
are renouncing their own voices." In 2002 Marías published Tu rostro mañana 1. Fiebre y lanza (Your Face Tomorrow 1: Fever and Spear), the
first part of a trilogy that is his most ambitious literary project. The first volume is dominated by a translator, an elderly don based on an actual
professor emeritus of Spanish studies at Oxford University, Sir Peter Russell. The second volume, Tu rostro mañana 2. Baile y sueño (Your Face
Tomorrow 2: Dance and Dream), was published in 2004. In 2007, Marías the completed the final installment, Tu rostro mañana 3. Veneno y
sombra y adiós (Your Face Tomorrow 3: Poison, Shadow and Farewell). Marías operates a small publishing house under the name of Reino de

Redonda. He also writes a weekly column in El País. In 2005-2006 an English version of his column, "La Zona Fantasma", appeared in the
monthly magazine The Believer. Marías was elected to seat R of the Real Academia Española (Royal Spanish Academy) in 2006. At his
investiture in 2008 he agreed with Robert Louis Stevenson that the work of novelists is "pretty childish," but also argued that it is impossible to
narrate real events, and that “you can only fully tell stories about what has never happened, the invented and imagined.” In 2013, Marías was
awarded the prestigious Prix Formentor. Marías's novel, Todas las almas (All Souls), included a portrayal of the poet John Gawsworth, who was
also the third King of Redonda. Although the fate of this monarchy after the death of Gawsworth is contested, the portrayal by Marías so
affected the "reigning" king, Jon Wynne-Tyson, that he abdicated and left the throne to Marías in 1997. This course of events was chronicled in
his "false novel," Dark Back of Time. The book was inspired by the reception of Todas las almas by many people who, falsely according to Marías,
believed they were the source of the characters in Todas las almas. Since "taking the throne" of Redonda, Marías has begun a publishing imprint
named Reino de Redonda ("Kingdom of Redonda"). Marías has conferred many titles during his reign upon people he likes, including upon
Pedro Almodóvar (Duke of Trémula), António Lobo Antunes (Duke of Cocodrilos), John Ashbery (Duke of Convexo), Pierre Bourdieu (Duke of
Desarraigo), William Boyd (Duke of Brazzaville), Michel Braudeau (Duke of Miranda), A. S. Byatt (Duchess of Morpho Eugenia), Guillermo
Cabrera Infante (Duke of Tigres), Pietro Citati (Duke of Remonstranza), Francis Ford Coppola (Duke of Megalópolis), Agustín Díaz Yanes (Duke
of Michelín), Roger Dobson (Duke of Bridaespuela), Frank Gehry (Duke of Nervión), Francis Haskell (Duke of Sommariva), Eduardo Mendoza
(Duke of Isla Larga), Ian Michael (Duke of Bernal), Orhan Pamuk (Duke of Colores), Arturo Pérez-Reverte (Duke of Corso), Francisco Rico
(Duke of Parezzo), Sir Peter Russell (Duke of Plazatoro), Fernando Savater (Duke of Caronte), W. G. Sebald (Duke of Vértigo), Jonathan Coe
(Duke of Prunes), Luis Antonio de Villena (Duke of Malmundo), and upon Juan Villoro (Duke of Nochevieja). In addition, Marías created a
literary prize, to be judged by the dukes and duchesses. In addition to prize money, the winner receives a duchy. Winners: 2001 John Maxwell
Coetzee (Duke of Deshonra); 2002 John H. Elliott (Duke of Simancas); 2003 Claudio Magris (Duke of Segunda Mano); 2004 Eric Rohmer (Duke
of Olalla); 2005 Alice Munro (Duchess of Ontario); 2006 Ray Bradbury (Duke of Diente de León); 2007 George Steiner (Duke of Girona); 2008
Umberto Eco (Duke of la Isla del Día de Antes); 2009 Marc Fumaroli (Duke of Houyhnhnms). He have award, 2014 - National Book Critics
Circle Award (fiction) shortlist for The Infatuations.He has written the following novels: Los dominios del lobo (1971), Travesía del horizonte
(Voyage Along the Horizon, 1973), El monarca del tiempo (1978), El siglo (1983), El hombre sentimental (The Man of Feeling, 1986), Todas las
almas (All Souls, 1989), Corazón tan blanco (A Heart So White, 1992), Vidas escritas (Written Lives, 1992), Mañana en la batalla piensa en mí
(Tomorrow in the Battle Think On Me, 1994), Cuando fui mortal (When I Was Mortal 1996), Negra espalda del tiempo (Dark Back of Time,
1998), Tu rostro mañana 1. Fiebre y lanza (Your Face Tomorrow 1: Fever and Spear, 2002), Tu rostro mañana 2. Baile y sueño (Your Face
Tomorrow 2: Dance and Dream, 2004), Tu rostro mañana 3. Veneno y sombra y adiós (Your Face Tomorrow 3: Poison, Shadow and Farewell,
2007), Los enamoramientos (The Infatuations, 2011. All English translations by Margaret Jull Costa and published in America by New
Directions unless otherwise indicated: All Souls (1992), A Heart So White (1995) (new edition 2012 published by Penguin Books with
introduction by Jonathan Coe), Tomorrow in the Battle Think on Me (1996), When I Was Mortal (1999), Dark Back of Time (translated by Esther
Allen, 2001), The Man of Feeling (2003), Your Face Tomorrow 1: Fever and Spear (2004), Voyage Along the Horizon (translated by Kristina
Cordero and published by McSweeney's, 2006), Written Lives (2006), Your Face Tomorrow 2: Dance and Dream (2006), Your Face Tomorrow 3:
Poison, Shadow and Farewell (2009), Bad Nature, or With Elvis in Mexico (translated by Esther Allen, 2010), While the Women Are Sleeping
(2010) and The Infatuations (2013).
Bob Glen Williamson (Robert I "the bald") (died 2009) was the King of the Kingdom of Redonda from 1997 until
his death in 2009. He was successor of Juan II, who assumes he inherited the "kingdom" on the death of Juan II. Robert
I supposedly "acceded" to the throne in 1997 dying in 2009, which led to Michael J. Howorth (Michael the Grey) (born
1949) to claim the crown on December 11, 2009.
Michael J. Howorth (Michael the Grey) (born 1949) is the King of the Kingdom of Redonda since 2009.
Ebon
Ebon Atoll (Marshallese: Epoon, [ɛ̯ ɛbʲɛ͡ ɔː͡ɛnʲ][2]) is a coral atoll of 22 islands in the Pacific Ocean, forming a legislative district of the Ralik Chain
of the Marshall Islands. Its land area is 5.75 square kilometres (2.22 sq mi), and it encloses a deep lagoon with an area of 104 square kilometres
(40 sq mi). A winding passage, the "Ebon Channel," leads to the lagoon from the southwest edge of the atoll. Ebon Atoll is approximately 155
kilometres (96 mi) south of Jaluit, and it is the southernmost land mass of the Marshall Islands, on the southern extremity of the Ralik Chain. In
documents and accounts from the 1800s, it was also known as Boston, Covell's Group, Fourteen Islands, and Linnez. Ebon Atoll was a center for
commercial whaling in the 19th century. The schooner Glencoe had been taken and its crew massacred by Marshallese at Ebon in 1851, one of
three vessels attacked in the Marshal Islands in 1851 and 1852. There were several motives, and by some accounts the ship's crew had been
abducting island women for sale to plantation owners in other destinations. Missionaries sent by the American Board of Commissioners for
Foreign Missions in Boston began missionary activities in the Marshall Islands in 1857, establishing a mission at Ebon.[4] It was claimed by the
Empire of Germany along with the rest of the Marshall Islands in 1884, and the Germans established a trading outpost. After World War I, the
island came under the South Pacific Mandate of the Empire of Japan, which had a garrison there late in World War II. At the end of the war, it
came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands until the independence of the Marshall Islands in
1986. On January 30, 2014, castaway José Salvador Alvarenga, a Salvadorian national who had been working in Mexico as a fisherman, was found
by locals on Ebon after he had pulled his boat ashore at the conclusion a 13-month drifting voyage of 6,700 miles (10,800 kilometers) across the
Pacific.
List of Chiefs (title Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Ebon
Kaibuki was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Ebon from ? until 1870.

Nelu was the Regent of the Chiefdom of Ebon in 1870.
Loiak Kaibuki was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Ebon from 1870 until 1875.
Kabua was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Ebon in 1875.
Lakajimi was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Ebon in late 19th century.
Ailinglaplap
Ailinglaplap or Ailinglapalap (Marshallese: Aelōn̄ļapļap, [ɑ̯ ɑ͡ æe̯elʲe͡ɤŋ(ʌ)ɫɑ͡ æbʲ(æ͡ɑ)ɫɑ͡ æpʲ][1]) is a coral atoll of 56 islands in the Pacific Ocean, and
forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain in the Marshall Islands. It is located 152 kilometres (94 mi) northwest of Jaluit Atoll. Its total land
area is only 14.7 square kilometres (5.7 sq mi), but it encloses a lagoon of 750 square kilometres (290 sq mi). The economy of the atoll is
dominated by coconut plantations. The population of the atoll was 1,959 in 1999. Jabat Island is located off the coast of Ailinglaplap Atoll. The
former president of the Marshall Islands, Kessai Note, was born on Jeh Island, Ailinglaplap Atoll. "Ailinglaplap" translates as "greatest atoll"
(aelōn̄ (atoll) + ļapļap (superlative suffix)), because the greatest legends of the Marshallese people were created there. The four major population
centers on Ailinglaplap Atoll are the settlements of Woja, at the westernmost end of the atoll, Jeh in the northeast, and Airok and Bouj in the
south. Ailinglaplap Atoll was claimed by the Empire of Germany along with the rest of the Marshall Islands in 1884. A number of European
trading stations were established on the islands to Ailingkaplap as part of the copra trade. After World War I, the island came under the South
Pacific Mandate of the Empire of Japan. Following the end of World War II, it came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust
Territory of the Pacific Islands until the independence of the Marshall Islands in 1986. The current Iroijlaplap (or paramount chief) of
Ailinglaplap is Anjua Loeak.
Liat of Chiefs (title Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of the Ailinglaplap
Lamejirik was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of the Ailinglaplap around 1880.
Albert Loeak (died 1975/76) was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Ailinglaplap from 1964 until his death around 1975/1976.
Anjua Loeak is the current Chief (iroijlaplap) of Ailinglaplap, and one of four paramount chiefs in the Marshall Islands
since May 20, 1976. Loeak's domain lies in the Ralik Chain and is shared with the iroijlaplap of Kwajalein, currently Imata
Kabua. Loeak has been a staunch supporter of community-based organisations, such as the Women United Together of the
Marshall Islands. In May 2011, Loeak and Kabua signed, along with president and fellow chief Jurelang Zedkaia, an agreement
amending the terms to the United States' lease on the Reagan Test Site on Ebeye. The agreement, termed the Kwajalein Land
Use Agreement, extended the lease until 2066 and raised the annual cost by US$3.7 million to US$15 million. The annual
payments are divided among some 90 landowners; being one of the largest landowners in the country, Loeak receives 11.3% of
this.
Kwajalein (Guajlen)
Kwajalein Atoll (/ˈkwɑːdʒəlɨn/; Marshallese: Kuwajleen [kʷuɒ͡ æzʲ(æ)lʲɛːnʲ]),[1] is part of the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI). The
southernmost and largest island in the atoll is named Kwajalein Island, which its majority English-speaking residents (about 1000 mostly U.S.
military personnel) often call by the shortened name, Kwaj /ˈkwɑːdʒ/. 13,500 Marshall Islanders live on the rest of the atoll, mostly on Ebeye
Island. The total land area of the atoll amounts to just over 16 square miles (41 km2).
List of Chiefs (title Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of the Kwajalein (Guajlen)
Letalju was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of the Kwajalein (Guajlen) from 1800 until ?.
Lanini (around 1765 - 1840) was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of the Kwajalein (Guajlen) from ? until his death in 1840.
Kaibuki was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of the Kwajalein (Guajlen) from 1840 until 1869.
Loeak (Launa) (died 1904) was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of the Kwajalein (Guajlen) from 1869 until 1878.
Jeimata Kabua I "the Great" (died 1910) was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of the Kwajalein (Guajlen) from 1878 until his death
in 1910.
Leit Kabua (died 1914) was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of the Kwajalein (Guajlen) from 1910 until his death in 1914.
Jeimata Kabua II was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of the Kwajalein (Guajlen) from 1914 until his death in ?.

Lejelok Kabua (died 1981) was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of the Kwajalein (Guajlen) from ? until his death in 1981.
Joba Kabua was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of the Kwajalein (Guajlen) from 1981 until ?.
Bikini
Bikini Atoll (pronounced /ˈbɪk.ɨˌniː/ or /bɨˈkiː.ni/; Marshallese: Pikinni, [pʲi͡ɯɡɯ͡ inʲːii̯], meaning coconut place)[2] is an atoll in the Marshall Islands.
The atoll consists of 23 islands totaling 3.4 square miles (8.8 km2) surrounding a deep 229.4-square-mile (594.1 km2) central lagoon at the
northern end of the Ralik Chain (approximately 87 kilometres (54 mi) northwest of Ailinginae Atoll and 850 kilometres (530 mi) northwest of
Majuro). Within Bikini Atoll, Bikini, Eneu, Nam and Enidrik islands comprise just over 70% of the land area. Bikini and Eneu are the only islands
of the atoll that hosted a permanent population. Bikini Island is the northeastern most and largest islet. Before World War II, the atoll was
known by its Baltic German name as Escholtz Atoll. The first recorded sighting by Europeans was in September 1529 by the Spanish navigator
Álvaro de Saavedra on board his ship La Florida when trying to return to New Spain, and was charted as Buenos Jardines (Good Gardens in
Spanish). The Marshalls lacked the wealth to encourage exploitation or mapping. The British captain Samuel Wallis chanced upon Rongerik and
Rongelap atolls while sailing from Tahiti to Tinian. The British naval captains John Marshall and Thomas Gilbert partially explored the
Marshalls in 1788. The first Westerner to see the atoll in the mid-1820s was the Baltic German captain and explorer Otto von Kotzebue, sailing in
service of the Russian Empire. He visited three times during 1816 and 1817. He named the atoll Eschscholtz Atoll after Johann Friedrich von
Eschscholtz, the naturalist of von Kotzebue's ship. The Baltic Germans used the atoll to produce copra oil from coconuts, although contact with
the native population was infrequent. The atoll's climate is dryer than the more fertile southern Marshall Islands which produced more copra.
Bikini islanders were recruited into developing the copra trade during the German colonial period.
List of Chiefs (title Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Bikini
Larkelon was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Bikini.
Lorak was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Bikini.
Wirak was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Bikini.
Lemijrelon was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Bikini.
Lemijreiruk was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Bikini.
Iruuj was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Bikini.
Lauk was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Bikini.
Laninbwil was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Bikini.
Kejebuki was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Bikini.
Tannij was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Bikini.
Jebuki was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Bikini.
Lebartawe was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Bikini
Laninmaljit was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Bikini.
Lokwair was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Bikini.
Juda was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Bikini around 1946.
Jibas (died 1985) was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Bikini from ? until his death in 1985.
Kilon Bauno(died 1992) was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Bikini from ? until his death in 1992.

Dretin Jokdru (born 1922) is the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Bikini since 1997.
Ratak Island Chain
The Ratak Chain (Marshallese: Ratak, [rˠɑɑ̯ dˠɑk][1]) is a chain of islands within the island nation of the Marshall Islands. Ratak means "sunrise". It
lies to the east of the country's other island chain, the Ralik Chain. In 1999 the total population of the Ratak islands was 30,925.
List of Chiefs (title Iroijlaplap) of of the Chiefdom of Ratak Island Chain (Aur, Maloelap, Erikub, Wotje, Likiep, Ailuk, Utrik, Taongi)
Lamari was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Ratak Island Chain (Aur, Maloelap, Erikub, Wotje, Likiep, Ailuk, Utrik, Taong).
Murjel Hermios (died 1998) was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Ratak Island Chain (Aur, Maloelap, Erikub, Wotje, Likiep, Ailuk,
Utrik, Taong) from 1987 until his death in 1998.
Remios Hermiosis the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Ratak Island Chain (Aur, Maloelap, Erikub, Wotje, Likiep,
Ailuk, Utrik, Taong) since 1998.
Majuro, Arno, Mili
Majuro /ˈmædʒəroʊ/ (Marshallese: Mājro, [mʲæzʲ(ɛ͡ ʌ)rˠɤ͡ oo̯]), s a large coral atoll of 64 islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district
of the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands. The atoll itself has a land area of 9.7 square kilometres (3.7 sq mi) and encloses a lagoon of 295
square kilometres (114 sq mi). As with other atolls in the Marshall Islands, Majuro consists of narrow land masses.Divided into junior (east) and
senior (west) lines. Arno Atoll (Marshallese: Arņo, [ɑ̯ ɑɳˠːʌ͡ ɔɔ̯ ][1]) is a coral atoll of 133 islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district
of the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands. Its total land area is only 5 square miles (13 km2). Unlike most other atolls, Arno encloses three
different lagoons, a large central one, and two smaller ones in the north and east. Its main lagoon encloses an area of 130.77 square miles (338.7
km2). At a distance of only 20 kilometres (12 mi), it is the closest atoll to the Marshall Islands capital, Majuro Atoll, and can be seen looking east
from Majuro on a clear day. Mili Atoll (Marshallese: Mile) is a coral atoll of 92 islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district of the
Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands. It is located approximately 78 kilometres (48 mi) southeast of Arno Its total land area is 14.9 square
kilometres (5.8 sq mi) making it the second largest of the Marshall Islands after Kwajalein. It encloses a much smaller lagoon than Kwajalein,
with an area of 760 square kilometres (290 sq mi). The atoll is separated by a water channel called the Klee Passage from the Knox Atoll which is
considerably smaller. The population of Mili Atoll was 1032 as of 1999. The main village is also called Mili. Other villages include Nallu, Enejet,
Lukonor, Tokewa, and Wau, Mili. Nallu, Enejet and Lukonwor are only accessible from Mili by land during lowtide. Only Mili, Mili and Enejet,
Mili have runways for small planes. Mili Airport and Enejit Airport are served by Air Marshall Islands when its aircraft are operational.
List of Chiefs (title Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Majuro, Arno, Mili
Lerok (died 1881) was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Majuro, Arno, Mili from ? until his death in 1881.
- Junior line –
Rimi was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Majuro, Arno, Mili (Junior Line) from 1881 until ?.
Kaibuki Mourjel was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Majuro, Arno, Mili (Junior Line) from in the late 19th century.
Kaibuki Larewa was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Majuro, Arno, Mili (Junior Line) in the early 20th century.
Kaibuki was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Majuro, Arno, Mili (Junior Line) in the first half 20th century.

Reli was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Majuro, Arno, Mili (Junior Line) in the first half 20th century.
Langlam was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Majuro, Arno, Mili (Junior Line) in the first half 20th century.
Aisea Devij was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Majuro, Arno, Mili (Junior Line) around middle half 20th century.
Dorothy Litarjikut was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Majuro, Arno, Mili (Junior Line) around 1954.
- Senior line –
Jebrik was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Majuro, Arno, Mili (Senior Line) from 1881 until ?.
Jokane was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Majuro, Arno, Mili (Senior Line) from in the late 19th century.
Lukuner was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Majuro, Arno, Mili (Senior Line) from in the late 19th century.
Lathethe was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Majuro, Arno, Mili (Senior Line) in the early 20th century.
Lejigo was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Majuro, Arno, Mili (Senior Line) in the early 20th century.
Jebrik Lukotworok (died 1919) was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Majuro, Arno, Mili (Senior Line) from ? until his death in
1919.
Jitiam was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Majuro, Arno, Mili (Senior Line) from 1939 until ?.
Leroij Atama Zedkaia (1931 – November 19, 2010) was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Majuro, Arno, Mili (Senior Line) from
2001 until her death in 2010. Leroij Zedkaia spearheaded the movement to break the Marshall Islands away from the rest of the Trust Territory
of the Pacific Islands and form the independent Republic of the Marshall Islands. She was also the mother of Jurelang Zedkaia, who has served
as the President of the Marshall Islands since 2009. Leroij is a title by a female paramount chief, orLeroijlaplap, in the Marshall Islands. Zedkaia
was considered a key figure in the Marshallese independence movement. She worked to break the Marshall Islands away from the rest of
Micronesia, which was incorporated into the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands at the time. According to journalist Giff Johnson, "From a
traditional leader point of view, she was very active in the background in supporting the move that was being led by the political leadership here
that ultimately was successful in rejecting a Micronesia wide constitution and then developing the Marshall Islands constitution in 1979 which is
the foundation for government here ever since." Atama Zedkaia died on Friday, November 19, 2010, at the age of 79. President Jurelang
Zedkaia's Minister in Assistance Ruben Zackhras declared a week of national mourning following her death. Marshallese flags were ordered to
be flown at half mast until Saturday, November 28, 2010. She was accorded a state funeral in Majuro, which is customary for Marshallese
traditional leaders. Zedkaia's state funeral ceremony was the largest in the Marshall Islands since the death of former President Amata Kabua in
1996. Approximately 1,000 family and friends of Zedkaia, who were each dressed in black, took part in the state funeral procession. The
participants marched behind a hearse and a Marshallese police honor guard. Zedkaia's remains were taken from Majuro Hospital to the Nitijela,
or parliament building, for her state funeral, which was broadcast on national television. The remains of Atama Zedkaia were taken to
the Assembly of God Church in Majuro for the funeral services following the end of the official state funeral. Her son, President Jurelang
Zedkaia, assumed the title of paramount chief for all lands governed by Atama Zedkaia following her death. He had previously carried out
chiefly duties for her during her life.
Mejit (Mājej)
Mejit (Marshallese: Mājej, [mʲæzʲɛ̯ ɛtʲ],or Mājeej, [mʲæzʲeːtʲ] is an island in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district of the Ratak Chain of
the Marshall Islands. Unlike most of the other islands of the Marshall Islands, Mejit is a stony island rather than a coral atoll, although it is
surrounded by a fringing coral reef enclosing a narrow lagoon. It is located east of the main line of the Ratak Chain, approximately 110
kilometres (68 mi) northeast from Wotje. With an estimated population of 300 people, the island is lush in pandanus, breadfruit and taro. To the
residents, this island is known as 'Paradise". It has a beautiful fresh water lake (rare in the Marshall Islands) with indigenous ducks. Mejit is
famous for its pandanus leaf mats. An airstrip, Mejit Airport, bisects the island. Its is served by Air Marshall Islands. First recorded sighting by
Europeans was by the Spanish expedition of Miguel López de Legazpi on January 9, 1565. It was charted as Los Barbudos (The Bearded in
Spanish) because of the long beards of its inhabitants. Its sighting was also recorded by the Spanish expedition of Ruy López de Villalobos on
December 1542. The German navigator Otto von Kotzebue, sailing in Russian service, made landfall at Mejit Island on January 1, 1817, and
named it New Year's Island. In 1884 Mejit was claimed by the Empire of Germany along with the rest of the Marshall Islands, and the Germans
established a trading outpost. After World War I, the island came under the South Pacific Mandate of the Empire of Japan. Following the end of
World War II, it came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands until the independence of the
Marshall Islands in 1986.
List of Chiefs (title Iroijlap) of the Chiefdom of Mejit (Mājej)
Libinnirok was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Mejit (Mājej).
Philip Keju was the Chief (Iroijlaplap) of the Chiefdom of Mejit (Mājej).

Boko Haram
Boko Haram, officially called Wilāyat Gharb Ifrīqīyyah (Arabic: ‫أفريقيا‬ ‫غرب‬ ‫اإلسالمية‬ ‫,الوالية‬ (Islamic State's) West Africa Province, ISWAP), and
formerly called Jamā'at Ahl as-Sunnah lid-Da'wah wa'l-Jihād' (Arabic:‫والجهاد‬ ‫للدعوة‬ ‫السنة‬ ‫أهل‬ ‫,جماعة‬ "Group of the People of Sunnah for Preaching and
Jihad"), is a jihadist group based in northeastern Nigeria, also active in Chad, Niger and northern Cameroon. The group is led by Abubakar
Shekau. Estimates of the group's membership varies between 7,000 and 10,000 fighters. The group initially had links to al-Qaeda, but in 2014, it
expressed support for the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant before pledging formal allegiance to it in March 2015. After its founding in 2002,
Boko Haram's increasing radicalization led to a violent uprising in July 2009 in which its leader was summarily executed. Its unexpected
resurgence, following a mass prison break in September 2010, was accompanied by increasingly sophisticated attacks, initially against soft
targets, and progressing in 2011 to include suicide bombings of police buildings and the United Nations office in Abuja. The government's
establishment of a state of emergency at the beginning of 2012, extended in the following year to cover the entire northeast of Nigeria, resulted
in a marked increase in both security force abuses and militant attacks. Boko Haram killed more than 13,000 civilians between 2009 and 2015,
including around 10,000 in 2014, in attacks occurring mainly in northeast Nigeria. Upwards of 1.5 million people have been displaced in the
violence.Corruption in the security services and human rights abuses committed by them have hampered efforts to counter the unrest. Since
2009 Boko Haram have abducted more than 500 men, women and children, including the kidnapping of 276 schoolgirls from Chibok in April
2014.650,000 people had fled the conflict zone by August 2014, an increase of 200,000 since May; by the end of the year 1.5 million had fled. The
Nigerian military initially proved ineffective in countering the insurgency, hampered by an entrenched culture of official corruption. Since mid-
2014, the militants have been in control of swathes of territory in and around their home state of Borno, estimated at 50,000 square kilometres
(20,000 sq mi) in January 2015, but have not captured the capital of Borno state, Maiduguri, where the group was originally based. However,
after joint military operation with Nigerian Armed Forces, Chadian Armed Forces, Cameroonian Armed Forces, local vigilante groups, local
hunters and local fishermen, Boko Haram lost its capital Gwoza and most of its occupied territories while it is still controlling southern parts of
Borno State.
Islamist leader of the Nigerian militant group Boko Haram
Abubakar Shekau, also known by the alias Darul Tawheed ("the abode of monotheism") (Arabic: ‫دىر‬ ‫,)ىطحستلا‬ is an
Islamist leader of the Nigerian militant group Boko Haram. He served as deputy leader to the group's founder,
Mohammed Yusuf, until Yusuf was killed in 2009. Nigerian authorities believed that Shekau was killed in 2009
during clashes between security forces and Boko Haram militants until July 2010 when he appeared in a video
claiming leadership of the group. In the video, Shekau indicated that he had been shot in the thigh but survived
the fighting. Shekau is an ethnic Kanuri but also speaks Hausa, Arabic, and English. Shekau claims to be an
intellectual and theologian who studied Islam "under a traditional cleric." There is no evidence for these claims,
and substantial evidence to the contrary. Described as intense, quiet, and bookish, he prefers a modest lifestyle. "He
hardly talks, he is fearless," according to Ahmed Salkida, a journalist with access to Boko Haram. In videos Shekau
posts online, he often boasts about his invincibility, mocks various armies and states that he "cannot be stopped"
and "cannot die except by the will of Allah". He has also boasted about being in possession of armoured tanks and
other combat vehicles. He frequently speaks about the Quran in his online videos. In June 2012 the United States
Department of State designated Shekau as a terrorist and effectively froze any of his assets in the United States. Since June 2013, the U.S. State
Department has a standing reward of US$7 million for information leading to Shekau's capture through its Rewards for Justice program. The
Nigerian army has additionally offered a ₦50 million reward (approximately US$300,000) for Shekau. Shekau survived an attempt on his life by
Nigerian security forces. He has taken credit for the kidnapping of over 200 school girls in April 2014. Since his near death, he has increased his
violent attacks. Shekau has announced that the kidnapped girls have been converted to Islam. He has claimed to be at war with Christianity. His
online videos frequently depict anti-American rhetoric and he had made multiple threats to attack the U.S. Shekau was born in the Republic of
Niger, although it has also been claimed that he was born in Shekau village in Yobe State of Nigeria. It is unclear how old he is with speculation
suggesting he is 34 or 35; some have said he is 43 years old. He has married one of Muhammad Yusuf's four wives. His nickname is “Darul
Tawheed”, which translates as a specialist in Tawheed, the Islamic concept of oneness of Allah. Shekau was reported killed in 2009 but
reappeared as the group leader less than a year later. The Nigerian army also stated to have killed him during the 2014Battle of Kodunga that
lasted from September 12 to 14th. The Cameroonian military posted a photo and also claimed that their forces killed Shekau in September 2014.
In response to these reports, security analyst Ryan Cummings commented, "Is this his fourth or fifth death? He dies more often than an iPhone
battery." In early October 2014, a video was obtained by AFP news agency that showed Shekau alive, in which he mocked the Nigerian military's
allegations that he had been killed. Local media have suggested that the man killed by Cameroon was a body double used for security reasons.
According to The National Post, Nigerian government officials say that the original Shekau is long dead, but impostors keep popping up to
perpetuate the myth that Shekau is unbeatable. His appearance and name are now a “brand name for the terrorists. … The Nigerian military
remains resolute to serve justice to anyone who assumes that designation or title.” There are inconsistencies between videos purportedly made
by Shekau, such as his speaking in different cadences and with varying mannerisms. “In some cases he appears much heavier or much darker in
skin color, and the posturing is very different between each man,” according toTRAC.

Chief Donnacona (died c. 1539 in France) was the chief of Stadacona located at the present site of Quebec City, Canada. French Explorer
Jacques Cartier, concluding his second voyage to what is now Canada, returned to France with Donnacona. Donnacona was treated well in
France but died there. Later Cartier would have a third voyage, returning to the same area. Jacques Cartier had three voyages to present day
Canada, in 1534, 1535 and 1541. In late July 1534, as part of his first voyage, he and his men encountered around two hundred people who were
fishing, near Gaspé Bay. Cartier's men erected a "thirty foote" cross which caused a reaction from the leader of this fishing party. After some
presentation of gifts to the people there, he left the area the next day, with two men on board, Domagaya and Taignoagny. These men were part
of ones who were fishing there. He returned to France with them, concluding his first voyage in September 1534. Some sources say that these
men were the sons of Donnacona and the fishing party's leader was Donnacona himself, although the original 16th century report does not
mention this. Upon the 25 of the moneth, wee caused a faire high Crosse to be made of the height of thirty foote, [...] in the top was carved in the
wood with Anticke letters this posie, Vive le Roy de France. [...] And after wee were returned to our ships, their Captaine clad with an old Beares
skin, with three of his sonnes, and a brother of his with him, came unto us in one of their boates, but they came not so neere us as they were
wont to doe : there he made a long Oration unto us, shewing us the crosse we had set up, and making a crosse with two fingers, then did he shew
us all the Countrey about us, [...] One* of our fellowes that was in our boate, tooke hold on theirs, and suddenly leapt into it, with two or three
more, who enforced them to enter into our ships, whereat they were greatly astonished. But our Captain did straight- waies assure them, that
they should have no harme, nor any injurie offred them at all, and entertained them very friendly, making them eate and drinke. Then did we
shew them with signes, that the crosse was but onely set up to be as a light and leader which wayes to enter into the port, and that wee would
shortly come againe, and bring good store of iron wares and other things, but that we would take two of his children with us, and afterward
bring them to the sayd port againe: and. so wee clothed two of them in shirts, and coloured coates [...] we gave to each one.of those three that
went backe, a hatchet, and some knives, which made them very glad. After these were gone, and had told the newes unto their fellowes, in the
afternoone there came to our ships sixe boates of them, with sixe men in every one, to take their f arewels of those two we had detained to take
with us [...] How after we were departed from the sayd porte, following our voyage along the sayd coast, we went to discover the land lying
Southeast, and Northwest* The next day, being the 25 of the moneth, we had faire weather, and went from the said port : and being out of the
river, we sailed Eastnortheast, for after the entrance into the said river[...]. Jacques Cartier's second voyage began May 19, 1535, with the
Domagaya and Taignoagny, who were valuable as guides for the explorer. They showed him the entrance to the St. Lawrence River, and piloted
him up the river to Donnacona's capital, Stadacona. (Cartier described Donnacona's title as Agohanna, an Iroquoian word for chief). Also as part
of this voyage, Cartier without Domagaya and Taignoagny (who weren't permitted to go with him, by the chief), went further up the St.
Lawrence to Hochelega, present day Montreal, in October 2, 1535. In the yeere of our Lord 1535, vpon Whitsunday, being the 16. of May, by the
commandement of our Captaine Iames Cartier, and with a common accord, in the Cathedrall Church of S. Malo we deuoutly each one confessed
a selues, and receiued the Sacrament [...]. The Wednesday following, being the 19. of May, there arose a good gale of wind, and therefore we
hoysed sayle with three ships [...]. [...]beyond the abouesayd hauen about ten leagues, where we found a goodly great gulfe, full of Islands,
passages, and entrances toward what wind soeuer you please to bend: for the knowledge of this gulfe there is a great Island that is like to a Cape
of lande [...] We named the sayd gulfe Saint Laurence his bay. [...] The next day after being our Ladie day of August the fifteenth of the moneth,
hauing passed the Straight, we had notice of certaine lands that wee left toward the South, which landes are full of very great and high hilles,
and this Cape wee named The Island of the Assumption [...].But for a resolution of the matter Taignoagny and Domagaia tolde our Captaine,
that their Lord Donnacona would by no meanes permit that any of them should goe with him to Hochelaga vnlesse he would leaue him some
hostage to stay with him: our Captaine answered them, that if they would not goe with him with a good will, they should stay, and that for all
them he would not leaue off his iourney thither. [...] our Captaine with all his Gentlemen and fiftie Mariners departed with our Pinnesse, and the
two boates from Canada to goe to Hochelaga: and also there is described, what was seene by the way vpon the said riuer. As recorded in Cartier's
journal, the French wintered in Canada. Relations between the St. Lawrence Iroquoian and French deteriorated over the winter. In spring, Cartier
intended to take the chief to France, so that he might personally tell the tale of a country further north, called the "Kingdom of Saguenay", said
to be full of gold, rubies and other treasures. In May 1536, he took Chief Donnacona to France. It was an arduous trip down the St. Lawrence and
a three-week Atlantic crossing. During the journey to France twenty-five died of scurvy. Donnacona and nine others from the tribe, including
Domagaya and Taignoagny, arrived in Saint-Malo, France on July 15, 1536, concluding his second voyage. Donnacona was treated well in France
but died there. He was being looked after at the king's expense. He whetted the French appetite for New World exploration with tales of a golden
kingdom called "Saguenay". However he died there in c1539. So did all but one of the others—a little girl whose fate is unknown. Cartier
returned to the new land in May 1541, on his third voyage, without any of those whom he had brought to France. That voyage was to last until
May 1542, concluding his third voyage. A report printed of Cartier's second voyage was printed in France in 1545, and is today in the British
Museum. Excerpts here are taken from Burrage, using Richard Hakluyt's English translation published in 1589–1600.
Taos Pueblo
Taos Pueblo (or Pueblo de Taos) is an ancient pueblo belonging to a Taos (Northern Tiwa) speaking Native American tribe of Pueblo people. It
is approximately 1000 years old and lies about 1 mile (1.6 km) north of the modern city of Taos, New Mexico, USA. They are considered to be
one of the oldest continuously inhabited communities in the United States. Taos Pueblo is a member of the Eight Northern Pueblos. The Taos
community is known for being one of the most private, secretive, and conservative pueblos. A reservation of 95,000 acres (384 km²) is attached to
the pueblo, and about 4,500 people live in this area.
Leader of Taos Pueblo, Native American tribe of Pueblo people
Tomás "Tomasito" Romero (assassinated February 8, 1848) was a Pueblo from Taos Pueblo, where he was referred to as "the alcalde and
leader of Taos Pueblo, Native American tribe of Pueblo people during 1840s. In 1847 he was led a force of Mexicans and Indians who did not
want to become a part of the United States. They managed to kill Governor Charles Bent and others and marched on Santa Fe, but were finally
subdued after taking refuge in the ill-fated San Geronimo Mission Church. The American troops bombarded the church, killing or capturing the
insurrectionists and destroying the physical structure. He was a leader of the Taos Revolt against the American invasion of New Mexico during
the Mexican-American War. At the beginning of the revolt, "Tomacito leaned over the governor's (Charles Bent) still living form and raked a
bowstring over his scalp, pulling away his gray hair in a glistening sheath . . . 'cut as cleanly with the tight cord as it would have with a knife' "

After the failure of the revolt Romero was given up to the U.S. Army as part of the terms of surrender following the battle at the pueblo on
February 5, 1848. He was shot while in prison by Private John Fitzgerald on February 8, 1848 "before he had the opportunity to have a trial."
Iazyges
The Iazyges (Jazyges is an orthographic variant) were an ancient Iranian nomadic tribe. Known also as Jaxamatae, Ixibatai, Iazygite, Jászok and
Ászi, they were a branch of the Sarmatian people who, c. 200 BC, swept westward from Central Asia onto the steppes of what is now Ukraine.
Little is known about their language, but it was one of the Iranian languages. The Iazyges first make their appearance along the Sea of Azov,
known to the Ancient Greeks and Romans as the Maeotis. They are referred to by the geographer Ptolemy as the Iazyges Metanastae (wandering
or migrant Iazyges). From there, the Iazyges moved west along the shores of the Black Sea to what is now Moldova and the southwestern
Ukraine. They served as allies of Mithradates VI Eupator, king of Pontus (in what is now North-Western Turkey), in his wars against the Romans
(c. 88–84 BC). In 78–76 BC, the Romans sent a punitive expedition over the Danube in an attempt to overawe the Iazyges. The prime enemy of
Rome along the lower Danube at this time were the Dacians. In 7 BC, when the Dacian kingdom built up by Burebista began to collapse, the
Romans took advantage and encouraged the Iazyges to settle in the Pannonian plain, between the Danube and the Tisa Rivers.
List of rulers of Iazyges ancient Iranian nomadic tribe
Bakadaspes was a ruler of Iazyges ancient Iranian nomadic tribe around AD 180.
Zanticus was a ruler of Iazyges ancient Iranian nomadic tribe in 2nd century.
Beuca or Beukan was a ruler of Iazyges ancient Iranian nomadic tribe around AD 470/472.
Babay or Babai was a ruler of Iazyges ancient Iranian nomadic tribe around AD 470/472.
Quadi
The Quadi were a smaller Germanic tribe, about which little is definitively known. We only know the Germanic tribe the Romans called the
'Quadi' through reports of the Romans themselves. No pottery style or other remains of material culture serve to distinguish Quadi
encampments from those of closely related groups.
List of Kings of the Germanic tribe Quadi
Vannius (flourished in 1st century AD) was the king of the Germanic tribe Quadi in the 1st century AD. According to The Annals of Tacitus,
Vannius came to power following the defeat of the Marcomannic king Catualda by the Hermunduri king of Vibilius, establishing the The
Kingdom of Vannius (regnum Vannianum). It was the first political unit in Slovak area. Vannius was a client King of the Roman Empire and
ruled from AD 20-50 under the reign of Tiberius. Tacitus writes that he was "renowned and popular with his countrymen," but after a long reign,
he "became a tyrant, and the enmity of neighbours, joined to intestine strife, was his ruin." Joined by Vangio and Sido, sons of a sister of Vannius,
Vibilius of the Hermunduri again led the deposition. Emperor Claudius, decided to stay out of the conflict, fearing that the Lugii and other
Germanic tribes would be attracted by the "opulent realm which Vannius had enriched during thirty years of plunder and tribute." Vannius was
easily defeated by the Lugii and the Hermunduri, although he won some credit through being wounded in battle. Vannius managed to flee to
his fleet on the Danube, and was awarded lands in Pannonia by Claudius. His realm was subsequently divided between his nephews Vangio and
Sido. Tacitus writes that Vangio and Sido were "admirably loyal" to the Romans, but among their subjects, by whom they were "much loved"
while seeking to acquire power, they became "yet more hated when they acquired it."
Vangio (flourished in 1st century AD) was Quadian King, Roman client kingdom in Bohemia in the 1st century AD together with his brother
Sido. According to The Annals of Tacitus, Vangio and Sido were the sons of a sister of Vannius, who since defeating the Marcomannic king
Catualda in 18 AD had ruled the The Kingdom of Vannius (regnum Vannianum). Tacitus writes their uncle was "renowned and popular with his
countrymen," but after a long reign, he "became a tyrant, and the enmity of neighbours, joined to intestine strife, was his ruin." Around 50 AD,
assisted by the Hermunduri king Vibilius, Vangio and Sido led the deposition of Vannius. Emperor Claudius, decided to stay out of the conflict,
fearing that the Lugii and other Germanic tribes would be attracted by the "opulent realm which Vannius had enriched during thirty years of
plunder and tribute." Vangio and Sido easily overthrew Vannius, after which the realm was subsequently divided between them. Tacitus writes
that Vangio and Sido were "admirably loyal" to the Romans, but among their subjects, by whom they were "much loved" while seeking to acquire
power, they became "yet more hated when they acquired it."
Sido (flourished in 1st century AD) was Quadian King, Roman client kingdom in Bohemia in the 1st century AD together with his brother
Vangio. According to The Annals of Tacitus, Vangio and Sido were the sons of a sister of Vannius, who since defeating the Marcomannic king
Catualda in 18 AD had ruled the The Kingdom of Vannius (regnum Vannianum). Tacitus writes their uncle was "renowned and popular with his
countrymen," but after a long reign, he "became a tyrant, and the enmity of neighbours, joined to intestine strife, was his ruin." Around 50 AD,
assisted by the Hermunduri king Vibilius, Vangio and Sido led the deposition of Vannius. Emperor Claudius, decided to stay out of the conflict,
fearing that the Lugii and other Germanic tribes would be attracted by the "opulent realm which Vannius had enriched during thirty years of
plunder and tribute." Vangio and Sido easily overthrew Vannius, after which the realm was subsequently divided between them. Tacitus writes
that Vangio and Sido were "admirably loyal" to the Romans, but among their subjects, by whom they were "much loved" while seeking to acquire
power, they became "yet more hated when they acquired it."

Gabinus (died AD 374) was the king of the Germanic tribe Quadi in the 4st century AD. In the 4th century, Valentinian spent much of his
reign defending the Rhine frontier against a mixed horde of Sarmatians, Goths, and Quadi under their king Gabinius, who was slain at the treaty
table by the Roman Marcellinus, son of the praefect of Gaul, Maximinus in AD 374.
Volsci
The Volsci were an Italic tribe, well known in the history of the first century of the Roman Republic. At that time they inhabited the partly hilly,
partly marshy district of the south of Latium, bounded by the Aurunci and Samnites on the south, the Hernici on the east, and stretching
roughly from Norba and Cora in the north to Antium in the south. Rivals of Rome for several hundred years, their territories were taken over by
and assimilated into the growing Republic by 300 BC. Strabo says that the Volsci formed a sovereign state near the site of Rome. It was placed in
the Pomentine plain, between the Latins and the Pontine marshes, which took their name from the plain. The Volsci spoke Volscian, a Sabellic
Italic language, which was closely related to Oscan and Umbrian, and more distantly to Latin. In the Volscian territory lay the little town of
Velitrae (modern Velletri), home of the ancestors of Caesar Augustus. From this town comes an inscription dating probably from early in the
3rd century BC; it is cut upon a small bronze plate (now in the Naples Museum), which must have once been fixed to some votive object, and
dedicated to the god Declunus (or the goddess Decluna). The Volsci were among the most dangerous enemies of ancient Rome, and frequently
allied with the Aequi, whereas their neighbours the Hernici from 486 BC onwards were the allies of Rome. According to Rome's early semi-
legendary history, Rome's seventh and last king Lucius Tarquinius Superbus was the first to go to war against the Volsci, commencing two
centuries of a relationship of conflict between the two states. Also, the legendary Roman warrior Gaius Marcius Coriolanus earned his
cognomen after taking the Volscian town of Corioli in 493 BC. The supposed rise and fall of this hero is chronicled in Shakespeare's Coriolanus.
However, if Livy's account of the war between Rome and Clusium is accurate, it can be seen that the relationship between Rome and the Volsci
was not always hostile. Livy writes that, at the approach of the Clusian army in 508 BC, with the prospect of a siege, the Roman senate arranged
for the purchase of grain from the Volsci to feed the lower classes of Rome.
List of Leaders od Volsci
Attius Tullus Aufidius (known only as Attius Tullus in some sources, and Aufidius in others) was a political and military leader of the
Volsci in the early fifth century BC. He is known for his role in a war with Rome between 491 BC and 488 BC in which he, together with the
Roman defector Gaius Marcius Coriolanus, led the Volsci against Rome and besieged it. He also appears in Shakespeare's tragedy Coriolanus as
Tullus Aufidius. In 491 BC Coriolanus was exiled from Rome. He fled to the Volsci and resided Attius Tullus . Meanwhile the Great Games were
being celebrated in Rome on a grand scale, and a number of the Volsci had travelled to Rome to participate in the celebrations. Aufidius sought
to devise a way to stir up Volscian ill-will against Rome. He obtained a private audience with the consuls, and convinced them that he feared
some discord might erupt between the Volscian youth and the Romans. The consuls put the matter before the senate, and the senate decided to
expel the Volsci from Rome. Aufidius met the fleeing Volscians outside Rome in a grove sacred to the goddess Ferentina and stirred up their
feelings against Rome, and thereby caused the Volsci to declare war against Rome. Coriloanus and Aufidius led the Volscian army against
Roman towns, colonies and allies. Roman colonists were expelled from Circeii. They then retook the formerly Volscian towns of Satricum,
Longula, Pollusca and Corioli. Then the Volscian army took Lavinium, then Corbio, Vitellia, Trebia, Lavici and Pedum. From there the Volsci
marched on Rome and besieged it. The Volscians initially camped at the Cluilian trench, five miles outside Rome, and ravaged the countryside.
Coriolanus was eventually convinced by a delegation of Roman women including his own family members to cease the attack, and he moved
the Volscian camp back from the city, ending the siege. The Volscian army subsequently returned to Roman territory to attack the city. They
were joined by the Aequi. However a dispute broke out as the Aequi would not accept Aufidius as their leader, and the Volsci and Aequi fought a
furious battle in which the strength of each was seriously diminished.
Gaius Marcius (Caius Martius) Coriolanus (/ˌkɔriəˈleɪnəs, ˌkɒr-/) was a Roman general who is said to have lived in the 5th
century BC. He received his toponymic cognomen "Coriolanus" because of his exceptional valor in a Roman siege of the
Volscian city of Corioli. He was subsequently exiled from Rome, and led troops of Rome's enemy the Volsci to besiege Rome.
In later ancient times, it was generally accepted by historians that Coriolanus was a real historical individual, and a consensus
narrative story of his life appeared, retold by leading historians such as Livy, Plutarch, and Dionysius of Halicarnassus. More
recent scholarship has cast doubt on the historicity of Coriolanus, portraying him as either a wholly legendary figure or at
least disputing the accuracy of the conventional story of his life or the timing of the events. According to Plutarch, his
ancestors included prominent patricians such as Censorinus and even an early King of Rome. The story is the basis for the
tragedy of Coriolanus, written by William Shakespeare, and a number of other works, including Beethoven's Coriolan
Overture. Coriolanus came to fame as a young man serving in the army of the consul Postumus Cominius Auruncus in 493 BC during the siege
of the Volscian town of Corioli. Whilst the Romans were focused on the siege, another Volscian force arrived from Antium and attacked the
Romans, and at the same time the soldiers of Corioli launched a sally. Marcius held watch at the time of the Volscian attack. He quickly
gathered a small force of Roman soldiers to fight against the Volscians who had sallied forth from Corioli. Not only did he repel the enemy, but
he also charged through the town gates and then began setting fire to some of the houses bordering the town wall. The citizens of Corioli cried
out, and the whole Volscian force was dispirited and was defeated by the Romans. The town was captured, and Marcius gained the cognomen
Coriolanus. In 491 BC, two years after Coriolanus' victory over the Volscians, Rome was recovering from a grain shortage. A significant quantity
of grain was imported from Sicily, and the senate debated the manner in which it should be distributed to the commoners. Coriolanus advocated
that the provision of grain should be dependent upon the reversal of the pro-plebeian political reforms arising from the First secessio plebis in
494 BC. The senate thought Coriolanus' proposal was too harsh. The populace were incensed at Coriolanus' proposal, and the tribunes put him
on trial. The senators argued for the acquittal of Coriolanus, or at the least a merciful sentence. Coriolanus refused to attend on the day of his
trial, and he was convicted. Coriolanus fled to the Volsci in exile. He was received and treated kindly, and resided with the Volscian leader Attius
Tullus Aufidius. Plutarch's account of his defection tells that Coriolanus donned a disguise and entered the home of Aufidius as a supplicant.
Coriolanus and Aufidius then persuaded the Volscians to break their truce with Rome and raise an army to invade. Livy recounts that Aufidius
tricked the Roman senate into expelling the Volsci from Rome during the celebration of the Great Games, thereby stirring up ill-will amongst
the Volsci. Coriloanus and Aufidius led the Volscian army against Roman towns, colonies and allies. Roman colonists were expelled from Circeii.
They then retook the formerly Volscian towns of Satricum, Longula, Pollusca and Corioli. Then the Volscian army took Lavinium, then Corbio,

Vitellia, Trebia, Lavici and Pedum. From there the Volsci marched on Rome and besieged it. The Volscians initially camped at the Cluilian
trench, five miles outside Rome, and ravaged the countryside. Coriolanus directed the Volsci to target plebeian properties and to spare the
patricians'. The consuls, now Spurius Nautius Rutilus and Sextus Furius Medullinus Fusus readied the defences of the city. But the plebeians
implored them to sue for peace. The senate was convened, and it was agreed to send supplicants to the enemy. Initially ambassadors were sent,
but Coriolanus sent back a negative response. The ambassadors were sent to the Volsci a second time, but were refused entry to the enemy camp.
Next priests, in their regalia, were sent by the Romans, but achieved nothing more than had the ambassadors. Then Coriolanus' mother Veturia
(known as Volumnia in Shakespeare's play) and his wife Volumnia (known as Virgilia in Shakespeare's play)and his two sons, together with the
matrons of Rome, went out to the Volscian camp and implored Coriolanus to cease his attack on Rome. Coriolanus was overcome by their pleas,
and moved the Volscian camp back from the city, ending the siege. Rome honoured the service of these women by the erection of a temple
dedicated to Fortuna (a female deity). Coriolanus' fate after this point is unclear, but it seems he took no further part in the war. One version says
that Coriolanus retired to Aufidius' home city of Antium. Coriolanus had committed acts of disloyalty to both Rome and the Volsci, and Aufidius
raised support to have Coriolanus first put on trial by the Volscians, and then assassinated before the trial had ended. Plutarch's tale of
Coriolanus's appeal to Aufidius is quite similar to a tale from the life of Themistocles, a leader of the Athenian democracy who was a
contemporary of Coriolanus. During Themistocles' exile from Athens, he traveled to the home of Admetus, King of the Molossians, a man who
was his personal enemy. Themistocles came to Admetus in disguise and appealed to him as a fugitive, just as Coriolanus appealed to Aufidius.
Themistocles, however, never attempted military retaliation against Athens. Some modern scholars question parts of the story of Coriolanus. It
is notable that accounts of Coriolanus' life can be found in works as early as the third century BC, two hundred years after Coriolanus' life, and it
is typical of for historical records prior to the Gallic sack of Rome in 390 BC to be scant. Whether or not Coriolanus himself is a historical figure,
the saga preserves a genuine popular memory of the dark, unhappy decades of the early 5th century BC when the Volscians overran Latium and
threatened the very existence of Rome. Shakespeare's Coriolanus is the last of his "Roman plays". Its portrayal of the hero has led to a long
tradition of political interpretation of Coriolanus as an anti-populist, or even proto-fascist leader. Bertolt Brecht's version of Coriolanus (1951)
stresses this aspect. Suzanne Collins also references the anti-populist interpretation in The Hunger Games trilogy with her character President
Coriolanus Snow, a totalitarian dictator who preserves order in the degenerate society of the books, though this character has little in common
with the figure Coriolanus. Shakespeare's play also forms the basis of the 2011 motion picture Coriolanus, starring and directed by Ralph
Fiennes, in which Coriolanus is the protagonist. Heinrich Joseph von Collin's 1804 play Coriolan portrayed him in the context of German
romantic ideas of the tragic hero. Beethoven's Coriolan Overture was written for a production of the von Collin play. Steven Saylor's Roma
presents Coriolanus as a plebeian, the child of a patrician mother and plebeian father. His attitudes toward the changes occurring in Rome
during his lifetime are reflective of what has been described. He achieves Senatorial status thanks to his military valor and connections. When he
calls for the abolition of the office of Tribune, he becomes a target of the plebeians and their representatives. He flees before the trial which
would ruin him and his family socially and financially, and seeks the alliance with the Volsci described above. His military campaign against
Rome is successful and his forces are approaching the walls of the city until the appeal of the Roman women, including his patrician mother and
his wife. When he orders his troops to withdraw, he is killed by them.
Hkonmaing (Burmese: ခခခခခခခခခခ [kʰòʊɴ m̥áɪɴ], Shan: ခခခခခခခခခခ; also Hkonmaing Gyi, Sao Hkun Mong, 1480 - 1542) was
saopha of the Shan principality of Onbaung–Hsipaw from around 1505 until his death in 1542. He was the only main ally of King Narapati II of
Ava in the latter's 25-year struggle against the Mohnyin-led Confederation of Shan States, Prome and Toungoo. After Ava's fall, he became a
member of the Confederation. He died during or shortly after his participation in the Confederation's 1542 campaign against Toungoo Dynasty.
His son, also named Hkonmaing, and grandson Narapati III became kings of Ava. What is known about Hkonmaing is solely from the Burmese
chronicles. The Chinese annals (Ming Shilu) on the Tai-Shan frontier (present-day southern Yunnan, Kachin State and Shan State) stopped at
Hsenwi, and make no mention of Hsipaw.[3] The Burmese chronicles mention Hkonmaing as a supporting figure—albeit an important one—in
King Narapati II's reign. According to the chronicles, Hkonmaing (also called Hkonmaing Gyi, lit. "Hkonmaing the elder") was the ruler of the
Shan state of Onbaung–Hsipaw, certainly by 1505. Since his eldest son Hkonmaing the younger was born in 1497, he was likely born c. 1480. At
the time, Onbaung–Hsipaw was a major Shan state, which controlled (or claimed to control) the entire stretch of eastern Shan Hills west of the
Salween river: Bhamo, Yawnghwe (Nyaungshwe), Mong Nai (Mone) and Mong Pai (Mobye). Moreover, Onbaung–Hsipaw's relationship with Ava
in the early 16th century was closer to an alliance than a patron-client arrangement. Chronicles mention Hkonmaing and Narapati II as
thwethauk brothers men who have ritually entered into "a sacramental brotherhood" by drinking each other's blood. Ava had been disintegrating
since the 1480s, and its rulers had been fighting losing wars on several fronts against its former vassal states. Narapati II, who came to power in
1501 amidst major rebellions, desperately tried to retain the loyalty of remaining "vassal" rulers like Hkonmaing of Onbaung and Mingyi Nyo of
Toungoo. In the end, Hkonmaing was the only steadfast ally of Narapati II. In late 1505, he sent an army (4000 men, 300 horses, 60 elephants)
led by his younger brother to assist Narapati defend the town of Sale from the forces of Prome and Toungoo. Hkonmaing likely stayed in the
alliance because he and Narapati were fighting against a common enemy: Sawlon the ambitious expansionist leader of Mohnyin. Sawlon had
been raiding Ava's northern territory since 1502. In 1511, Hkonmaing lost Bhamo, its northernmost possession, to Sawlon whose army simply
seized the border town between the two Shan states. Hkonmaing asked Narapati for help. Narapati sent a sizable army (12,000 men, 600 horses,
150 elephants). But the Ava army was ambushed en route at Myedu by a smaller Mohnyin force (4000 men, 200 horses, 100 elephants), and was
driven back with heavy losses. Hkonmaing remained in the alliance even as Mohnyin grew more powerful in the following years. When Sawlon
and his allies attacked Ava itself in 1524, Hkonmaing personally led an army (8000 men, 600 horses, 100 elephants) and defended Ava. But the
combined Mohnyin and Prome forces drove out Narapati II and Hkonaming on March 22, 1525. The two thwethauk brothers still had sizable
armies—the defeated Ava army still had 8000 men, 400 horses, 250 elephants while the Onbaung army counted 7000 men, 500 horses, 80
elephants. As the two armies moved south and entered Toungoo's territory, they were met by the Toungoo army (4000 men, 400 horses, 100
elephants) at Yamethin. They defeated the Toungoo army, and followed up to Toungoo itself. They could not take it and had to retreat to Ava.
(Mohnyin and Prome forces had looted and left the city.) According to the chronicles, Narapati was truly grateful that Hkonmaing remained
loyal till the end, and is said to give the saopha many jewels. But Hkonmaing is said to have refused the presents. But their troubles were not yet
over. Sawlon returned in the dry season of 1526–27 with a 15,000-strong army. Hkonmaing again came to the aid of Narapati II, and defended
Ava. Like in 1525, Sawlon's forces overwhelmed Ava's defenses. On March 25, 1527, Narapati II died in action, and Ava was taken. Sawlon
appointed his eldest son Thohanbwa king of Ava. After the defeat at Ava, Hkonmaing retreated to Hsipaw. He later either agreed to a truce with,
or submitted to Sawlon since Sawlon did not attack Hsipaw after Ava's fall. After Sawlon was assassinated in 1533, Hkonmaing like other leaders

of the Confederation probably did not acknowledge Thohanbwa as the first among equals. However, he did stay in the Confederation. He
actively participated in the Confederation's 1541–42 campaign to retake Prome (Pyay). The campaign was a failure. The Confederation forces
were defeated in April 1542 by Toungoo forces led by Gen. Bayinnaung. Hkonmaing died during the campaign or shortly after since by May
1542, he was already dead.
Yan Naung was the Chief Minister of the Ava Kingdom in early 1540s. Thohanbwa , King of the Kingdom of Ava was assassinated by his
Chief Minister Yan Naung in 1542. After the failed invasion of the south, Thohanbwa had lost all his allies in the Ava court. His chief minister
Yan Naung finally decided to organize a putsch at the summer palace outside Ava. When Thohanbwa asked to see his predecessor
Shwenankyawshin's famous sword called "Yeinnwepa Da" (Burmese: ခခခခခခခခခခခခခခခ), Yan Naung picked out the sword, and bending
low as if to present it, went close to the king and smote him so that the sword went through him and out again, severing five bamboos of the dais
floor. Yan Naung was offered the throne but he declined. The ministers then gave the throne to Hkonmaing, the ruler of Hsipaw (Thibaw), who
was a steadfast ally of Shwenankyawshin.Yan Naung agreed to remain in office and advise the new king for one year. The House of Mohnyin
was furious. Not only did they believe the Ava throne rightfully belonged to them but they were also appalled by Thohanbwa's assassin Yan
Naung remaining in office.
Baya Yandathu was the Chief Minister of the Ava Kingdom during 1550s.
Binnya Law (Burmese: ခခခခခခခ, Burmese pronunciation: [bəɲá lɔ́]; died 1538) was a senior minister at the court of King Takayutpi of
Hanthawaddy Pegu . He and Binnya Kyan, another senior minister, organized and led the coastal kingdom's defenses, which successfully
repulsed the upstart Toungoo's three dry season raids between 1534 and 1538. They both were childhood tutors of the young king, and were
absolutely devoted to him. Nonetheless, both ministers were executed in 1538 by the young king who believed in Toungoo's misinformation that
the ministers were Toungoo moles. After their death, the king found himself helpless. When Toungoo forces came once again in late 1538, he
decided to flee rather than fight.
Letya Zala Thingyan was Viceroy of Toungoo during 1460s.
Sithu Kyawhtin of Toungoo (Burmese: ခခခခခခခ ခခခခခခခခခခခခခ, pronounced: [sìθù tɕɔ̀tʰɪ̀ɴ]; died 1481) was a general of Ava
Kingdom, and Viceroy of Toungoo from 1470 until his death in 1481. He was the maternal grandfather of Mingyinyo, the founder of Toungoo
Dynasty of Burma (Myanmar). He was a son-in-law of Crown Prince Minyekyawswa of the Forty Years' War fame. In 1470, King Thihathura of
Ava assigned Gen. Sithu Kyawhtin to put down a rebellion by Toungoo, which had also called in help from Hanthawaddy Pegu. Sithu Kyawhtin
led the army and was accompanied by two of the king's sons. The Ava army defeated Toungoo. The princes carried the rebellious governor of
Toungoo off to Ava, and left Sithu Kyawhtin as the head of the troublesome province. Sithu Kyawhtin soon acted like a sovereign king of this
remote region. In 1476, Sithu Kyawhtin enlarged the city of Toungoo, raising suspicions of some ministers at Ava. When news of this reached
the king's ear, Sithu Kyawhtin was brought to Ava forcibly by pulling on his hair in a humiliating manner to demonstrate his obedience and
loyalty to the king. In 1480, Thihathura died, and the Ava throne was succeeded by his elder son Minkhaung II. The new king was promptly
greeted by rebellions by his two brothers. Minkhaung II ordered Sithu Kyawhtin to attack Yamethin, one of the rebellious towns. Sithu Kyawhtin
marched straight to Yamethin and without waiting for the reinforcements from Ava engaged the Yamethin troops in a pitched battle. He
overcame the first wave of troops sent out of the town walls to meet them but his troops were defeated by the second wave and died in battle.
Min Sithu (Burmese: ခခခခခခခခခ, pronounced: [mɪ́ɴ sìθù]; also Sithu Nge; died 1485) was Viceroy of Toungoo from
1481 until 1485. He inherited the viceroyship after his father Sithu Kyawhtin of Toungoo was killed in battle in 1481. He was
killed by his nephew Mingyinyo. The viceroy had repeatedly refused the nephew's requests to marry his daughter Soe Min
(Mingyinyo's first cousin). He was a grandson of Crown Prince Minyekyawswa.
Mingyi Swe (Burmese: ခခခခခခခခခခခ, pronounced: [mɪ́ɴdʑí sʰwè]; officially styled as Minye Thihathu (ခခခခခခ ခခခခခ, [mɪ́ɴjɛ́
θìha̰θù]); c. 1490s -1549) was viceroy of Toungoo (Taungoo) from 1540 until his death in 1549 during the reign of his son-in-law King
Tabinshwehti of Toungoo Dynasty. He was also the father of King Bayinnaung, as well as key viceroys in Bayinnaung's administration. He rose
to the position of viceroy of the ancestral home of the dynasty, after having started out as a royal household servant of Tabinshwehti. All the
Toungoo kings from Bayinnaung to Mahadhammaraza Dipadi descended from him. The genealogy of Mingyi Swe and his first wife Shin Myo
Myat (ခခခခခခခခခခခခခ), the parents of King Bayinnaung, is unclear. Though there are no extant contemporary records regarding
Bayinnaung's ancestry or childhood, different traditions about the king's genealogy have persisted. According to Maha Yazawin, the official
chronicle of Toungoo Dynasty compiled two centuries later, Swe was born to a gentry family in Toungoo (Taungoo), then a vassal state of Ava
Kingdom. His parents were Taungkha Min (ခခခခခခခခခခ) and Kayenawaddy (ခခခခခခခ), a descendant of viceroys of Toungoo, Tarabya
(r. 1440–1446), and Minkhaung I (r. 1446–1451). When he reached adulthood, Swe was married to Myo Myat, a 5th generation descendant of
King Thihathu of Pinya (r. 1310–1325) and his chief queen Mi Saw U of Pagan Dynasty. Despite the official version of royal descent, oral
traditions speak of a decidedly less grandiose genealogy: That the couple were commoners from Ngathayauk in Pagan district or Htihlaing
village in Toungoo district, and that Swe was a toddy palm tree climber, then one of the lowest professions in Burmese society. The commoner
origin story first gained prominence in the early 20th century during the British colonial period as nationalist writers promoted it as proof that
even a son of a toddy tree climber could rise to become the great emperor like Bayinnaung in Burmese society. To be sure, the chronicle and
oral traditions need not be mutually exclusive since being a toddy tree climber does not preclude his having royal ancestors. Whatever their

origin and station in life may have been, the couple's lives were changed for good in 1516 when both were chosen to be part of the seven-person
staff to take care of the royal baby Tabinshwehti. His wife, who had delivered her second child named Ye Htut (ခခခခခခ) just three months
earlier, was chosen to be the wet nurse of the prince and heir apparent. The family moved into the Toungoo Palace precincts where the couple
had three more sons, the last of whom died young. Myo Myat died in the 1520s, and Swe remarried to her younger sister, who bore him two
more sons who later became known as Minkhaung II and Thado Minsaw. His youngest son was born in May 1531. They raised Tabinshwehti like
a son of their own, and the prince in turn treated them like his own parents. The prince is said to have deeply respected Swe. His close ties to the
crown prince eventually brought him into the ranks of Toungoo royalty. When Tabinshwehti came to power in 1530, the 14-year-old king took
Swe's eldest daughter Khin Hpone Soe as one of his two queens; awarded his father-in-law a royal title of Minye Theinkhathu (ခခခခခခ
ခခခခခခခခ); and made him a key adviser. His royal ties became stronger in 1534 when his eldest son Ye Htut was married to Princess Thakin
Gyi, younger half-sister of the king. In the next six years, whenever Tabinshwehti and Ye Htut (later styled as Bayinnaung Kyawhtin Nawrahta)
went on military campaigns against the Hanthawaddy Kingdom, Swe was left to govern the capital, first Toungoo and later Pegu (Bago), with a
sizable garrison. In 1540, Tabinshwehti appointed Swe viceroy of Toungoo with the style of Minye Thihathu (ခခခခခခ ခခခခခ). It was the
first viceroyship appointment by the king, who had moved the capital of his kingdom to Pegu a year earlier. (Tabinshwehti also appointed
another childhood servant Shin Nita to the viceroyship of Prome two years later.) Swe continued to be treated with great respect by the king in
the following years. He was seated to the right of the king, a position normally reserved for the king's most trusted person, in the latter's 1545
coronation ceremony at Pegu. Swe built the Myazigon Pagoda at Toungoo in the same year. Unlike his sons, he rarely went on military
campaigns. Rather, his primary job during the king's annual military campaigns was to guard Toungoo from raids from eastern Shan states. He
did join the king and his sons in the 1548–1549 invasion of Siam, commanding a regiment. He died in March 1549, within weeks of his return
from the front.
Minkhaung II of Toungoo (Burmese: ခခခခခခခ ခခခခခခခခခ, pronounced: [tàʊɴŋù mɪ́ɴɡàʊɴ]; 1520s - 1584) was
viceroy of Toungoo (Taungoo) Dunasty of Burma from 1549 until 1551 and from 1552 until his death in 1584 during the
reigns of kings Tabinshwehti, Bayinnaung and Nanda of Toungoo Dynasty of Burma (Myanmar). He briefly revolted
against his eldest half-brother Bayinnaung from 1550 to 1551 but was pardoned by Bayinnaung. Alongside his brothers
Bayinnaung, Minye Sithu, Thado Dhamma Yaza II, Thado Minsaw and his nephew Nanda, he fought in nearly every
campaign between 1552 and 1584 that rebuilt, expanded and defended the Toungoo Empire. Minkhaung II is sometimes
referred to as the basis for Taungoo Mingaung, one of the Thirty Seven Nats in the official pantheon of Burmese spirits
although the actual basis may have been Minkhaung I of Toungoo. He was born Zeya Nanda in the Toungoo Palace
precincts to Mingyi Swe and the younger sister of Shin Myo Myat, royal household servants of Crown Prince Tabinshwehti.
He had an elder half-sister, Dhamma Dewi, three elder half-brothers, Bayinnaung and Minye Sithu, Thado Dhamma Yaza II
and a younger full-brother Thado Minsaw.He was likely born in the late 1520s since his younger brother Thado Minsaw was born in May 1531.
He grew up in the palace precincts, and received a military-style education there. Zeya Nanda came of age at a time when his native Toungoo
was in the process of building the largest polity in Burma since the late 13th century. Although he probably joined his older brothers in
Tabinshwehti's later military campaigns in the 1540s, he had not achieved a regimental commander status to be mentioned in the chronicles.
His name does not appear in the commander lists down to the last campaigns of Tabinshwehti: Arakan (1545–47) and Siam (1547–1549). At any
rate, the king was apparently impressed by the young man's ability. When viceroy of Toungoo Mingyi Swe died in March 1549, the king named
Zeya Nanda successor with the title of Thihathu. Though it was a governorship, as opposed to a viceroyship, the appointment was still an
impressive achievement for the young man as he was selected over his older and more experienced brothers Minye Sithu and Thado Dhamma
Yaza II both of whom had been commanders since 1540, and over the objections of ministers concerned by handing over the ancestral home of
the dynasty to a relatively inexperienced youngster. The ministers actually recommended Bayinnaung but the king rejected, saying that
Bayinnaung was already his heir-apparent. Now styled as Thihathu, he remained Tabinshwehti's favorite. In January/February 1550 (Tabodwe
911 ME), the king entrusted him to administer Pegu (Bago) while he went on a months-long hunting trip and Bayinnaung was on the campaign
in the Irrawaddy delta to suppress a rebellion. Three months into his stay at Pegu, he received word that the king had been assassinated.
Although Tabinshwehti had chosen Bayinnaung as his successor since 1542, governors and viceroys of major regions all declared themselves
king. Thihathu was no exception. He immediately returned to Toungoo and declared himself king with the title of Minkhaung. But all his other
brothers remained loyal to their eldest brother. In September 1550, Bayinnaung's forces (9600 men, 200 horses, 20 elephants, 200 war boats) laid
siege to Toungoo. Minkhaung resisted for four months but finally surrendered on January 11, 1551. Remarkably, Bayinnaung forgave his
brother, saying that their father had wanted all the brothers to remain united like the five fingers of the hand. Minkhaung was overcome by
Bayinnaung's pardon, and proved to be a loyal brother and an effective military commander for the rest of their lives. He immediately redeemed
himself by leading the successful attack on Prome (Pyay) on August 30, 1551. He is said to have led the charge on the city walls, rammed his war
elephant through the badly damaged massive wooden doors of the main gate, entered the city. The following is a list of campaigns he
participated in during the reign of Bayinnaung. (He did not participate in Manipur in 1560 or Mohnyin/Mogaung in 1571.) He was appointed
viceroy of Toungoo on June 6, 1552 (Monday, 14th waxing of Waso 914 ME). He built the Toungoo gate of Pegu (Bago) when the capital was
rebuilt between 1565 and 1568. (Each of the twenty gates of the new capital was built by key vassal rulers.) For their loyal service, Thado
Dhamma Yaza II, Minkhaung II and Thado Minsaw were all honored by their brother the king on March 3, 1580. Bayinnaung died on November
10, 1581, and was succeeded by his son Nanda. The new king faced an impossible task of maintaining an empire ruled by autonomous viceroys
who were loyal to Bayinnaung, not the kingdom of Toungoo. In June 1583, Thado Minsaw, the viceroy of Ava, sent secret embassies to Prome,
Toungoo and Chiang Mai to launch a simultaneous revolt against Nanda. Minkhaung II and the other viceroys sided with Nanda. When Nanda
marched to Ava in March 1584, he along with the rulers of Prome and Chiang Mai also marched to Ava. Ava turned out to be Minkhaung's last
campaign. He died in June 1584. He was succeeded by his eldest son styled as Minye Thihathu II of Toungoo. His chief queen was Laygyun
Mibaya, a daughter of King Bayin Htwe of Prome. They were married in 1545 at the coronation ceremony of Tabinshwehti at the Pegu Palace.
The couple had five children (two sons and three daughters). They were: Minye Thihathu II, Prince of Kawliya, Min Phyu (daughter), Min Ma
Yin (also known as Min Khin Pu) (daughter) and Min A-Swe (also known as Min Htwe) (daughter) He also had a daughter by a concubine.
Minkhaung II has been referred to as the basis for the Taungoo Mingaung nat, one of the Thirty Seven Nats in the official pantheon. Based on
the nature of his death, however, Minkhaung II, who died of natural causes, may not be the basis. On the other hand, Minkhaung I (r. 1446–
1451) was brutally assassinated. Given that death from violent murders is one of the main criteria for being inducted into the pantheon,
Minkhaung I is probably the basis for the nat.
Agga Maha Thenapati Binnya Dala (Burmese: ခခခခခခခခခခခခခခ ခခခခခခ, Burmese pronunciation: [ʔɛʔɡa̰ məhà θènàpətḭ bəɲá
dəla̰]; also spelled Banya Dala; 1518–1573) was the Chief Minister - General of the Taungoo Dynasty of Burma from 1559 until his death in 1573
(Minister from 1555 until 1559). He was a Burmese statesman, general and writer-scholar during the reign of King Bayinnaung of Toungoo

Dynasty. He was the king's most trusted adviser and general, and a key figure responsible for the expansion, defense and administration of
Toungoo Empire from the 1550s to his fall from grace in 1573. He oversaw the rebuilding of Pegu (1565–1568). He is also known for his literary
works, particularly Razadarit Ayedawbon, the earliest extant chronicle of the Mon people. He died in exile after having failed to reconquer Lan
Xang. Little is known about his early life except that he was an ethnic Mon born in 1518/1519 (880 ME) in Hanthawaddy Kingdom. His birth
name is unknown—the name Binnya Dala was a senior title of the Hanthawaddy court, (and later of Toungoo and Restored Hanthawaddy
courts). Judging by his later literary works, he was highly educated, and fluent in both his native Mon and Burmese. Likewise, based on his
senior ministerial and military leadership roles first achieved in the mid-1550s, he was likely a junior-to-mid-level officer in the service of King
Tabinshwehti of Toungoo Dynasty in the 1540s, and may have begun his career in the service of King Takayutpi of Hanthawaddy in the late
1530s. The first confirmed record of him as a senior commander came in 1555 when he and three other Toungoo commanders drove out the
retreating forces of the Confederation of Shan States from Singu. His rise to the upper echelons of Toungoo command was rapid. In 1556, he was
a minister at the court at Pegu, which was considering its policy toward the cis-Salween Shan states. While others proposed piecemeal
approaches, he proposed a bold plan: assemble an overwhelming military force, and then take on all the states in one stroke. With his down-to-
earth personality,[4] he successfully persuaded the initially skeptical court and king. When Bayinnaung's massive forces invaded in 1557, all non-
Chinese cis-Salween states submitted one after another with minimal resistance. Bayinnaung in one stroke controlled most of the cis-Salween
Shan states from the Patkai range at the Assamese border in the northwest to Mohnyin and Mogaung in the north to Momeik and Thibaw in the
northeast to Mone in the east. The overwhelming success gained him the king's ear. In November 1557, Bayinnaung listened to Binnya Dala, and
rejected his son Crown Prince Nanda's proposal to acquire the neighboring Chinese vassal Shan states in the north. The king took the advice of
Binnya Payan and Binnya Dala to attack the kingdom of Lan Na instead. After Lan Na was acquired in April 1558, the king left Binnya Dala and
Binnya Set at Chiang Mai. But their thousand-man garrison was unable to prevent the occupation of eastern Lan Na provinces by King
Setthathirath of Lan Xang, a former monarch of Lan Na trying to reclaim his throne at Chiang Mai. They had to wait for reinforcements to
arrive in November 1558 before driving out Lan Xang forces later in the year. Pleased with Binnya Dala's intellect, versatility and battle-field
performance, the king recalled him from Chiang Mai, and made him his primary adviser, general, and administrator in 1559. The general's first
assignment as commander-in-chief was to lead the invasion of Manipur. Binnya Law and Binnya Set were appointed as his deputies. The trio left
Pegu on December 2, 1559 to take command of the invasion force (10,000 troops, 500 horses, 30 elephants, 50 ships), chiefly drawn from Upper
Burma and Shan states. The Burmese forces entered the Manipuri capital with little resistance, and received the allegiance of the raja there. The
generals arrived back at Pegu on May 27, 1560. After Manipur, Bayinnaung put Binnya Dala in charge of the intelligence operations to keep
track of Siam's defensive preparations. In 1562, Binnya Dala recommended that trans-Salween Shan states be reduced to secure the rear before
starting the Siam campaign. He drew up the invasion plans, and participated in the four-pronged invasion which acquired the states in
March/April 1563. He immediately returned to the capital to continue the war preparations. In July 1563, he wrote Bayinnaung's ultimatum to
King Maha Chakkraphat of Siam to submit. As expected, the Siamese king refused. Even at the late stage, the Toungoo court was still split. At
least one prominent minister advised against the war. After reviewing the latest intelligence reports, Binnya Dala recommended to proceed with
the invasion. The battle plan was his. Instead of attacking the Siamese capital Ayutthaya head on like in 1548–1549, his plan called for attacking
peripheral regions of north-central Siam (Sukhothai, Phitsanulok and Sawankhalok) and western littoral of Tenasserim coast. He compared his
strategy to "clipping the wings of a bird". Following his battle plan, five Burmese armies acquired the aforementioned peripheral regions before
converging on Ayutthaya and forcing the Siamese king's surrender in February 1564. Binnya Dala was also instrumental in acquiring Lan Xang
but the success there proved illusory. In January 1565, Crown Prince Nanda's army group easily took Vientiane, the capital of Lan Xang. But
King Setthathirath escaped. Nanda and Binnya Dala chased the Lan Xang king all the way to what is now present-day Vietnam but failed to find
the renegade king.(The Lan Xang king remained active in the countryside, and would retake Vientiane three years later). In August 1565,
Binnya Dala returned to a still charred Pegu (Bago), which was burned down earlier in the year by a serious rebellion. The king asked him to
reconstruct the capital and the palace. The construction effort took over two years. The new capital had 20 gates, each named after the vassal
who built it. Each gate had a gilded two-tier pyatthat and gilded wooden doors. When the newly rebuilt Kanbawzathadi Palace was officially
opened on March 16, 1568, an appreciative king seated Binnya Dala in one of the most prominent positions in the elaborate ceremony. Binnya
Dala was again called to duty when both Lan Xang and Siam revolted in 1568. While his official role again was Nanda's deputy, he was the one
the king depended on for advice. When the Toungoo command learned that a Lan Xang army on its way to break their siege of Ayutthaya,
Binnya Dala devised a plan to lure the Lan Xang army to an area suitable for numerically superior Burmese forces. The king left him in charge
of the siege and left with half of the army to meet the Lan Xang army. On May 8, 1569, Bayinnaung decisively defeated Setthathirath northeast
of the city, after which Lan Xang ceased to be of concern to the siege operations. Two months after Ayutthaya's fall, the king himself led a two-
pronged invasion of Lan Xang in October 1569. Setthathirath again retreated to the jungle to conduct his tried-and-true guerrilla warfare. The
Burmese armies spent months combing the Lan Xang countryside. Setthathirath was nowhere to be found but many Burmese troops were dying
of starvation and from long marches. The task of telling the king to call off the search fell to Binnya Dala as Nanda and the king's own brothers
were unwilling to tell the king. Upon Binnya Dala's advice, Bayinnaung grudgingly agreed to call off the search in April 1570. Very few men of
the original armies survived to reach their own country. The calm did not last. In early 1572, Setthathirath overran the Burmese garrison at
Vientiane but the Lan Xang king was killed shortly after. A senior minister and general named Sen Soulintha seized the throne. Much to the
surprise of the Toungoo court, Soulintha refused to submit. At Pegu, Binnya Dala advised the king that Soulintha, a non-royal usurper was
unlikely to be accepted as king by the Lan Xang court, and that a small expedition should remove the pretender. The king and the court agreed
with the assessment. Bayinnaung appointed Binnya Dala to lead the expedition. In late 1572, Binnya Dala, now styled as Agga Maha Thenapati,
left Pegu with 2000 troops. Another 2000 troops each from Lan Na and Siam were to march toward Vientiane from their respective bases as well.
But Binnya Dala and the Toungoo court had grossly underestimated the opposition. Soulintha, a former general, had set up several forts along
the border to prevent the three Burmese armies from joining up. Binnya Dala's army was stopped at a fort on the way for two months, and after
not hearing any news from the other two armies, had to retreat. At Pegu, the king, who never forgave a failure, was furious at Binnya Dala, and
sent who used to be his favorite general into exile in central Siam, with just five attendants. It would be the last time the king would see Binnya
Dala, one of the few principal officers with whom the king had "entered into thwethauk blood-bond, a sacramental brotherhood of some round
table as it were". Binnya Dala had written in an earlier memoir that "All [of us], his chosen men, in fact, whether Shans, Mons or Burmans...
declared ourselves willing to lay down our lives [for him]." Binnya Dala fell ill soon after he arrived at the malarial infested remote outpost.
Concerned, King Maha Thammarachathirat of Siam moved him to a bigger town of Kamphaeng Phet, five months into the exile, and sent a
mission to Pegu to request permission. Bayinnaung granted permission but it was too late. His loyal thwethauk blood brother, who won him
many a battle, died about a month after the transfer to Kamphaeng Phet. Notwithstanding his complex duties of his high office, Binnya Dala
also wrote many literary works, the most well known and significant of which is the chronicle Razadarit Ayedawbon. He translated the first half
of Hanthawaddy Chronicle from Mon to Burmese. His Burmese translation is the earliest extant text regarding the history of the Mon people in
Lower Burma. (The original Mon chronicle is believed to have been lost in 1565 when all of Pegu was burned down. Indeed, for nearly four
centuries until Nai Pan Hla translated the Burmese version back to Mon in 1958, the oldest chronicle about the Mon people existed only in

Burmese. The second half of the original chronicle remains lost.) Binnya Dala's writing has been praised as a model of good Burmese prose of
the early Toungoo period, and the text was prescribed for Burmese literature students at one time
Binnya Kyanhtaw was the Chief Minister of the Taungoo Dynasty of Burma during 1580s and in 1590s.
Minye Thihathu II was viceroy of Toungoo (Taungoo) Dynasty of Burma during 1580s and in 1590s.
Sithu Nawrahta was the Chief Minister of the Taungoo Dynasty of Burma during 1670s.
Kinwun Mingyi U Kaung, C.S.I. (Burmese: ခခခခခခခခခခခခခခခ ခခခခခခခခ, also spelt U Gaung;
February 3, 1822 - June 30, 1908) was a Chief Minister of the Konbaung dynasty of Burma during the reigns of King
Mindon and Thibaw, as well as a colonial civil servant from 1853 until his death on June 30, 1908. He attempted to
westernise the Burmese kingdom's existing bureaucracy into a more democratic system. Because of such attempts to do
so, he was accused by many to have allowed Britain to win the Third Anglo-Burmese War. Kinwon Mingyi was born
Maung Chin (ခခခခခခခခခခ) on February 3,1822(Sunday, 12th waxing of Tabodwe 1183 ME) in Madaingbin village
(in the Lower Chindwin district). His father U Hmo was a foot soldier in the Natshinywe Infantry Regiment. As was
customary tradition, he was destined to follow the footsteps of his father. However, he escaped conscription by ordaining
as a Buddhist monk and was given the Dharma name Āloka (ခခခခခခ). He moved to Amarapura and lived at Bagaya
Monastery, the monastery of the Bagaya Sayadaw, then the Supreme Patriarch of the Konbaung dynasty. He was also
schooled at a college led by U Yanwe, who eventually became the chief minister of King Mindon with the title Pakan
Mingyi. He disrobed and returned to the laity at the age of 25. After the Second Anglo-Burmese War in 1853, he joined
the court service of King Mindon (who had deposed his half brother, King Tharrawaddy), who renamed him U Kaung (ခခခခခခခခ, lit. "good",
considered more favorable than his birth name Chin) and appointed him the Clerk of the Royal Treasury (ခခခခခခခခခခခခခခ). In 1871, he
was appointed minister of third rank (ခခခခခခခခ) at the Hluttaw, the national governing body and was responsible for the country's police
and customs stations, where he earned his moniker Kinwun (lit. 'minister of the patrol stations'). In 1871, he led the first Burmese diplomatic
group to Europe and successfully asserted Burmese sovereignty. In preparation for the trip, he rose to the rank of Wungyi, the chief minister.
There, he was received by Queen Victoria and invested Prince of Wales (later to be King Edward VII) and William Ewart Gladstone gold salwe of
21 and 18 strings respectively. he and his embassy, consisting of Shwe O (later the Kyaukmyaung Atwinwun) and Shwe Bin and Maung Mye
(later the Debayin Wundauk). By 1872, he had risen to the rank of regional governor of Minhla District. Before King Mindon's death in 1878, U
Kaung was made Commander-in-Chief. After King Mindon's death, Kinwun Mingyi lost much of his influence. He ordered the Burmese troops
during the Third Anglo-Burmese War to not attack invading British. U Kaung's role in the initial collapse of Burmese resistance later gave rise
to the popular mnemonic U Kaung lein htouk, minzet pyouk ("U Kaung's treachery, end of dynasty", ခခခခခခခခခခခခခခခခ
ခခခခခခခခခခခခ), corresponding to Burmese Era 1247 or 1885 in Burmese numerology. Under British colonial rule, Kinwon Mingyi served
as a civil servant in the British administration. In 1888, he was awarded the Companions of the Order of the Star of India (CSI) and in 1897, he
became one of the first two indigenous Burmese to be appointed to the Legislative Council of British Burma. During his civil service, he penned
many famous books and poems in Burmese literature. Among them were the Attathamkhepa Wunnana Dhammathat
(ခခခခခခခခခခခခခခခခခခခခ) and the Digest of Buddhist Law. His personal library was acquired by the Bernard Free Library in Rangoon.
U Kaung was twice married. His first marriage was to the Princess of Singyan, one of the lesser queens of Pagan Min. His second was to Shwe
May, the daughter of the myothugyi (hereditary chief) of Ahlone, a town in Monywa Township. He did not have any biological children, but he
adopted two sons of the his brother-in-law (of his second wife). He died of paralysis at his residence in Fort Dufferin in Mandalay on June 30,
1908.
Somdet Chao Phraya Borom Maha Prayurawongse (Thai: สมเด็จเจ้าพระยาบรมมหาประยูรวงศ์; RTGS: Somdet Chao
Phraya Borom Maha Prayurawong) or Tish Bunnag (Thai: ดิศ บุนนาค; RTGS: Dit Bunnak; 1788 - 1855) was the Regent of
the Kingdom of Siam from 1851 until his death in 1855. He was a prominent political figure of Siam during the mid-
19th century as a regent for Mongkut kingdom-wide. He led Siamese fleets in the Siamese-Vietnamese Wars and
became a Somdet Chao Phraya — the highest title the nobility could attain, with honor equal to that of royalty. Tish
Bunnag was born in 1788 to Bunnag and Lady Nuan (who was Queen Amarindra's sister). His father, Bunnag, or Chao
Phraya Akkaramahasaena, was the Samuha Kalahom and Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke's trusted general. Tish entered the
palace as one of the royal pages - the traditional way to Siamese bureaucracy. Dis swiftly rose in ranks and became the
Minister of Kromma Tha and emerged as a powerful noble under the government of Buddha Loetla Nabhalai. During
the Siamese-Vietnamese Wars, in 1833 Dis led the Siamese fleet to imposed the naval blockade upon Saigon but
without achieving fruitful results. King Nangklao then offered him the title of Chao Phraya Akka Mahasena but he
turned it down saying that the Chao Phraya Akka Mahasena died early. He then became the Samuha Kalahom. As Tish had played a great role
in the ascension of Mongkut, he was bestowed the title of Somdet Chao Phraya Borom Maha Prayurawongse and became Mongkut's regent
kingdom-wide along with his brother Tat Bunnag who became Somdet Chao Phraya Borom Maha Pichaiyat and Mongkut's regent in Bangkok.
Prayurawongse was granted the right to use the Solar-charioteer Seal (Thai: ตราสุริยมณฑลเทพบุตรชักรถ) Prayurawongse was noted for his role in the
negotiation of the Bowring Treaty. To distinguish him from his brother, Prayurawongse was also called the Greater Somdet Chao Phraya (Thai:
สมเด็จเจ้าพระยาองค์ใหญ่) while his brother was called the Lesser Somdet Chao Phraya (Thai: สมเด็จเจ้าพระยาองค์น้อย). His notable sons included: Chuang
Bunnag; later Somdet Chao Phraya Borom Maha Sri Suriyawongse - regent for Chulalongkorn, Kam Bunnag; later Chao Phraya
Thipakornwongse - the Minister of Kromma Tha, Tuam Bunnag; later Chao Phraya Panuwongse - the Minister of Kromma Tha for

Chulalongkorn and the first Minister of Foreign Affairs of Siam, Thet Bunnag; later Chao Phraya Suraphan Phisut and Porn Bunnag; later Chao
Phraya Bhasakornwongse Prayurawongse died in 1855. His son, Kam Bunnag, succeed the Ministry of Kromma Tha.
Somdet Chao Phraya Borom Maha Si Suriyawongse (Thai: สมเด็จเจ้าพระยาบรมมหาศรีสุริยวงศ์, personal name Chuang
Bunnag; December 23, 1808 – January 19, 1883) was the Regent of the Kingdom of Siam from 1868 until 1873. He was a
prominent 19th century Thai figure and served as the regent during the early years of the reign of King Chulalongkorn.
A member of a family originally of Persian origin, Si (or Sri) Suriyawongse was born the eldest son of Dis (ดิศ) Bunnag
(Prayurawongse, สมเด็จเจ้าพระยาบรมมหาประยูรวงศ์) and Than Phuying Chan. Chuang was well educated for the time. King Mongkut
made him Samuha Kalahom (สมุหกลาโหม), one of the two Ministers of old Siam. Si Suriyawongse, was one of the most
important figures in the Mongkut's court. As he was the main supporter of Prince Mongkut to be enthroned, he
eventually held the position of the Chancellor, or Samuha Kralahome, or the chief of the armed forces department. He
was very well known as a pro-British official, or as a 'new generation' among the court's officials. He was interested in
western learning in various fields such as science, engineering and steamship building, He had a very close relation with
Prince Mongkut, the future Rama IV, supporting him to welcome British influence, western learning. He also had a positive relationship with
early Protestant missionaries, whom he valued for their Western scientific knowledge and ability to teach English. He was also the key figure in
promoting the Siam-British relationship, culminating in the Bowring Treaty in 1855, facilitating the economic relationship with Britain. After
the death of King Mongkut in 1868, his young son Prince Chulalongkorn became the new monarch. However, as the new king was underage, Si
Suriyawongse was named as regent, a post he held until 1873. He died in 1883 in Ratchaburi. Suriyawongse was also the first Thai to have a life
insurance policy, after King Rama V granted foreign companies permission to extend their insurance business into Siam. His son Won Bunnag
succeeded him as Samuha Kalahom and also held the title Chao Phraya Surawongse. Si Suriyawongse received the following royal decorations
in the Honours System of Thailand: Knight of the Ancient and Auspicious Order of the Nine Gems - B.E. 2412 (C.E. 1869–70), Knight Grand
Cross (First Class) of the Most Illustrious Order of Chula Chom Klao - B.E. 2416 (C.E. 1873–74), Knight Grand Cross (First Class) of the Most
Exalted Order of the White Elephant - circa B.E. 2412-16 (C.E. 1869–1974) and Knight Grand Cross (First Class) of the Most Noble Order of the
Crown of Thailand - B.E. 2419 (C.E. 1876–77).
Saovabha Phongsri (Thai: เสาวภาผ่องศรี; RTGS: Saowapha Phongs, January 1, 1864 - October 20, 1919) was the
Regent of the Kingdom of Siam in 1897 and Queen Consort of the Kingdom of Siam from 1878 until October 23,
1910. She was an agnatic half-sister and queen of King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) of Thailand, and mother of both
King Vajiravudh (Rama VI) and King Prajadhipok (Rama VII). As in accordance with Thai royal tradition, King
Vajiravudh later bestowed on his mother the title of "Queen Mother Sri Bajrindra" (Thai: ศรีพัชรินทร; RTGS: Si
Phatcharin). Saovabha was born as a Princess of Siam to King Mongkut (or Rama IV) and Princess Consort
Piyamavadi (Piam Sucharitakul). She was the youngest sister of the future Queen Sunandha Kumariratana and
Queen Savang Vadhana. Saovabha became the consort of her half brother King Chulalongkorn sometime in 1878.
She gave him 9 children, 5 would survive to adulthood (one died in infancy), two would eventually become King of
Siam. In 1897, Queen Saovabha became the first female Regent of Siam, when her husband went on a tour of
Europe. When he returned he bestowed upon her the title of "Somdet Phra Nang Chao Saowapha Phongsi
Praborommarachininat" (RTGS) (Thai: สมเด็จพระนางเจ้าเสาวภาผ่องศรี พระบรมราชินีนาถ) (roughly equivalent to H.M. the Queen
Regent). During her time as queen she took many interests especially in the issues concerning women. In 1904 she established one of the first
schools for girls in Siam; the "Rajini School" or Queen's School in Bangkok. When she died in 1919 at the age of 57, she was given a grand Royal
Funeral, attended by all members of the Siamese Royal Family, and the ceremony was presided over by her son King Vajiravudh. She played a
prominent posthumous role in the 1924 Palace Law of Succession, in which her son King Vajiravudh stipulated that her children would take
precedent among all others over the line of succession. This guaranteed the accession of her youngest son Prince Prajadhipok to the throne in
1925, despite there being more senior and learned sons of Chulalongkorn. The Queen Saovabha Memorial Institute was named after her.She had
9 children with King Chulalongkorn: Bahurada Manimaya, Princess Debanariratana (December 19, 1878 - August 27, 1887), Vajiravudh (January
1, 1880 - November 25, 1925), Prince Tribejrutama Dhamrong (February 8, 1881 - November 22, 1887), Chakrabongse Bhuvanadh, Prince of
Bisnulok (March 3, 1883 - June 13, 1920), Prince Siriraj Kakudhabhanda (November 27, 1885 - May 3, 1887), Princess (Unname) (born/died
December 13, 1884), Asdang Dejavudh, Prince of Nakhon Rajasima (May 12, 1889 - February 9, 1924), Chudadhuj Dharadilok, Prince of
Bejraburana (July 5, 1892 - July 8, 1923) and Prajadhipok (November 8, 1893 - May 30, 1941). In addition, the queen also adobted one of Savang
Vadhana's daughters, Princess Valaya Alongkorn and raised as her own daughter. She had following awards and decorations: The Most
Illustrious Order of the Royal House of Chakri, The Ancient and Auspicious of Order of the Nine Gems, Dame Grand Cross (First Class) of The
Most Illustrious Order of Chula Chom Klao, Dame Grand Cordon (Special Class) of The Most Noble Order of the Crown of Thailand, King
Rama IV Royal Cypher Medal (Second Class), King Rama V Royal Cypher Medal (First Class) and King Rama VI Royal Cypher Medal (First
Class).
Tabasco (Tavasco)
Tabasco or Tavasco was a Chontal Maya Nation in the western most area of the Maya region. Sometime, probably during the twelfth century the
Chontal Maya in the western most part of The League of Mayapan separated from the rest of the league. They did this because they objected to
an alliance with Mayapan,(the city not the league). They adopted the same governmental system that existed when they were attached to the
league and Mayapan. That is, with the three existing classes. Nobility and priesthood, tax and slaves. A Halach Uinik and a Slave the highest and
lowest classes of Maya society. It was in the west of their new country on the river Tabasco where they founded their capital city. Its name was
Potonchán which means smelly place, there were 25,000 homes there. Having their main city on a wide river near the ocean allowed them to
have an extensive sea trade network. At some point the eastern part of Tabasco became independent. The new countries name was Acalan which
had its capitol at Itzamkanac. Acalan had constant disputes with Tabasco. Also Itzamkanac was inland and Acalan had a much smaller sea trade
industry. On Tris Island, now called Isla del Carmen the people were not Maya but Nahua. They had there own country and port city, both called
Xacalango. Tabasco claimed the island, and there was constant violence on the border. Finally in 1513 Tabscoob, the last ruler of Tabasco led
and army of 20,000 soldiers to Xicalango, were they defeated the islanders. It was a Maya custom to give the Halach Uinik a large amount of
slaves from the destroyed country. One of the slaves from Xacalongo was Malintzin.

Halach Uinik (Maya ruler) of Tabasco
Tabscoob was a halach uinik (Maya ruler) of the Potonchán jurisdiction, known for leading the Chontal Maya in the
Battle of Centla against Spanish forces led by Hernán Cortés on March 14, 1519. Tabscoob's administration
maintained commercial ties with the Mexicas and other Maya jurisdictions, especially with the jurisdiction of Chakán
Putum, who—after having contact with the expeditions of Francisco Hernández de Córdoba and Juan de Grijalva—
warned the Chontal to take precautions. On June 8, 1518, Juan de Grijalva landed in the province of Potonchán and
met Tabscoob to whom, it is said, Grijalva gave his green velvet doublet. Between Potonchán and the island of Tris
was a Nahuatl town called Xicalango, which was a major port on the Gulf of Mexico, but being different from the
Maya race, had constant friction with Potonchán since the xicalangos frequently crossed territory within the province
of Tabasco. This led to a war in the year 1513 in which Tabscoob led an army of 20,000 men and defeated the
xicalangos. It was the custom among the natives that the defeated make various gifts to the victors. Thus, the chief
Tabscoob received a large number of slaves including Malintzin, famously known as "La Malinche." Meeting of the
Maya chief Tabscoob with the Spaniard Juan de Grijalva in 1518. On June 8, 1518, the Spaniard Juan de Grijalva
landed at Potonchán. With the help of Maya interpreters, he began to engage in a friendly dialogue with the natives,
as well as flattering them with gifts. Grijalva asked if they would call their boss to meet and confer with him. Thus, in time, Chief Tabscoob
appeared with his nobles, greeting the Spanish captain. During the talk, both figures exchanged gifts: to Grijalva, Tabscoob presented gold plates
in the form of armor and some feathers; whereas Grijalva gave the Maya chief his green velvet doublet. Tabscoob told Grijalva of a place called
Culua that was "toward where the sun set..." there was much more of that material. Grijalva in turn, spoke with the Maya chief with courtesy,
admitting that he came in the name of a great lord named Charles V, who was very good, and he wanted to have them as vassals. Tabscoob
responded that they lived happily as they were, and that they needed no other lord, and that if Grijalva wanted to preserve his friendship with
Tabscoob, the Spanish expedition should leave. Grijalva, after stocking water and provisions, embarked on his way to Culua (modern-day San
Juan de Ulúa). The entrance of Hernán Cortés into the city of "Potonchán" or "Tabasco." On March 12, 1519, Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés
reached the mouth of the Grijalva River. He decided to anchor his ships and enter the river in skiffs, looking for the great city of Indians
described by Juan de Grijalva. Cortés landed in a place called Punta de Palmares right at the mouth of the river. Cortés said, by way of a
translator, to some Indians who were in a boat that he and his men "would do them no harm, [and that] they came in peace and only wanted to
speak with them." But Cortés, seeing that the natives were still threatening, commanded weapons be brought onto the skiffs and handed them to
archers and musketeers, and he began planning how to attack the town. The next day, March 13, 1519, Cortés devised a strategy to attack
Potonchán. He sent Alonso de Avila with one hundred soldiers who were on the road leading to the village, sent Alonso de Ávila with one
hundred soldiers out on the road leading to the village, while Cortés and the other group of soldiers went in the skiffs. There, on the shore,
Cortés made a "requerimiento" (requisition) in front of a notary of the king named Diego de Godoy, to let them disembark, thus issuing the first
notarial act in Mexico. Given the refusal of the Indians, Cortés decided to attack, starting the fight. The hosts of Tabscoob and Cortes met in full
combat. The forces of Alonso de Ávila arrived at the rear of the settlement, making the natives flee and consummating the Spanish
conquistadors' takeover of the town. Battle of Centla between the hosts of Tabscoob and the army of Hernán Cortés. On March 14, 1519 the hosts
of Tabscoob, calculated by some historians to be 40,000 men, fought on the plains of Cintla against the Spaniards led by Hernán Cortés. The
Battle of Centla ensued, which would be the first major battle of the Spanish conquistadors in what later became New Spain. The power of the
Spaniards' firearms and the surprise and fear caused by the appearance of the cavalry (since the natives had never seen horses and thought that
animal and rider were one) eventually gave victory to the Spanish army, estimated at 410 soldiers. Days later, on April 16, 1519 chief Tabscoob
and his entourage appeared before Cortes, swearing allegiance and subjection to the Spanish Crown. And, as was the Indian tradition, Tabscoob
gifted 20 native women to Cortés, including Malintzin, who would become a valuable weapon for Cortés in the conquest of Mexico. But the
conquest of Tabasco was far from achieved, as the Indians often rebelled against the Spaniards. It would take 45 years of struggles and intense
military campaigns, before the Spanish conquistadors could break the fighting spirit of the indigenous people of Tabasco. It is thought that the
name of the Mexican state of Tabasco comes from the name of this ruler. There is a monument in the city of Villahermosa (Tabasco) dedicated
to his memory.
Saudeleur Dynasty
The Saudeleur Dynasty (Pohnpeian: Mwehin Sau Deleur, "Period of the Lord of Deleur"; also spelled Chau-te-leur) was the first organized
government uniting the people of Pohnpei island, ruling from around 1100 to around 1628. The era was preceded by the Mwehin Kawa or
Mwehin Aramas (Period of Building, or Period of Peopling), and followed by Mwehin Nahnmwarki. The name Deleur was an ancient name for
Pohnpei, today a state containing the capital of the Federated States of Micronesia.Pohnpeian legend recounts that the Saudeleur rulers were of
foreign origin, and that their appearance was quite different from native Pohnpeians. The Saudeleur centralized form of absolute rule is
characterized in Pohnpeian legend as becoming increasingly oppressive over several generations. Arbitrary and onerous demands, as well as a
reputation for offending Pohnpeian deities, sowed resentment among Pohnpeians. The Saudeleur Dynasty ended with the invasion of Isokelekel,
another semi-mythical foreigner, who replaced the Saudeleur rule with the more decentralized nahnmwarki system in existence today.
List of Rulers of the Saudeleur Dynasty
Olosohpa was a ruler of the Saudeleur Dynasty, first organized government uniting the people of Pohnpei island in the 12th century.
According to Pohnpeian legend, the main island was created by a party of 17 men and women from a distant land to the south who piled rocks
on the surrounding coral reef. The island was inhabited by natives who mixed with the newcomers. Their numbers grew, but their society was in
a state of perpetual anarchy. The Saudeleur Dynasty began with the arrival of twin sorcerers Olisihpa and Olosohpa from the mythical Western
Katau, or Kanamwayso. Olisihpa and Olosohpa were said to be much taller than native Pohnpeians. The brothers arrived in a large canoe
seeking a place to build an altar so that they could worship Nahnisohn Sahpw, the god of agriculture. After several false starts, the two brothers
successfully built an altar at megalithic Nan Madol, where they performed their rituals. In legend, these brothers levitated the huge stones with
the aid of a flying dragon. When Olisihpa died of old age, Olosohpa became the first Saudeleur. Olosohpa married a local woman and sired
twelve generations, producing sixteen other Saudeleur rulers of the Dipwilap ("Great") clan. The founders of the dynasty ruled kindly, though
their successors placed ever increasing demands on their subjects.

Mwohn Mwehi was a ruler of the Saudeleur Dynasty, first organized government uniting the people of Pohnpei island.
Inenen Mwehi was a ruler of the Saudeleur Dynasty, first organized government uniting the people of Pohnpei island.
Ketiparelong was a ruler of the Saudeleur Dynasty, first organized government uniting the people of Pohnpei island.
Raipwenlake was a ruler of the Saudeleur Dynasty, first organized government uniting the people of Pohnpei island.
Raipwenlang was a ruler of the Saudeleur Dynasty, first organized government uniting the people of Pohnpei island.
Sakon Mwehi was a ruler of the Saudeleur Dynasty, first organized government uniting the people of Pohnpei island.
Saraiden Sapw was a ruler of the Saudeleur Dynasty, first organized government uniting the people of Pohnpei island.
Saudemwohl was a ruler of the Saudeleur Dynasty, first organized government uniting the people of Pohnpei island from ? until 1628.
Isokelekel (Pohnpeian: "shining noble," "wonderful king"), also called Idzikolkol, was a semi-mythical hero warrior from Kosrae who
conquered the Saudeleur rulers of Pohnpei, an island in the modern Federated States of Micronesia, sometime between the early 16th century
and early 17th century. Some Kosraean variants name this hero Nanparatak, with features closer to Ulithian tales of the same archetype. He is
considered the father of modern Pohnpei. There is great variation among sources for the exact events before and during the invasion on
Pohnpei; there at least 13 differing accounts of the war published. In most versions of the Isokelekel legend, the Saudeleur rule had become
oppressive under its abusive centralized social system, and its lords had offended the Thunder God Nan Sapwe, sealing the fate of the dynasty.
Pohnpeian culture is heavily autonomous and decentralized, and quibbling directly and publicly over variations is considered bad form. The
differences among the many accounts are further attributed to a wide range of cultural phenomena, from kava social groups to clan affiliation.
Accordingly, any preferred version is generally the product of a measure of self-interest and autonomy. Modern chiefs of Pohnpei trace their
lineage to Isokelekel, and according to this legend, modern Pohnpeians are descendants of Isokelekel's invasion party. According to most
versions of Isokelekel's legendary birth, his father is the Thunder God Nan Sapwe. Nan Sapwe had committed adultery with the wife of the
Saudeleur lord. In anger, the Saudeleur lord set out to capture Nan Sapwe. Some versions include that the ruler had also incensed other gods of
the Pohnpeian pantheon and insulted a high priest who prophesied the Saudeleur downfall. These offenses, as well as the oppressive land
ownership and tribute system of the Saudeleur, drew the ire of gods, humans, and animals alike. Nan Sapwe, offended by the Saudeleur lord, left
Pohnpei for Kosrae. Certain versions indicate the Thunder God fled to the sky world of East Katau. Having fled, he impregnated a barren human
of his own Dipwenpahnmei (Under-the-breadfruit-tree) clan named Lipahnmei by feeding her a lime. This incestuous union produced the semi-
divine Isokelekel, who in the womb knew his destiny of vengeance. Several extremely variant versions omit Isokelekel's divine paternity
altogether, focusing on a lapse of cultural norms on the part of the Saudeleur in failing to provide food to Isokelekel when he arrives. In these
versions, he is sometimes even accorded native Pohnpeian origins, and avenges the death of this brother, as opposed to the shame of his godly
father. In other versions, Isokelekel is the product of a youth deified by the Thunder God and a Dipwenpahnmei human, or a pair of brothers
avenging the murder of their father by the Saudeleur. Despite that Isokelekel's father was usually regarded as a Pohnpeian deity, Isokelekel was
decidedly foreign. He is described in legend as dark-skinned, and "savage." Brown (1907) posits that Isokelekel was in perhaps of Papuasian
descent. His origins are often described as southern, or "downwind." In certain variations, Isokelekel first happens upon Pohnpei while fishing,
and in some he is scared off by the massive settlements, returning later to conquer the island. As an adult, Isokelekel set sail with 333 men,
women, and children with the secret intention of conquering Pohnpei. The embarkment was consecrated by human sacrifice, a ritual widespread
in Polynesian culture, but altogether rare in Pohnpeian history. According to tradition, Isokelekel stopped in several places throughout the
eastern Caroline Islands en route to Pohnpei, including Ant Atoll near Kitti, Losap in the Mortlocks, and Pingelap. According to some versions,
it is on Ant Atoll that Isokelekel learns from his mother, a bird, an elderly lover, or by divination that his mission is to conquer Pohnpei. The
canoe of invaders first entered Pohnpeian territory through a channel near Kehpara, a reef island near Kitti. From Kitti, Isokelekel
circumnavigated Pohnpei in a clockwise direction, a theme of Pohnpeian mythology. Isokelekel stopped in Palikir, where he was offered leftover
lihli (breadfruit pudding), a gesture forbidden toward high-ranking persons, earning Pohnpei the moniker Sapwen luh Pohnpei (Land of
Leftovers Pohnpei). On his way to Nan Madol, Isokelekel received breadfruit kernels from the chief of Ant Atoll. In their culture, breadfruit
kernels were the meal of warriors about to battle, and the offering constituted an invitation to do battle with the Saudeleur. While on Ant Island,
Isokelekel entered a romantic relationship with a native woman named Likamadau ("Woman Who Gives Thought"), demonstrating his intention
to cultivate close ties with Pohnpeians and oppose only the Saudeleur. Minor localized versions of the Isokelekel myth include that the invasion
party sailed past certain areas because local gods protected them. At Nahrihnnahnsapwe, a small reef island near Nan Madol, Isokelekel
performed rites to reaffirm his intent to conquer Pohnpei. The invasion party waited for an invitation to enter at Ewenkep, a break in the reef
near Mall Islet south of Nanmadol. The Saudeleur lord Saudemwohl was unaware the son of the Thunder God was aboard, however he sent a
fleet to welcome the visitors, receiving them as guests at Kalapuel, Nan Madol, offshore of the main island of Pohnpei. According to many
versions, war broke out at Nan Madol after playing between local children and those from Isokelekel's canoe escalated into a fight. In another
version, Isokelekel had his lieutenant provoke a local warrior at a prearranged encounter. Other accounts hold that Isokelekel staged an
insurrection after winning the trust of his hosts, and with help from the oppressed locals. Another says that upon seeing the fortifications at Nan
Madol, Isokelekel decided to withdraw, but was aided by a scorned and outcast woman from the ruling Saudeleur family. In some versions,
Isokelekel's warriors are aided by hidden weapons that suddenly appeared. One prominent event during the war was the throwing of a spear
through the foot of Isokelekel's lieutenant during his retreat, however the thrower and the identity of the lieutenant vary among versions of the
legend. Some state the lieutenant, named Nahnparadak or Nahnapas, drove his own spear into his foot to anchor it amid the retreat to rally the
invaders. Others say Isokelekel himself threw the spear. The tide of war reversed several times, but ended against the Saudeleur, who retreated
with his army into the main island of Pohnpei. In some versions, Isokelekel lost an eye in his conquest of Nan Madol. As the Saudeleur lord
retreated, his lieutenant cast a stone at Isokelekel, blinding and maiming him. Later, in admiration of his skill and gaul, Isokelekel made this
warrior his own general, whose descendants today hold places of honor in ceremonial feasts beside Isokelekel's own descendants. Most versions
of the Isokelekel myth include a character called Lepen Moar, aide to the Saudeleur, though there is no consensus on his role. He variously fails
to provide food to Isokelekel's party, leading to war; or leads the Saudeleur army to initially route the invasion; or was in fact the lieutenant who
threw the stone striking Isokelekel. Legend recounts that the battle ended as Saudeleur lord Saudemwohl retreated ever up hill to a stream,
where he transformed into a fish and remains today. Petersen (1990) presents an alternative analysis of the Isokelekel myth under which the

historical leader invaded not Pohnpei, but only Madolenihmw. This, in turn, fed into the politically decentralized oral legends behind Nan
Madol. Isokelekel resided with his family at Nan Madol on Temwen Island, though his capital was Madolenihmw. He was variously described as
seizing the reign of the Saudeleur, and as gaining the consensus of the elite in his installation as the first nahnmwarki. Isokelekel divided the
Pohnpei into three autonomous chiefdoms based on preexisting divisions; this number later grew to five. He summoned the elite of Pohnpei and
surrounding islands to gather, to whom he announced a welcome regime change, and with whom he consulted in creating a new decentralized
Pohnpeian political system. Some mythological versions include divine inspiration by the god Luhk, who brought the three vanquished chiefs
into a hovering canoe. Although the political system was greatly decentralized from Saudeleur times, many of the methods of paying tribute to
higher classes went unchanged: the uhpa (service) and nopwei (first fruits) payments of the Saudeleur era remained customary, and religious
institutions such as nah continued to develop. Sokehs, a prestigious region of Pohnpei under Saudeleur reign, was largely stripped of its might.
At Pahn Akuwalap, Isokelekel instituted a new political order, the sacred nahnmwarki, lesser nahnken, and priestly title system that remains in
modern use on Pohnpei. Overall, his reign is characterized in legend as gentle. His supreme titles included Wasa Lapalap at Madolenihmw,
Sangoro at Uh, Pwoudo at Nett, and Iso Eni at Sokehs. While the nahnken were also sacred, the nahnmwarki in particular was sacrosanct and
subject to several taboos. Nahnmwarki were forbidden to appear in public, and communicated to commoners through the nahnken. This served
to protect the sacrosanct nature of the ruler and to protect against abuse of authority. Nahnmwarki and nahnken families intermarried, and with
the exception of the son of Isokelekel, the ruling title passed matrilineally. Generally, men were encouraged to marry daughters of their
paternal aunts (their first cousins). During his reign, Isokelekel and his party married and assimilated as much as possible into Pohnpeian
society, however semi-divine Isokelekel remained above many strict taboos, taking his own sister as a wife. At one point, he instructed one of his
pregnant Pohnpeian wives to kill the infant if she bore a male. She gave birth in his absence, and instead of following his instructions, she hid
her son Nahnlepenien with an elderly couple. Isokelekel met his son as an adult; Nahnlepenien was recognized as special because of his flagrant
casualness with divine Isokelekel and breaking other strict taboos. Isokelekel decided to spare his son because he grew fond of him. From here,
the origin of the nahnken also has a mythical basis: Nahnlepenien broke Pohnpeian customs and taboos, including the incest taboo with
Isokelekel's eldest sister, a motherly figure in the culture. Isokelekel was loath to punish his own son, and spared him physical punishment.
Instead, he created the title of nahnkan, a lesser rank than nahnmwarki, for his son. At Peikapw, a place of prayer, Isokelekel saw his reflection
in a pool of water and, realizing his old age, decided to commit suicide. According to one legend, he tied his penis to the top of a young palm
tree. Letting go of the bent tree, his penis was torn off, and Isokelekel bled to death. The remains of Isokelekel are believed to be within a large
mortuary on Temwen Island. However, some believe the tomb is but a decoy, and that the hero was buried at sea. Nonetheless, the tomb is a
sacred site. In 1907, when German governor Berg insisted on nonetheless excavating the crypt, he died of sunstroke, confirming among locals
the power of its relics. The tomb was again excavated in 1928 by the Japanese, who found bones larger than those of modern Pohnpeians. Today,
Isokelekel is regarded as a cultural hero on both Kosrae and Pohnpei. He has left many chiefly claimants of descent on modern Pohnpei,
including over 22 generations of reigning nahnmwarki descendants. Modern chiefs of Pohnpei trace their lineage to Isokelekel, though local
nahnken chiefs have come to hold title in dual blood lines. The association of Isokelekel with invincibility is such that a Kosraean uttering the
name to a Pohnpeian amounts to an undisguised challenge. Petersen (1995) identifies a cultural theme of caution within the Isokelekel myth in
relations with foreign powers, modernly applicable to the United States. Petersen (1990) also comments that "initiation of important events in
Pohnpei mythology is often ascribed to outsiders," the prime example being Isokelekel and the Saudeleur. The legend of Isokelekel is also used
to explain the apparently mixed racial makeup of Pohnpei against its Micronesian background. Isokelekel's party thoroughly settled the eastern,
most populous areas of Pohnpei, from which their relations diffused.
Dar Sila
Dar Sila is the name of the wandering sultanate of the Dar Sila Daju, a multi-tribal ethnic group in Chad and Sudan. The number of the persons
in this group exceeds 50,000. They speak the Sila language, a Nilo-Saharan language. Most members of this ethnic group are Muslims.
Geographically, Dar Sila is located in southeastern territory of the Republic of Chad. It borders the Salamat Region of Chad in the North,
Ouaddaï Region and Assoungha Department of Chad in the southeast, and Darfur Region of Sudan to the west. Its capital is Goz Beïda which
means in Arabic "the white sand dune" upon which the first city was established in Chad. "Dadjo Warrior Dahab, son of sultan Bakhit (Dar Sila)".
From L'Afrique Équatoriale Française: le pays, les habitants, la colonisation, les pouvoirs publics. Préf. de M. Merlin.(published 1918). Its history
goes back to Darfur when Sultan Omar Kasefroge, the last sultan of Darfur during the Daju rule of this area, who ordered removal of Jabel Daju
in order to join the other 99 Daju Jabels. Consequently, many adults and warriors died. According to Colonel Largeau, Commander in Chief of
Goz Beida during the French invasion of Dar Sila, a manuscript was found at the palace of the Sultan Moustafa walad Sultan Bakhit tracing the
origin of the Daju. It states that the Daju came and ruled Darfur long ago from Yemen in 619 to 892 until 1212 AD then left Jabel Marra to
Hajar Kadjano in 1417 to 1612 A.D. The above dates suggest that they might have reached Dar Sila in 1613 to 1614 A.D. Chronology of the
Sultans of Dar Sila began with one of Kaseforge's sons, Sultan Ahmed al-Daj. He was followed by Sultan Ibrahim, Sultan Adam, Sultan
Hassaballah, Sultan Habib, Sultan Shuaeib, Sultan Salih, Sultan Issa Hajar, Sultan Abd el-Karim, Sultan Abd el-Latif, Sultan El-Haj Bolad, Sultan
Ishaq Abu-Risha, Sultan Mohamed Bakhit and his son Sultan Moustafa. A brother of Sultan Ahmed el-Daj called Farouk "Ferne" refused to live
in one sultanate in Dar Sila. Therefore he led his clans and soldiers to settle in Mongo where he established another small sultanate known as
Dar Daju in the Guera Province to the west of Dar Sila.
List of Sultans of the Sultanate of Dar Sila
Ahmed al-Daj was a Sultan of the Sultanate of Dar Sila.
Ibrahim was a Sultan of the Sultanate of Dar Sila.
Adam was a Sultan of the Sultanate of Dar Sila.
Hassaballah was a Sultan of the Sultanate of Dar Sila.
Habib was a Sultan of the Sultanate of Dar Sila.

Shuaeib was a Sultan of the Sultanate of Dar Sila.
Salih was a Sultan of the Sultanate of Dar Sila.
Issa Hajar was a Sultan of the Sultanate of Dar Sila.
Abd el-Karim was a Sultan of the Sultanate of Dar Sila.
Abd el-Latif was a Sultan of the Sultanate of Dar Sila from 1813 until 1851.
El-Haj Bolad was a Sultan of the Sultanate of Dar Sila from 1851 until 1879
Ishaq Abu-Risha was a Sultan of the Sultanate of Dar Sila from 1879 until 1900.
Mohamed Bakhit was a Sultan of the Sultanate of Dar Sila from 1900 until 1916.
Moustafa was a Sultan of the Sultanate of Dar Sila in the firat half 20th century.
Dar Daju
Dar Daju was sultanate in present Chad. A brother of Sultan of the Sultanate of Dar Sila, Ahmed el-Daj who called Farouk "Ferne" refused to live
in one sultanate in Dar Sila. Therefore he led his clans and soldiers to settle in Mongo where he established another small sultanate known as
Dar Daju in the Guera Province to the west of Dar Sila. The Dar Daju Daju are an ethnic group numbering 34,000 people in the Guéra Region of
southwestern Chad. They are one of seven distinct ethnicities comprising the Daju people. They speak the Daju Mongo language and are mostly
Muslim.
Sultan of the Sultanate of Dar Daju
Farouk "Ferne" was a Sultan of the Sultanate of Dar Daju. He was brother of Sultan of the Sultanate of Dar Sila who refused to live in one
sultanate in Dar Sila. Therefore he led his clans and soldiers to settle in Mongo where he established another small sultanate known as Dar Daju
in the Guera Province to the west of Dar Sila.
Sultanate of Dawaro
The Sultanate of Dawaro was a sultanate founded around the 10th century by the Dawaro clan of the Jarso people. By Somali reckoning, the
founder of the clan is Dawaro Jārso ʿAli Madaḥweyne Dir Aji Irir Samāle. After the Oromo migrations, the ʿAli Madaḥweyne Dir were absorbed
into the Afran Qallo Barentuma confederation, and today the Jarso are reckoned as Jārsō Daggā Qāllō Barentuma Oromō. Emperor Amda
Seyon I of Abyssinia conquered many of the adjacent independent Muslim sultanates during his reign. In 1329, Sulṭān Ḥaydar of Dawaro was
captured and imprisoned together with his ally Sulṭān Sabir ad-Dīn Maḥamed. Despite several rebellions and a brief period when Imam Ahmad
ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (Ahmed Gurey) captured Dawaro, the Sultanate would remain under Abyssinian suzerainty until it was finally conquered
by the Oromo in the 16th century. Dawaro was a major power prior to its defeat and subjugation. It was roughly equal in size, population and
power to the early Ifat Sultanate.
List of Sultans of the Sultanate of Dawaro
Dawaro Jārso ʿAli Madaḥweyne Dir Aji Irir Samāle was founder and Sultan of the Sultanate of Dawaro around the 19th century.
By Somali reckoning, the founder of the clan is Dawaro Jārso ʿAli Madaḥweyne Dir Aji Irir Samāle. After the Oromo migrations, the ʿAli
Madaḥweyne Dir were absorbed into the Afran Qallo Barentuma confederation, and today the Jarso are reckoned as Jārsō Daggā Qāllō
Barentuma Oromō.
Haydar(or Haydara) was Sultan of the Sultanate of Dawaro from ? until 1329. He was ally of the Sultan of the Sultanate of Ifat, Sulṭān Sabirad
Dīn Maḥamed "Waqōyi" Naḥwi of Ifat, imprisoned along with him by Amda Seyon I, Emperor of Ethiopia.
Showa (Shewa)
The Sultanate of Showa (Sultanate of Shewa) was a Muslim kingdom of uncertain historical origins situated between the Ethiopian Highlands
and the Awash River valley. It was located approximately 70 km northeast of Addis Ababa, around the town of Walale. The area roughly
corresponds with the modern-day North Shewa Zone. There were nine recorded Sulṭāns of Showa, who asserted descent from Wudd ibn Hisham

al-Makhzumi. The Showa chronicle records two other names before Sulṭān Malasmaʿī, but it is not clear what is their relationship with the
Makhzumi dynasty.
List of Sultan=ns of the Sultanate of Showa (Shewa)
Sulṭān Malasmaʿī was a Sultan of the Sultanate of Showa (Shewa) from 1180 until 1183.
Sulṭān Ḥusein was a Sultan of the Sultanate of Showa (Shewa) from 1183 until 1193.
Sulṭān ʿAbdallah was a Sultan of the Sultanate of Showa (Shewa) from 1193 until 1225.
Sulṭān Maḥamed was a Sultan of the Sultanate of Showa (Shewa) from 1235 until 1239.
Sulṭān Mālzarrah was a Sultan of the Sultanate of Showa (Shewa) from 1239 until 1252.
Sulṭān Ganah was a Sultan of the Sultanate of Showa (Shewa) from 1252 until 1262.
Sulṭān Girām-Gaz'i was a Sultan of the Sultanate of Showa (Shewa) from 1262 until 1263. He was son of Sulṭān Ganah and abdicated in
favor of his elder brother Sulṭān Dil-Gāmis.
Sulṭān Dil-Gāmis was a Sultan of the Sultanate of Showa (Shewa) from 1263 until 1269 and briefly from July until August 1278. He was son
of Sulṭān Ganah. He was deposed by Dilmārrah in 1269. He sought assistance from Yekuno Amlak in restoring his rule, and was briefly restored
to the throne in July 1278, but was deposed again by August 1278.
Sulṭān Dilmārrahwas a Sultan of the Sultanate of Showa (Shewa) from 1269 until July 1278 and from August 1278 until 1283. He was son
of Sulṭān Mālzarrah. He was half-Walashma on his mother's side, and also married a Walashma princess. When Yekuno Amlak overthrew him to
re-install Dil-Gāmis in July 1278, the Sultanate of Ifat invaded and restored his rule. In 1280, Showa was incorporated into Ifat, and he was
murdered in 1283, bringing a definitive end to the Sultanate of Showa.
Sulṭān ʿAbdallah was a Sultan of the Sultanate of Showa (Shewa) in 1279. 1279 - He was son of Sulṭān Ganah. Briefly deposed Sulṭān
Mālzarrah to restore the rule of the sons of Ganah. However, this rebellion was short lived, and Showa would be annexed into Ifat the following
year.
List of Kings of the Kingdom of Manipur
Nongda Lairen Pakhangba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from AD 33 until AD 154.
Khuiyoi Tompok was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from AD 154 until AD 264.
Taothingmang was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from AD 264 until AD 364.
Khui Ningonba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from AD 364 until AD 379.
Pengsiba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from AD 379 until AD 394.
Kaokhangba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from AD 394 until AD 411.
Naokhamba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from AD 411 until AD 428.
Naophangba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from AD 428 until AD 514.
Sameirang was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from AD 518 until AD 568.
Urakonthouba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from AD 568until AD 658.
Naothingkhon was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from AD 663 until AD 763.
Khongtekcha was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from AD 763 until AD 773.
Keirencha was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from AD 784 until AD 799.
Yaraba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from AD 799 until AD 821.

Ayangba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from AD 821 until AD 910.
Ningthoucheng was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from AD 910 until AD 949.
Chenglie-Ipan-Lanthaba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from AD 949 until AD 969.
Keiphaba Yanglon was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from AD 969 until AD 984.
Irengba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from AD 984 until AD 1074.
Loiumba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1074 until 1112.
Loitongba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1122 until 1150.
Atom Yoiremba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1150 until 1163.
Iyanthaba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1163 until 1195.
Thayanthaba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1195 until 1231.
Chingthang Lanthaba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1231 until 1242.
Thingbai Shelhongba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1242 until 1247.
Puranthaba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1247 until 1263.
Khumomba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1263 until 1278.
Moiramba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1278 until 1302.
Thangbi Lanthaba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1302 until 1324.
Kongyamba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1324 until 1335.
Telheiba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1335 until 1355.
Tonaba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1355 until 1359.
Tabungba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1339 until 1394.
Lairenba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1394 until 1399.
Punsiba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1402 until 1432.
Ningthoukhomba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1432 until 1467.
Kyamba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1467 until 1508.
Koiremba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1508 until 1512.
Lamkhyamba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1512 until 1523.
Nonginphaba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1523 until 1524.
Kabomba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1524 until 1542.
Tangjamba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1542 until 1545.
Chalamba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1545 until 1562.
Mugyamba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1562 until 1597.
Khagemba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1597 until 1652.

Khunjaoba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1652 until 1666.
Paikhomba was a King of the Kingdom of Manipur from 1666 until 1697.
Masuna (fl. 508) was a Romano-Moorish king in Mauretania Caesariensis (western Algeria).He ruled on the Regnum Maurorum et
Romanorum (or "Mauro-Roman kingdom" in English), a Christian Berber kingdom that existed in the Maghreb from the 4th century AD until
the Arab conquest of North Africa. Masuna is known only from an inscription on a fortification in Altava (modern Ouled Mimoun, in the region
of Oran), dated 508, describing him as "King of the Moorish and Roman peoples". He is known to have possessed Altava and at least two other
cities, Castra Severiana and Safar, as mention is made of officials he appointed there. Although evidence is scant, it is presumed that Masuna
(who was probably Christian) ruled over a Romano-Moorish kingdom that stretched (or had ambitions to stretch) over a substantial part of
Mauretania Caesariensis. It may have been originally a successor state to the western Roman Empire (similar to Aegidius in Gaul) that managed
to maintain its independence and resist occupation by the Vandals, or it may have been carved out later when Vandal rule weakened. It is almost
certain Masuna was a Berber, possibly descended from a Romano-Berber family appointed as federate commanders in Roman times, who simply
continued after the Vandal invasion, or a Berber warlord who extended his rule in the chaos of Vandal times beyond the pastoralist Berber tribes
(contemporaneously known as "Mauri" or Moors), to also cover the Romanized cities of Mauretania. Masuna may be the same person as the
Berber chieftain called "Massonas" by Procopius in 535 AD, who allied with the Byzantines during the Vandalic War. Massonas is said to have
encouraged the Byzantine general Solomon, the Prefect of Africa, to launch an invasion of the Moorish kingdom of Numidia. Masuna may have
been succeeded as Moorish king of Altava by Mastigas in the late 530s (known from coinage), and the more famous Garmul in the 560s.
Mastigas or Mastinas (Greek: Μαστίγας or Μαστίνας, fl. 535–540) was the ruler of the Moors in Mauretania Caesariensis in the 530s. According
to the Byzantine historian Procopius (De Bello Vandalico, Book II), who is the only source on him, Mastigas was an independent ruler who
controlled the entire former Roman province except for the capital, Caesarea, which was taken by the Byzantines under Belisarius during the
Vandalic War in 533.
Garmul was the ruler of the Moors in Mauretania Caesariensis in the 560s.
Yabdas was a 7th-century leader of the Awraba tribe of the Berber people and Christian head of the Sanhadja confederation.
Kusaila (Berber: Aksil or Aksel, ခခခခခ, died 690) was a 7th-century leader of the Awraba tribe of the Berber people and Christian head of
the Sanhadja confederation. He is known for prosecuting an effective Berber resistance against the Muslim Arab expansion into North Africa in
the 680s. Initially the Romano-Berber states were able to defeat the Arabs at the Battle of Vescera (modern Biskra in Algeria), that was fought in
682 between the Berbers of Christian king Kusaila and their Byzantine allies from the Exarchate of Carthage against an Umayyad Arab army
under Uqba ibn Nafi (the founder of Kairouan). Uqba ibn Nafi had led his men in an expedition across north Africa, eventually reaching the
Atlantic Ocean and marching as far south as the Draa and Sous rivers. On his return, he was ambushed by the Berber-Byzantine coalition at
Tahuda south of Vescera, defeated and killed. As a result of this defeat, the Arabs were expelled from the area of modern Tunisia and eastern
Algeria for more than a decade. His homeland was Tlemcen in modern Algeria, according to Ibn Khaldun. However, this account dates from the
14th century, some 700 years later. Indeed Kusaila -according to historian Noe Villaverde was probably a king of the Kingdom of Altava. Other
sources closer to Aksel's time (9th century are the earliest available) associate him only with the Awras area. Aksel grew up in Berber tribal
territory during the time of the Byzantine exarchate. Kusaila professed to be Christian since childhood. According to historian Camps, his name
was a possible translation in berber of the Latin name "Caecilius", showing that he was from a noble Romano-Berber family. His name even
intrigued Orientalists; unlike other Romano-Berber kings, like his predecessors Masuna, Masties, Mastinas and Garmul, Kusaila is not named
after a Berber sounding. Arab chroniclers likely transmitted us -according to Camps- a name of another language: Latin Caecilius, a common
name found in the graves of Volubilis. However Kusaila had suffered much at the hands of the Muslims. He was captured by Oqba, put in chains
and paraded throughout North Africa. But in 683 he succeeded in escaping and raised against his tormentors a large force of Christian berber
and Byzantine soldiers. The Arabs were taken by surprise when Oqba decided to return to Kairouan with only 300 soldiers; he allowed the rest to
go back to their hometowns. Oqba was ambushed killed. Aksel captured Kairouan itself and for a while he seems to have been, in name at least,
the master of all North Africa. But the respite was to be short-lived. Five years later Aksel was killed in battle against fresh Arab forces led by a
Muslim general from Damascus. This soldier was himself ambushed and put to death by Byzantine sea-raiders shortly afterwards. For a while
confusion reigned, but the Awreba recognized the weakness of their position and eventually capitulated to the newly re-organized and reinforced
Arab army. With the death of Aksel, the torch of resistance passed to a tribe known as the Jerawa, who had their home in the Aurès mountains.
According to late Moslem accounts (11th century through to Ibn Khaldun in the 14th century) the amir of the invading Arabs, who was then a
freed slave called Abu al-Muhajir Dinar, surprisingly invited Kusaila to meet with him in his camp. Abu al-Muhajir convinced him to accept
Islam and join his army with a promise of full equality with the Arabs (678). Abu al-Muhajir was a master in diplomacy and thoroughly
impressed Aksel with not only his piety but with his high sense of respect and etiquette. Aksel incorporated the Awraba-Sanhajda into the
conquering Arab force and participated in their uniformly successful campaignsunder Abu al-Muhajir. This amir was then forcibly replaced by
Uqba ibn Nafi who treated Kusaila and his men with contempt. Eventually Uqba's disrespect enraged Kusayla and provoked a plot of revenge.
On the army's return from Morocco, Uqba allowed his troops to break up and go home. The remainder, about 300, was vulnerable and
exhausted. On the return march to Kairowan, Aksel joined with the Byzantine forces and organised an ambush. The Christian-Berber force,
about 5000 strong, defeated the Arabs and felled Uqba at Tahudha near Biskra (683). Aksel now held undisputed mastery over North Africa and
marched to Kairowan in triumph. The above account is disputed by some historians, who prefer the earlier 9th-century sources. According to
these, Abu al-Muhajir had no connection with Kusaila, nor did Uqba ibn Nafi until he was ambushed at Tahudha. These earlier sources also
describe Aksel as a CHRISTIAN, not a Muslim convert. They do agree, however, that he led a combined Byzantine-Berber force when he
defeated Uqba. In 688 Arab reinforcements arrived under Zuhair ibn Kays. Aksel met them in 690b at the Battle of Mamma. Vastly
outnumbered, the Awraba were defeated and Kusaila was killed. It was not the last instance of Berber resistance, however.

Dihyaor Kahina (Berber: Daya Ult Yenfaq Tajrawt, Dihya, or Damya; Arabic: ‫يع‬ ‫ه‬ ‫,)دي‬ was a Berber queen, religious and military leader who led
indigenous resistance to Arab Islamic expansion in Northwest Africa, the region then known as Numidia. She was born in the early 7th century
and died around the end of the 7th century in modern-day Algeria. Her personal name is one of these variations: Daya, Dihya (ခခခခခ), Dahya
or Damya (with Arabic spellings it's difficult to distinguish between these variants).[1] Her title was cited by Arabic-language sources as al-
Kāhina (the priestess soothsayer). This was the nickname used by her Muslim opponents because of her reputed ability to foresee the future. She
was born in the early 7th century and may well have been of mixed descent: Berber and Byzantine Christian, since one of her sons is described as
a 'yunani' or Greek. Kahina ruled as a Christian queen (but some Arab historians wrote that she was a Jewish "sorcerer") and was able to defeat
the Arab Islamic invaders who retreated to Tripolitania: for five years ruled a free berber state from the Aures mountains to the oasis of
Gadames (695-700 AD). But the Arabs, commanded by Musa bin Nusayr, returned with a strong army and defeated her. She fought at the El
Djem Roman amphitheater but finally died around the end of the 7th century in modern-day Algeria in a battle near Tabarka: according to
Islamic legends, she ordered -when dying after her final defeat in 702 AD- her sons to convert to Muslim faith. Over four centuries after her
death, Tunisian hagiographer al-Mālikīseems to have been among the first to state she resided in the Aurès Mountains. Just on seven centuries
after her death, the pilgrim at-Tijani was told she belonged to the Lūwāta tribe. When the later historian Ibn Khaldun came to write his account,
he placed her with the Jrāwa tribe. According to various Moslem sources, al-Kāhinat was the daughter of Tabat, or some say Mātiya. These
sources depend on tribal genealogies, which were generally concocted for political reasons during the 9th century. Accounts from the 19th
century on, claim she was of Jewish religion or that her tribe were Judaized Berbers, though scholars dispute this. According to al-Mālikī she was
said to have been accompanied in her travels by what the Arabs called an "idol", possibly an icon of the Virgin or one of the Christian saints, but
certainly not something associated with Jewish religious customs. The idea that the Jrāwa were Judaized comes from the medieval historian Ibn
Khaldun, who named them among a number of such tribes. Hirschberg and Talbi note that Ibn Khaldun seems to have been referring to a time
before the advent of the late Roman and Byzantine empires, and a little later in the same paragraph seems to say that by Roman times "the
tribes" (presumably those he had listed before) had become Christianized. In the words of H. Z. Hirschberg, "of all the known movements of
conversion to Judaism and incidents of Judaizing, those connected with the Berbers and Sudanese in Africa are the least authenticated. Whatever
has been written on them is extremely questionable." Hirschberg further points out that in the oral legends of Algerian Jews, "Kahya" was
depicted as an ogre and persecutor of Jews. Ibn Khaldun records many legends about Dihyā. A number of them refer to her long hair or great
size, both legendary characteristics of sorcerers. She is also supposed to have had the gift of prophecy and she had three sons, which is
characteristic of witches in legends. Even the fact that two were her own and one was adopted (an Arab officer she had captured), was an alleged
trait of sorcerers in tales. Another legend claims that in her youth, she had supposedly freed her people from a tyrant by agreeing to marry him
and then murdering him on their wedding night. Virtually nothing else of her personal life is known. Kahina succeeded Kusaila as the war
leader of the Berber tribes in the 680s and opposed the encroaching Arab Islamic armies of the Umayyad Dynasty. Hasan ibn al-Nu'man
marched from Egypt and captured the major Byzantine city of Carthage and other cities. Searching for another enemy to defeat, he was told that
the most powerful monarch in North Africa was "the queen of the Berbers" (Arabic: malikat al-barbar) Dihyā, and accordingly marched into
Numidia. The armies met near Meskiana in the present-day province of Oum el-Bouaghi, Algeria. She defeated Hasan so soundly that he fled
Ifriqiya and holed up in Cyrenaica (Libya) for four or five years. Realizing that the enemy was too powerful and bound to return, she was said to
have embarked on a scorched earth campaign, which had little impact on the mountain and desert tribes, but lost her the crucial support of the
sedentary oasis-dwellers. Instead of discouraging the Arab armies, her desperate decision hastened defeat. Another, lesser known account of
Dihyā claimed that she had an interest in early studies of desert birds. While this view may or may not be plausible, some evidence has been
recovered at the site of her deathplace, modern-day Algeria. Several fragments of early parchment with a painting of a bird on them were found,
although there's no way to conclude the fragments were hers. However, it is possible that she began her interest while in Libya, as the painting
was of a Libyan bird species. Hasan eventually returned and, aided by communications with the captured officer adopted by Kahina, defeated her
at a locality (presumably in present-day Algeria) about which there is some uncertainty. Before the battle, foreseeing the outcome, she sent her
two real sons over to the Arab Islamic army under the care of the adopted son, and Hasan is said to have given one of them charge of a section
of his forces. According to some accounts, al-Kāhinat died fighting the invaders, sword in hand, a warrior's death. Other accounts say she
committed suicide by swallowing poison rather than be taken by the enemy. This final act occurred in the 690s or 700s, with 702 or 703 given as
the most likely year. In that year, she was, according to Ibn Khaldun, 127 years old. This is evidently yet another of the many myths which
surround her. According to Moslem historians, her sons Bagay and Khanchla, converted, and led the berber army to Iberia. Supposedly, Kahina
had a passion for ornithology that shaped science and learning in early North Africa. Today, many look up to her for her great findings and
independence. She shares the same homeland as the famous Saint Augustin. In later centuries, Dihyā's legend was used to bolster the claims of
Berbers in al-Andalus against Arab claims of ethnic supremacy—in the early modern age, she was used by French colonials, Berber nationalists,
Arab Nationalists, North African Jews, North African feminists, and Maghrebi nationalists alike for their own didactic purposes. Author Manly
Wade Wellman wrote a historical fantasy novel about her, called Cahena. A movie was made with her title, not her name. The TV series Relic
Hunter (episode 64) The relic hunters recover an artifact that had belonged to Kahina. Kahina is seen in flashback scenes.
Sarraounia Mangou was a Queen of the Azna , a subgroup of the Hausa, who ruled in a region of Western Africa during the late 19th
century. She was ruler of an animist group of Eastern Hausa. Sarraounia of the Aznas fought the French colonial troops at the Battle of Lougou
in 1899. While some kingdoms readily collaborated with the French in the hope of finally subduing her and her kingdom, and others capitulated
without a fight, she mobilized her people and resources to confront the French forces of the Voulet–Chanoine Mission, which launched a fierce
attack on her fortress capital of Lougou. Overwhelmed by the superior firepower of the French, she and her fighters retreated tactically from the
fortress, and engaged the attackers in a protracted guerrilla battle which eventually forced the French to abandon their project of subduing her.
Sarraounia means Queen or chiefess, and among the Azna people of Lougou and surrounding Hausa towns and villages, the term refers to a
lineage of female rulers who exercised both political and religious power. The 1986 film Sarraounia is a retelling of her struggle against Voulet
and Chanoine's troops.
Pokou, or Awura, Aura, or Abla Pokou (c. 1730–1750) was Queen and founder of the Baoule tribe in West Africa, in what is today the Ivory
Coast. She ruled over a branch of the powerful Ashanti Empire as it expanded westward. Also known as the Akan people, they became the
ancestors of the largest tribe of modern Ivory Coast. Queen Pokou was born a princess of Koumassi, daughter of Nyakou Kosiamoa, sister of

Dakon, the ill-fated successor of Opoku Ware I, and niece of Osei Kofi Tutu I, a formidable king and co-founder of the Ashanti Empire. Queen
Pokou became leader of a breakaway group from the main Ashanti Confederacy, which she refused to join. Disagreements among the factions
resulted in war in Ghana. Pokou led her group westward, through a long, arduous journey, to the Komoe River. Pokou asked her priest how to
cross the river safely, and he told her a sacrifice was required. Pokou sacrificed her son, throwing the infant into the water and calling out "Ba
ouli", "the child is dead". It is for this reason that her descendants are today known as the Baoule. After the sacrifice, hippopotamuses appeared
and formed a bridge, by which Pokou and her people crossed to the other side. After crossing the river, Pokou and her people settled into an
agricultural way of life in the savannah of the area. The Baoule people today inhabit the territory between the Komoe and Bandama Rivers. The
Baoule people are the largest tribe in modern Ivory Coast, having assimilated some smaller tribes over the centuries, but their influence has
diminished since the 19th century.
Amina(also Aminatu; died 1610) was a Hausa Muslim Warrior Queen of Zazzau (now Zaria), in what is now north central Nigeria. She is the
subject of many legends, but is widely believed by historians to have been a real ruler, though contemporary evidence about her is limited.
There is controversy among scholars as to the date of her reign, one school placing her in the mid-15th century, and a second placing her reign
in the mid to late 16th century. The Arabic female name Amina means truthful, trustworthy and honest. The earliest source to mention Amina
is Muhammed Bello's history Ifaq al-Maysur, composed around 1836. He claims that she was "the first to establish government among them,"
and she forced Katsina, Kano and other regions to pay tribute to her. Bello, unfortunately provided no chronological details about her. She is
also mentioned in the Kano Chronicle, a well-regarded and detailed history of the city of Kano, composed in the late 19th century, but
incorporating earlier documentary material. According to this chronicle, she was a contemporary of Muhammad Dauda, who ruled from 1421–
38, and Amina conquered as far as Nupe and Kwarafa, collected tribute from far and wide and ruled for 34 years. A number of scholars accept
this information and date her reign to the early to mid-15th century. There is also a local chronicle of Zaria itself, written in the 19th century (it
goes up to 1902) and published in 1910 that gives a list of the rulers and the duration of their reigns. Amina is not mentioned in this chronicle,
but oral tradition in the early 20th century held her to be the daughter of Bakwa Turunku, whose reign is dated by the chronicle from 1492–
1522, and on this basis some scholars date her reign to the early 16th century. Abdullahi Smith, using similar discripancies places her reign after
1576. More recent oral tradition has a series of lively stories about the queen, and these have found their way into popular culture. Among them
were: Amina was a fierce warrior and loved fighting. As a child, her grandmother Marka, the favorite wife of her grandfather Sarkin Nohir, once
caught her holding a dagger. Amina holding the dagger did not shock Martha, rather it was that Amina held it exactly as a warrior would. As an
adult, she refused to marry like Elizabeth the First of England for the fear of losing power. She helped Zazzau (Zaria) become the center of trade
and to gain more land. Her mother, Bakwa, died when Amina was 36 years old, leaving her to rule over Zaria. She was also said to have taken a
lover from among the conquered people after each battle, and to have killed him in the morning following their night together. The
introduction of kola nuts into cultivation in the area is attributed to Amina. A statue at the National Arts Theatre in Lagos State honors her, and
multiple educational institutions bear her name. She is widely credited with building the earthen walls that surround Hausa cities.
Lingeer Fatim Beye Joos Fadiou (commonly Lingeer Fatim Beye) was a 14th-century (c. 1335) Serer princess and queen (Lingeer) from
the Kingdom of Sine. She is the matriarch and early ancestor of the Joos Maternal Dynasty of Waalo. She is usually regarded by some sources as
the founder of the Joos Maternal Dynasty. The pre-colonial Kingdoms of Sine and Waalo now lies within present-day Senegal. Her surname is
Beye (English-Gambia) or Bèye (French-Senegal). Joos Fadiou is her maternal clan. In Serer, "Fa-tim" means "the maternal clan of..." Lingeer
Ndoye Demba, maternal granddaughter of Lingeer Fatim Beye, was given in marriage to the king of Waalo Brak Caaka Mbaar Mbooj, in c. 1367.
Lingeer Ndoye Demba went on to establish the Joos Maternal Dynasty in Waalo which lasted from the 14th century to 1855, the year Waalo fell
to the French resulting in the disestablishment of the monarchy. From the 14th century to 1855, the Joos Maternal Dynasty provided many
kings of Waalo but also contributed to its instability due to dynastic struggles between the competing maternal dynasties of the country (Joos,
Tedyek and Loggar. Lingeer Fatim Beye was a member of the Serer ethnic group and the matriarch of the Joos Maternal Dynasty of Waalo. The
Joos Maternal Dynasty (Serer proper : Joos Fadiou or Dioss Fahou/Fadiou) was a Serer maternal dynasty in the Wolof Kingdom of Waalo. Fatim
Beye was a contemporary of Ndiadiane Ndiaye (founder of the Jolof Empire) and Maad a Sinig Maysa Wali Jaxateh Manneh (var : Manyeasa
Wali Dione) who was the first Guelowar to rule in Sine or any of the Serer countries. Some sources note that, she was once married to Maad a
Sinig Maysa Wali thereby linking this matriclan to a rather significant part of Serer medieval history, i.e. the constitutional change in Sine which
shaped its medieval to 20th century history. The marriage of Lingeer Fatim Beye to one of the most historical personalities of 14th century
Senegambian royalty agrees pretty much with the general consensus regarding Serer-Guelowar relations. It was a union based on marriage
among the upper echelons Serer and Guelowar society. According to Henry Gravrand, the defeat of the Guelowars by the Ñaancos at the Battle
of Troubang in (1335) at Kaabu, spearheaded their migration to Serer territory after the massacre inflicted upon them at Troubang. In reporting
this tradition, Gravrand did not notice that this is actually a description of the 1867 (or 1865) Battle of Kansala although the departure of the
Guelowar can probably be explained by a war or a conflict of succession. It was the Serer nobility to which Lingeer Fatim Beye's family were a
member of, who granted them asylum after their escape from Kaabu, the country of their birth. As an early ancestor of the Joos Maternal
Dynasty, with royal ties to two pre-colonial Senegambian kingdoms from the start of their constitutional change, Lingeer Fatim Beye is regarded
as one of the most significant female personalities of Serer and Senegambian dynastic history. Her descendants went on to shape Senegambian
medieval to 19th century history. The Joos Maternal Dynasty originated from the Serer Kingdom of Sine and entered the Wolof Kingdom of
Waalo via the maternal granddaughter of Lingeer Fatim Beye (Lingeer Ndoye Demba). The Serer princess - Lingeer Ndoye Demba, originated
from Sine where she was married off to the king of Waalo. Although established in Waalo in c. 1367 by Lingeer Ndoye Demba following her
marriage to the king of Waalo (Caaka Mbaar Mboojj, this Serer family is linked to old Serer royalty and just one of many of the Serer matriclans.
Caaka Mbar was the son of Bakar Mbooj the founder of the Mbooj paternal dynasty of Waalo and an early holder of the royal title Brak. Ndoye
Demba's marriage to one of the earliest Braks established the Joos Maternal Dynasty which lasted for nearly 600 years. As of c. 1367, this
maternal dynasty provided many Braks of Waalo. Brak Yerim Mbanyik was the first king from this maternal dynasty. He was the son of Lingeer
Ndoye Demba and Brak Caaka Mbar. The Braks themselves predated by the Lamanes, ruled over Waalo from the 14th century until the
disestablishment of the monarchy in 1855 due to French colonialism. Although Lingeer Ndoye Demba is generally regarded as the ancestor of

the Joos of Waalo, and Lingeer Fatim Beye as an early ancestor and matriarch, some sources suggests that Fatim Beye was the founder of the
Joos Dynasty.
Jaga
The Jaga or Jagas were terms applied by the Portuguese to invading bands of African warriors east and south of the kingdom of Kongo. The use
of the phrase took on different connotations depending on where it was applied. There were two groups of people, both known for fierce
warriors, that were dubbed as jagas or the jaga. Unbeknownst to the Portuguese who encountered these warriors, the two groups were practically
unrelated. In the 17th century there were a number of theories proposed by missionaries and geographers that connected these two groups to
other marauding groups operating as far afield as Somalia, Angola and Sierra Leone and ultimately to some great "Jaga homeland" somewhere
in central Africa. While more recent scholarship dismissed these earlier claims, in the 1960s a number of scholars proposed that oral traditions
of the Lunda Empire, when compared with those of some Angolan groups, suggested that the Jaga invasion of Kongo and the Jagas of Angola
were in fact groups of conquerors fleeing from Lunda in the 16th century. In 1972, Joseph C. Miller presented a review of the available evidence
and argued that the group that invaded Kongo was completely distinct from the group that invaded Angola, so that the second group should
properly be called "Imbangala". This distinction is now widely accepted among scholars operating in this field. The Portuguese first learned
about a people they called "jagas" during Kongo's 1556 war with the Mbundu kingdom of Ndongo. Among Ndongo's regular forces were
mercenary warriors of the Yaka ethnic group. The Yaka had a reputation for ferocity and were said to come from the far interior. They inhabited
the middle reaches of the Kwango valley, making them the eastern neighbors to the Mbundu and BaKongo. These particular "jagas" were
constant victims of the Kongo slave traid and eventually invaded their western neighbor in 1568. This forced the Portuguese to intervene with
some 600 matchlockmen on behalf of then king Alvaro I. Though forced completely out of Kongo by the mid 1570s, they continued to be a
force on the border. They later exported many mercenary troops to Kongo during its civil war. The Portuguese also encountered another fierce
warrior people, this time further south beyond the Kwanza River. The actual name of these people was Imbangala. The origins of these people is
still debated, but they are also believed to have immigrated from the Lunda Empire, rejecting that state's political changes.The Imbangala were
known to be notoriously cruel and also ritually cannibalistic. They were used to good effect as mercenary elements in the Portuguese army
during its conquest of Angola. Once introduced into central Angola, the Imbangala settled there, forming the kingdom of Kasanje on the
Kwango River.
List of Rulers of the Jagas
Zimbo was a ruler of the Jagas of what is now Angola.
Mussasa was a 17th-century Jaga queen. Her nation was on the Cunene river in what is now Angola. She expanded her empire greatly through
her military, and led soldiers into battle. She was succeeded by her daughter Tembandumba.
Tembandumba was a ruler of the Jagas of what is now Angola. Her mother was Mussasa, whom she rebelled against and declared herself
queen. According to a 1910 European source, she would take lovers, but would kill them after a brief dalliance. After taking power, she
organized the Jaga for war by demanding that infants be killed by their mothers and their bodies pounded into ointment, which was mixed with
herbs. In order to enforce this decree, she assembled the tribe and pounded her own infant son to death on a mortar and prepared the ointment.
She then rubbed it on her body, declaring that it would make her invulnerable. The women of the tribe immediately imitated her actions with
their own children. She eventually encountered resistance to this practice in the tribe, and had to resort to using only male infants captured in
war for the ointment. She was eventually poisoned by one of her lovers. She was described as being repulsive and having only one eye, having
lost the other in battle.
Culemba was a ruler of the Jagas of what is now Angola.
Salima Machamba (November 1874 – Pesmes, Haute-Saône, France, August 1964) was sultan of Mohéli (Mwali) (1888–
1909). Her official paternal name was Salima Machamba bint Saidi Hamadi Makadara. And her Christian name was Ursule.
She was a relative of Ranavalona I, Queen of Madagascar. She was born out of wedlock as the daughter of Jumbe Fatima bint
Abderremane, Queen (Sultan) of Mohéli (Mwali) and Emile Fleuriot de Langle (relative of Paul Antoine Fleuriot de Langle)
in 1874, but officially she bore the name of her mother's husband and was recognised as Salima Machamba bint Saidi Hamadi
Makadara. She was chosen as puppet queen of Mohéli by the French who made Comoros a French protectorate. She fell in
love with and in 1901 married a French gendarme, Camille Paule, in Réunion. In 1909 she was deposed by the French
government and Comoros was annexed by France. She was deported with her family to France. She gave birth to three children. The French
government provided her a yearly allowance of 3,000 gold Francs. She lived as a simple farmer in Haute-Saône, and died in Pesmes in 1964. She
was buried at L'église Saint-Hilaire, Pesmes on August 10, 1964. Her granddaughter, Anne Etter represents the royal family of Mohéli in
Comoros as the president of Association Développement des Iles Comores. From her marriage to Camille Paule (died 1946), three children:
Louise-Henriette (1902−?), Princess of Mohéli, she has a daughter: Christiane, Louis (1907−?), Prince of Mohéli, he has a daughter: Anne Etter,
President of Association Développement des Iles Comores and Fernand, Prince of Mohéli.
Mantatisi was a warrior queen of a Sotho tribe called the Batlokoa, which means "Wild Cat people," in South Africa. She reigned in the 1820s,
during the time of Shaka.

Tlapalizquixochtzin was an Aztec noblewoman and Queen regnant of the Aztec city of Ecatepec. She was also a Queen consort or Empress
of Tenochtitlan. She was born as a Princess – daughter of Prince Matlaccoatzin and thus a granddaughter of the King Chimalpilli I and sister of
Princess Tlacuilolxochtzin. Tlacuilolxochtzinmarried Aztec emperor Moctezuma II (c. 1466 – June 1520). Their daughter was Doña Francisca de
Moctezuma. Her nephew was King Diego de Alvarado Huanitzin.
Wa (Japan)
Yamatai-koku (邪馬台国?) or Yamaichi-koku (邪馬壹國?) is the Sino-Japanese name of an ancient country in Wa (Japan) during the late Yayoi
period (c. 300 BC – AD 300). The AD 297 Chinese history Records of the Three Kingdoms first recorded as Yamatai guo (traditional Chinese:
邪馬臺國) or Yemayi guo (traditional Chinese: 邪馬壹國) as the domain of Priest-Queen Himiko (died c. AD 248). Generations of Japanese
historians, linguists, and archeologists have debated where Yamatai-koku was located and whether it was related to Yamato (大和?) "Japan".
List of Shaman Queens of Yamataikoku in ancient Wa (Japan)
Himiko or Pimiko (卑弥呼, ca. 170-248) was a shaman queen of Yamataikoku in ancient Wa (Japan). Early
Chinese dynastic histories chronicle tributary relations between Queen Himiko and the Cao Wei Kingdom (220-
265), and record that the Yayoi period people chose her as ruler following decades of warfare among the kings of
Wa. Early Japanese histories do not mention Himiko, but historians associate her with legendary figures such as
Empress Consort Jingū, who was Regent (ca. 200-269) in roughly the same era as Himiko. Scholarly debates over
the identity of Himiko and the location of her domain Yamatai have raged since the late Edo period, with
opinions divided between northern Kyūshū or traditional Yamato province in present-day Kinki. "The Yamatai
controversy", writes Keiji Imamura (1996:188), is "the greatest debate over the ancient history of Japan." The
shaman Queen Himiko is recorded in various ancient histories, dating back to 3rd century China, 8th century
Japan, and 12th century Korea. The first historical records of Himiko are found in a Chinese classic text, the ca.
297 Records of Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Zhi 三國志). Its "Records of Wei" (Wei Zhi 魏志), which covers the Cao
Wei kingdom (220-265) history, has a Worenchuan (倭人傳 "Account of the Wa People", Japanese Wajinden
倭人伝) section with the oldest description of Himiko (or Pimiko 卑彌呼) and Yamatai. The people of Wa [倭人]
dwell in the middle of the ocean on the mountainous islands southeast of [the prefecture of] Tai-fang. They formerly comprised more than one
hundred communities. During the Han dynasty, [Wa envoys] appeared at the Court; today, thirty of their communities maintain intercourse
[with us] through envoys and scribes. (tr. Tsunoda 1951:8) This early history describes how Himiko came to the throne. The country formerly
had a man as ruler. For some seventy or eighty years after that there were disturbances and warfare. Thereupon the people agreed upon a
woman for their ruler. Her name was Himiko [卑彌呼]. She occupied herself with magic and sorcery, bewitching the people. Though mature in
age, she remained unmarried. She had a younger brother who assisted her in ruling the country. After she became the ruler, there were few who
saw her. She had one thousand women as attendants, but only one man. He served her food and drink and acted as a medium of communication.
She resided in a palace surrounded by towers and stockades, with armed guards in a state of constant vigilance. (tr. Tsunoda 1951:13) The
"Records of Wei" also records envoys travelling between the Wa and Wei courts. Himiko's emissaries first visited the court of Wei emperor Cao
Rui in 238, and he replied. Herein we address Himiko, Queen of Wa, whom we now officially call a friend of Wei. [… Your envoys] have arrived
here with your tribute, consisting of four male slaves and six female slaves, together with two pieces of cloth with designs, each twenty feet in
length. You live very far away across the sea; yet you have sent an embassy with tribute. Your loyalty and filial piety we appreciate exceedingly.
We confer upon you, therefore, the title "Queen of Wa Friendly to Wei," together with the decoration of the gold seal with purple ribbon. The
latter, properly encased, is to be sent to you through the Governor. We expect you, O Queen, to rule your people in peace and to endeavor to be
devoted and obedient. (tr. Tsunoda 1951:14) Finally, the "Records of Wei" (tr. Tsunoda 1951:15) records that in 247 when a new governor arrived
at Daifang Commandery in Korea, Queen Himiko officially complained of hostilities with Himikuku (or Pimikuku卑彌弓呼) the King of Kunu
(狗奴, literally "dog slave"). The governor dispatched "Chang Chêng, acting Secretary of the Border Guard" with a "proclamation advising
reconciliation", and subsequently, When Himiko passed away, a great mound was raised, more than a hundred paces in diameter. Over a
hundred male and female attendants followed her to the grave. Then a king was placed on the throne, but the people would not obey him.
Assassination and murder followed; more than one thousand were thus slain. A relative of Himiko named Iyo [壹與], a girl of thirteen, was [then]
made queen and order was restored. Chêng issued a proclamation to the effect that Iyo was the ruler. (tr. Tsunoda 1951:16) Commentators take
this "Iyo" (壹與, with 壹 "one", an old variant of 一) as a miscopy of Toyo (臺與, with 臺 "platform; terrace"), paralleling the Wei Zhi writing
Yamatai 邪馬臺 as Yamaichi 邪馬壹. Two other Chinese dynastic histories mentioned Himiko. While both clearly incorporated the above Wei
Zhi reports, they made some changes, such as specifying the "some seventy or eighty years" of Wa wars occurred between 146 and 189, during
the reigns of Han Emperors Huan and Ling. The ca. 432 Book of Later Han (Hou Han Shu 後漢書) says "The King of Great Wa resides in the
country of Yamadai" (tr. Tusnoda 1951:1), rather than the Queen. During the reigns of Huan-di (147-168) and Ling-di (168-189), the country of
Wa was in a state of great confusion, war and conflict raging on all sides. For a number of years, there was no ruler. Then a woman named
Himiko appeared. Remaining unmarried, she occupied herself with magic and sorcery and bewitched the populace. Thereupon they placed her
on the throne. She kept one thousand female attendants, but few people saw her. There was only one man who was in charge of her wardrobe
and meals and acted as the medium of communication. She resided in a palace surrounded by towers and stockades with the protection of armed
guards. The laws and customs were strict and stern. (tr. Tusnoda 1951:2-3) The 636 Book of Sui (Sui Shu 隋書) changes the number of Himiko's
male attendants. During the reigns of the Emperors Huan and Ling, that country was in great disorder, and there was no ruler for a period of
years. [Then] a woman named Himiko attracted the populace by means of the practice of magic. The country became unified and made her
queen. A younger brother assisted Himiko in the administration of the country. Queen [Himiko] kept one thousands maids in attendance. Her
person was seldom seen. She had only two men [attendants]. They served her food and drink and acted as intermediaries. The Queen lived in a
palace, which was surrounded by walls and stockades protected by armed guards; their discipline was extremely strict. (tr. Tsunoda 1951:28-29)
Neither of the two oldest Japanese histories, the ca. 712 Kojiki (古事記 "Records of Ancient Matters", tr. Basil Hall Chamberlain 1919) nor ca. 720
Nihon Shoki (日本書紀 "Chronicles of Japan", tr. William George Aston 1924), mentions Queen Himiko. The circumstances under which these
books were written is a matter of unending debate, and even if Himiko were known to the authors, they may have purposefully decided not to

include her. (Hideyuki 2005) However, they include three imperial-family shamans identified with her: Yamato-totohi-momoso-hime-no-mikoto,
the aunt of Emperor Sujin (legendary 10th Japanese emperor, r. 97-30 BCE); Yamatohime-no-mikoto, the daughter of Emperor Suinin
(legendary 11th, r. 29 BCE-70 CE); and Empress Jingū (r. ca. 209-269 CE), the wife of Emperor Chūai (legendary 14th emperor, r. 192-200 CE).
These dates, however, are not historically verified. One remarkable exception to early Japanese histories overlooking Himiko is the Nihon Shoki
quoting the Wei Zhi three times. In 239, "the Queen [女王] of Wa" sent envoys to Wei; in 240, they returned "charged with an Imperial rescript
and a seal and ribbon"; and in 243, "The Ruler [王 "king"] of Wa again sent high officers as envoys with tribute" (tr. Aston 1924:245-6). It is
revealing that the Nihon Shoki editors chose to omit the Wei Zhi particulars about Himiko. Yamato Totohi Momoso himemiko
(倭迹迹日百襲媛命), the shaman aunt of Emperor Sujin, supposedly committed suicide after learning her husband was a trickster snake-god. The
Kojiki does not mention her, but the Nihon Shoki describes her as "the Emperor's aunt by the father's side, a shrewd and intelligent person, who
could foresee the future" (tr. Aston 1924:156). After a series of national calamities, the Emperor "assembled the 80 myriads of Deities" and
inquired by divination. Yamato-totohi-momoso was inspired by Ōmononushi-nushi ("Great Deity of All Deities and Spirits", tr. Hori 1968:193) to
say. "Why is the Emperor grieved at the disordered state of the country? If he duly did us reverent worship it would assuredly become pacified of
itself." The Emperor inquired, saying: "What God is it that thus instructs me?" The answer was: "I am the God who dwells within the borders of
the land of Yamato, and my name is Oho-mono-nushi no Kami." (tr. Aston 1924:152) While imperial worship of this god (from Mount Miwa) was
"without effect", Yamato-totohi-momoso later married him. After this Yamato-toto-hi-momo-so-bime no Mikoto became the wife of Oho-mono-
nushi no Kami. This God, however, was never seen in the day-time, but at night. Yamato-toto-hi-momo-so-bime no Mikoto said to her husband:
"As my Lord is never seen in the day-time, I am unable to view his august countenance distinctly; I beseech him therefore to delay a while, that
in the morning I may look upon the majesty of his beauty. The Great God answered and said: "What thou sayest is clearly right. To-morrow
morning I will enter thy toilet-case and stay there. I pray thee be not alarmed at my form." Yamato-toto-hi-momo-so-bime no Mikoto wondered
secretly in her heart at this. Waiting until daybreak, she looked into her toilet-case. There was there a beautiful little snake, of the length and
thickness of the cord of a garment. Thereupon she was frightened, and uttered an exclamation. The Great God was ashamed, and changing
suddenly into human form, spake to his wife, and said: "Thou didst not contain thyself, but hast caused me shame; I will in my turn put thee to
shame." So treading the Great Void, he ascended to Mount Mimoro. Hereupon Yamato-toto-hi-momo-so-bime no Mikoto looked up and had
remorse. She flopped down on a seat and with a chopstick stabbed herself in the pudenda so that she died. She was buried at Oho-chi. Therefore
the men of that time called her tomb the Hashi no haka [Chopstick Tomb]. (tr. Aston 1924:158-9) Yamatohime-no-mikoto (倭姫命), the daughter
of Emperor Suinin, supposedly founded the Ise Shrine to the sun-goddess Amaterasu. The Kojiki records her as the fourth of Suinin's five
children, "Her Augustness Yamato-hime, (was the high-priestess of the temple of the Great Deity of Ise)" (tr. Chamberlain 1919:227). The Nihon
Shoki likewise records "Yamato-hime no Mikoto" (tr. Aston 1924:150) and provides more details. The Emperor assigned Yamatohime to find a
permanent location for Amaterasu's shrine, and after wandering for years, the sun-goddess instructed her to build it at Ise "where she first
descended from Heaven" (tr. Aston 1924:176). Empress Consort Jingū (or Jingō 神功) supposedly served as Regent after the death of her husband
Emperor Chūai (ca. 200) until the accession of her son Emperor Ōjin (legendary 15th emperor, r. 270-310). The Kojiki (Chamberlain 1919:283-
332) and Nihon Shoki (Aston 1924:217-271) have similar accounts. Emperor Chūai wanted to invade Kumaso, and while he was consulting with
his ministers, Jingū conveyed a shamanistic message that he should invade Silla instead. Compare these. Her Augustness Princess Okinaga-
tarashi, was at that time, divinely possessed … charged him with this instruction and counsel: "There is a land to the Westward, and in that land
is abundance of various treasures dazzling to the eye, from gold and silver downwards. I will now bestow this land upon thee." (tr. Chamberlain
1919:284-5). At this time a certain God inspired the Empress and instructed her, saying: "Why should the Emperor be troubled because the
Kumaso do not yield submission? It is a land wanting in backbone. Is it worth while raising an army to attack it? There is a better land than this,
a land of treasure, which may be compared to the aspect of a beautiful woman – the land of Mukatsu [Opposite; Across], dazzling to the eyes. In
that land there are gold and silver and bright colours in plenty. It is called the Land of Silla of the coverlet of paper-mulberry. If thou
worshippest me aright, the land will assuredly yield submission freely, and the edge of thy sword shall not be all stained with blood." (tr. Aston
1924:221). (The 2005:284 reprint of Chamberlain adds a footnote after "possessed": "Himeko [sic] in the Chinese historical notices of Japan was
skilled in magic, with which she deluded the people.") The Emperor thought the gods were lying, said he had only seen ocean to the West, and
then died, either immediately (Kojiki) or after invading Kumaso (Nihon Shoki). Jingū allegedly discovered she was pregnant, personally planned
and led a successful conquest of Silla, gave birth to the future emperor, and returned to rule Yamato. The Nihon Shoki (tr. Aston 1924:225) adds
that since Jingū wanted to learn which gods had cursed Chūai, she constructed a shamanic "Palace of worship", "discharged in person the office of
priest", and heard the gods reveal themselves as coming from Ise (Amaterasu) and Mukatsu (an unnamed Korean divinity). Although the Kojiki
and Nihon Shoki myth-histories called Jingū first of the Japanese empresses, Meiji period historians removed her from the List of Emperors of
Japan, leaving Empress Suiko (r. 593-628) as the first historically verifiable female Japanese ruler. The oldest Korean history book, the 1145
Samguk Sagi (三國史記 "Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms") records that Queen Himiko sent an emissary to King Adalla of Silla in May 173
(Saeki 1988:35, 113, 154). Researchers have struggled to reconcile Himiko/Pimiko between the Chinese and Japanese historical sources above.
While the Wei Zhi described her as an important ruler in 3rd-century Japan, early Japanese historians purposely avoided naming Himiko, even
when the Nihon Shoki quoted the Wei Zhi about envoys from Wa. The three Chinese characters 卑彌呼 or 卑弥呼 transcribing the Wa regent's
name are read himiko or hibiko in Modern Japanese and bēimíhū or bìmíhū in Modern Standard Chinese. However, these contemporary
readings differ considerably from how "Himiko" was pronounced in the 3rd century, both by speakers of the unknown Wa-language and by
Chinese scribes who transcribed it. While transliteration into Chinese characters of foreign words is complex, choosing these three particular was
puzzling, with literal meanings 卑 "low; inferior; humble", (traditional) 彌 or (simplified) 弥 "fill, cover; full; whole, complete", and 呼 "breathe
out; exhale; cry out; call". In terms of historical Chinese phonology, modern beimihu (卑彌呼) is simpler than its presumed 3rd-century late Old
Chinese or early Middle Chinese pronunciation. Compare the following reconstructions of the name 卑彌呼 in "Archaic" or "Middle Chinese"
(Bernhard Karlgren, Li Fanggui, and William H. Baxter), "Early Middle Chinese" (Edwin G. Pulleyblank), and, historically closest, "Late Han
Chinese" (Axel Schuessler). To simplify without using special symbols, the first two syllables with p(j)- and m(j)- initial consonants share -i(e)
final vowels, and the third has a either a voiceless fricative X- or a voiced fricative h- plus a back mid vowel -u(o). Thus, "Himiko" could be
hypothetically reconstructed as *P(j)i(e)m(j)i(e)hu(o). In terms of historical Japanese phonology, himiko would regularly correspond to Old
Japanese *Fimeko. However, Roy Andrew Miller says *Fimeko is a lexicographic error deriving from the Wei Zhi transcriptions. Most perplexing
of the entire list is the name of the queen of the Yeh-ma-t'ai community, Pi-mi-hu, Middle Chinese pjiḙ-mjiḙ-χuo. This has traditionally been
explained and understood in Japan as a transcription of a supposed Old Japanese form *Fimeko, said to be an early term meaning "high born
woman; princess," and to derive from Old Japanese Fime [or Fi1me1] (also sometimes Fimë [Fi1me1]), a laudatory title for women going with
Fiko [Fi1ko1] for men. Later Fime comes to mean "princess," but this meaning is anachronistic for the earlier texts. … The difficulty concerns the
supposed Old Japanese word *Fimeko. Even though such a form has found its way into a few modern Japanese dictionaries (for example even
Kindaiichi's otherwise generally reliable Jikai), it is in fact simply one of the ghost words of Japanese lexicography; when it does appear in
modern lexical sources, it is a "made-up" form listed there solely on the basis of the Wei chih account of early Japan. There never was an Old
Japanese *Fimeko; furthermore, the Middle Chinese spirant χ of the transcription suggests that the final element of the unknown original term
did not correspond to Old Japanese -ko [-ko1], which is rendered elsewhere – in Fiko [Fi1ko1], for example – with Middle Chinese -k- as one would

expect. The final element of this transcription, then, remains obscure, thought there is certainly a good chance that the first portion does
correspond to a form related to Old Japanese Fime. Beyond that, it is at present impossible to go. (1967:22) Hime < Old Japanese Fi1me1 (姫
"young noblewoman; princess"), explains Miller, etymologically derives from hi < Fi2 (日 "sun") and me < me1 (女 "woman"). Tsunoda (1951:5)
notes "Pimiko is from an archaic Japanese title, himeko, meaning 'princess'," that is, hime with the female name suffix -ko (子 "child", viz. the
uncommon given name Himeko). Other Amaterasu-related etymological proposals for the Japanese name Himiko involve hi (日 "sun") and
miko (覡 or 巫女 "shamanka, shamaness; shrine maiden; priestess"); or their combination hime-miko "princess-priestess". Identifying
Himiko/Pimiko of Wa is straightforward within the history of China, but problematic within the history of Japan. The 3rd-century Chinese Wei
Zhi ("Records of Wei") provides details about shaman Queen Himiko and her communications with Emperors Cao Rui and Cao Fang. The 8th-
century Japanese Kojiki ("Records of Ancient Matters") and Nihon Shoki ("Chronicles of Japan", which quotes the Wei Zhi) disregard Himiko,
unless she was the subtext behind their accounts of Empress Jingū, Yamatohime-no-mikoto, or Yamato-totohi-momosohime-no-mikoto. None of
these three legendary Japanese royal shamans adequately corresponds with the Chinese chronology and description of Himiko. Assuming the
Wei Zhi account that Himiko died around 248, if one accepts the dubious Japanese traditional dating, then she was closer to the 3rd-century CE
Empress Jingū than to the 1st-century BCE Yamatohime-no-mikoto and Yamato-totohi-momoso-hime. On the other hand, if one accepts the
postdating adjustments prior to the 4th century, then Himiko was closer to these Yamato-named shamans. Neither Kojiki nor Nihon Shoki
mentions Himiko or any of the salient topics that she was unmarried, was chosen as ruler by the people, had a younger brother who helped rule
(unless this refers to Jingū's son), or had numerous (figuratively "1000") female attendants. William Wayne Farris (1998:15-54) reviews the history
of scholarly debates over Himiko and her domain Yamatai. The Edo Period philosophers Arai Hakuseki and Motoori Norinaga began the
controversies over whether Yamatai was located in Kyushu or Yamato and whether the Wei Zhi or the Nihon Shoki was historically more
trustworthy. The Confucianist Arai accepted the Chinese history as more reliable, and first equated Himiko with Jingū and Yamatai with
Yamato. The Kokugaku scholar Motoori accepted the traditional Japanese myth-history as more reliable, and dismissed its Wei Zhi quotations as
later accretions. He hypothesized that a king from Kumaso sent emissaries who masqueraded as Jingū's officials to the Wei court, thus mistaking
the Empress for Himiko. Farris (1998:16) says, "Motoori's usurpationhypothesis (gisen setsu) carried great weight for the next century." After the
Meiji Restoration in 1868, Japanese historians adopted European historical scholarship, especially the source-based methodology of Leopold von
Ranke. Naka Michiyo believed the Nihon Shoki chronology was inaccurate prior to the 4th century, and thus (Farris 1998:17) "Jingū became a
fourth-century queen whose reign could not possibly have coincided with Himiko's." The sinologist Shiratori Kurakichi proposed the Nihon
Shoki compilers were tempted to associate Jingū with the religious powers of Himiko. Naitō Torajirō argued that Himiko was the high priestess
of the Ise shrine Yamatohime-no-mikoto and that Wa armies obtained control of southern Korea. One scholar [Higo Kazuo] asserted that Himiko
was really Yamato-toto-momo-so-hime-no-mikoto, aunt of the legendary Emperor Sūjin on his father's side, because her supposed tomb at
Hashihaka in Nara measured about a hundred paces in diameter, the measurement given for Himiko's grave. This theory gained adherents in
the postwar period. Another [Shida Fudomaru] saw in Himiko an expression of women's political authority in early Japan. (Farris 1998:20) Some
later Japanese historians reframed Himiko in terms of Marxist historiography. Masaaki Ueda argued that "Himiko's was a despotic state with a
generalized slave system" (Farris 1998:21), while Mitsusada Inoue idealized Yamatai as a "balance of small states" with communal property and
popular political expression. Following the late 1960s "Yamatai boom" when numerous Japanese historians, linguists, and archeologists
published reevaluations of Himiko and Yamatai, the debate was joined by Japanese nationalists, mystery writers, and amateur scholars. In
Japanese historical and archeological periodization, the 2nd-3rd century era of Queen Himiko was between late Yayoi period and early Kofun
period. Kofun (古墳 "old tumulus") refers to characteristic keyhole-shaped burial mounds, and the Wei Zhi noting "a great mound was raised,
more than a hundred paces in diameter" for Pimiko's tomb, may well be the earliest written record of a kofun. Several archeological excavations
of Yayoi and Kofun sites in kinki region, have revealed Chinese-style bronze mirrors, called shinju-kyo (神獣鏡 "mirror decorated with gods and
animals"). Many scholars who support the Kinki theory associate these shinju-kyo with the "one hundred bronze mirrors" that the Wei Zhi (tr.
Tsunoda 1951:15) records Emperor Cao Rui presented to Queen Himiko, while other scholars oppose it (Walter Edwards (1998, 1999)).
Hashihaka kofun in Sakurai, Nara, was given a recent boost by radio-carbon dating circa 240-260 (Anon 2009). The early Chinese records of
Himiko/Pimiko and her Yamatai polity remain something of a Rorschach test. To different interpreters, this early Japanese shaman queen can
appear as evidence of: communalism (Marxists), Jōmonpriestess rulers (Feminist history), Japanese conquest of Korea (Akima 1993), mongolian
conquest of Japan (Namio Egami's "horserider theory"), the imperial system originating with tandem rule by a female shaman and male
monarch (Mori 1979), the "patriarchal revolution" replacing female deities and priestesses with male counterparts (Ellwood 1990), or a shamanic
advisor to the federation of Wa chieftains who "must have looked like a ruling queen to Chinese envoys" (Matsumoto 1983). Himiko in popular
culture: AR401 Himiko train at Kiyama Station. Himiko water taxi in Tokyo Bay. The proper name Himiko has been diversely applied, not only
in Japanese popular culture but also in other realms such as astronomy, Himiko (卑弥呼) is a train on the Amagi Railway Amagi Line and a
water bus of Tokyo Cruise Ship designed by Leiji Matsumoto. Himiko (film) is a 1974 Japanese drama directed by Masahiro Shinoda. Queen
Himika, ruler of the Yamatai (sometimes translated as Jamatai) Kingdom, is the major antagonist in the super robot anime and manga series
Steel Jeeg, created by manga artists Go Nagai and Tatsuya Yasuda. The anime TV series was produced by Toei Doga, and was first broadcast on
Japanese TV in 1975. House of Himiko (Mezon do Himiko メゾン・ド・ヒミコ) is a 2005 film starring Kō Shibasaki. Legend of Himiko
(Himiko-Den 火魅子伝) is an anime series, manga, and computer game. Himiko Kudo (工藤卑弥呼) is a character in the anime/manga series Get
Backers. Himiko (ひみこ) is a character name in Dragon Quest III, Kyoshiro and the Eternal Sky, Shin Megami Tensei: Persona 4, and Warriors
Orochi 2 & 3. Himiko (卑弥呼) is a song featured in the music game Beatmania IIDX 16: Empress. In the background video, a stylized Empress
Himiko is featured throughout the song. Himiko (ひみこ) is featured in the 2006 video game Ōkami as the Queen of Nippon, the setting in
which the game takes place. Himiko is mentioned as being a historical witch in the Japanese video game Bayonetta Himiko is featured as the
main character in the young adult novel Spirit's Princess. Himiko was seen in the final episode of Puella Magi Madoka Magica with other
magical girls. Himiko is the antagonist of the first book of Osamu Tezuka's Phoenix series, where she is identified with the sun goddess
Amaterasu and becomes the inspiration for various legends before dying of breast cancer. A clone of Himiko is a character in the manga series
Afterschool Charisma, where she follows in her progenitor's footsteps as a shaman by leading a cult that worships the spirit of Dolly the clone
sheep. Himiko (ヒミコ) is a character in the anime/manga series Kyoushirou to Towa no Sora. She is the AU version (though hinted to be the
reincarnation) of Himeko Kurusugawa from Kannazuki no Miko. Himiko is the final antagonist of the 2013 series reboot of Tomb Raider, as
well as the distant ancestor of Lara's friend, Sam. She was a powerful queen, capable of controlling the weather, who ruled with the help of her
Storm Guard: it was said to rule over all the land that was touched by the sun's rays. The name Himiko was given to a Lyman-alpha blob (a
massive concentration of hydrogen gas believed to be a protogalaxy) that was discovered in 2009. Massing close to 40 billion suns and located
12.9 billion light years from Earth in the constellation Cetus, as of 2014 it is the largest and most distant known example of its kind. In the anime
Shangri-La, the main character, Kuniko, is a "perfect" clone of Himiko, who was buried underneath Tokyo. Two other characters—Mikuni and
Kunihito—are also related to Himiko; Mikuni is another clone, while Kunihito is a natural descendant. In the final episode of the anime, Kuniko
and Himiko fight each other to decide the future of humanity. Yamatoyo no Momohime; the final boss of the fanmade Touhou Project-inspired
game, Riverbed Soul Saver, is based on Queen Himiko.

Iyo was a queen of Yamataikoku in ancient Wa (Japan). When Himiko passed away, a great mound was raised, more than a hundred paces in
diameter. Over a hundred male and female attendants followed her to the grave. Then a king was placed on the throne, but the people would
not obey him. Assassination and murder followed; more than one thousand were thus slain. A relative of Himiko named Iyo [壹與], a girl of
thirteen, was [then] made queen and order was restored. Chêng issued a proclamation to the effect that Iyo was the ruler. (tr. Tsunoda 1951:16).
Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka
The Alupa, Aluva or Alva (4th to 15th centuries) were a minor dynasty who ruled parts of what is now coastal Karnataka, India. They ruled
independently the Alvakheda region in the beginning (200 BCE to 450 CE). Later with the dominance of Kadambas from Banavasi, they became
feudatory to them. With the changing political scenario, soon they became the vassals of the Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas and
Vijayanagara Rayas. Their influence over coastal Karnataka lasted for about 1000 years.There is evidence that the Alupas followed the law of
matrilineal inheritance(Aliyasantana) since the Alupa king Soyideva was succeeded by his nephew Kulasekhara Bankideva(Son of Alupa
princess Krishnayitayi and Hoysala Veera Ballala III). The legendary king who is credited with introducing matrilineality in Tulu Nadu is
named Bhuta Alupa Pandya. The name Alva survives as a surname even today among Bunt landlords who are Matrilineal. The last Alupa king
to have ruled is Kulasekharadeva Alupendradeva whose inscription dated 1444 CE have been found in Mudabidri.
List of Rulers of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka
Pashupathi was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka around AD 450.
Aluvarasa I was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka in early 7th century.
Gunasagara was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka from AD 630 until around AD 660.
Chitravahana was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka from AD 663 until AD 730.
Aluvarasa II was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka in the first half 8th century.
Chitravahana II was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka in the second half 8th century.
Ranasagara was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka in the second half 8th century.
Pritvisagara was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka in the first half 9th century.
Marama was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka in the first half 9th century.
Vimaladitya was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka in the second half 9th century.
Alva Rananjaya was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka in the second half 9th century.
Dattalupa was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka in the first half 10th century.
Kundavarma was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka from AD 960 until AD 980.
Jayasimha was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka from AD 980 until AD 1010.
Bankideva Alupendra was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka in the first half 11th century.
Pattiyodeya was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka in the second half 11th century.
Pandya Pattiyodeya was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka from 1080 until 1110.
Kavi Alupendra was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka in the first half 12th century.
Pattiyodeya Kulashekara Alupendra was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka from AD 1160 until AD 1220.
Kundana was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka from AD 1220 until AD 1230.
Vallabhadeva Duttalupa was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka in the first half 13th century.
Virapandya was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka from 1250 until 1275.
Ballamahadevi was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka jointly with Nagadevarasa from 1275 until 1285.

Nagadevarasa was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka jointly with Ballamahadevi from 1275 until 1285.
Bankideva II was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka in late 13th century and in early 14th century.
Soyideva was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka in the first half 14th century.
Kulashekara was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka from 1335 until 1346.
Bankideva III was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka during 1340s and in 1350s.
Kulashekara III was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka from 1355 until 1390.
Virapandya II was a ruler of the Alupa Dynasty of Karnataka in late 14th century.
Tepetlaoztoc or Tepetlaoxtoc (Nahuatl for "tepetate-cave place") is an archaeological site located in the Central Mexico plateau region of
Mesoamerica, which was formerly an Aztec/Nahua settlement during the Late Postclassic period of Mesoamerican chronology, with an
occupancy continuing through the Colonial period. The site is situated in the Valley of Mexico, to the northeast of Texcoco. In the 1970s the area
was relatively undeveloped, and one could, on aerial photographs, still discern the 16th century field lines and irrigation system drawn in the
Codex of Santa Maria Asuncion (manuscript in the Biblioteca Nacional) and the Codex Vergara. Likewise one could locate many of the aldeas
that were tributary to Tepetlaoztoc, and still find the wall bases of their houses. By the time of Sander's work in the 1990s, development had
largely destroyed these remnants.
List of Tlaotani (ruler or king) of the pre-Columbian Acolhua altepetl of Tepetlaoztoc
Cocopin was tlaotani (ruler or king) of the pre-Columbian Acolhua altepetl of Tepetlaoztoc in the Valley of Mexico in the the second half 15th
century.
Azcasuch (Classical Nahuatl: Āzcaxōch /aːsˈkaʃoːtʃ/) was a cihuatlatoani (queen) of the pre-Columbian Acolhua altepetl of Tepetlaoztoc in the
Valley of Mexico in late 15th century. Her name is Nahuatl for a kind of a flower (literally "ant-flower"). A daughter of Nezahualcoyotl, ruler of
Texoco, Azcasuch married Cocopin, the ruler of Tepetlaoztoc. After her husband's death, she ascended to the throne herself as queen regnant.
Azcasuch was succeeded by her grandson, Diego Tlilpotonqui.
Diego Tlilpotonqui was the tlatoani (ruler or king) of the pre-Columbian Acolhua altepetl (ethnic state) of Tepetlaoztoc in the Valley of
Mexico in the first half 16th century. He was ruling Tepetlaoztoc when the Spanish arrived in 1519. Tlilpotonqui was the grandson of Cocopin,
who had previously been ruler of Tepetlaoztoc. Upon Cocopin's death, his wife Azcasuch, a daughter of Nezahualcoyotl, the ruler of Texcoco,
succeeded him as cihuatlatoani (queen regnant). After Azcasuch's death, the position became Tlilpotonqui's. With his conversion to Christianity,
Tlilpotonqui was baptized and given the Spanish name Diego. Tlilpotonqui left no legitimate children. Upon his death, his nephew Don Luis de
Tejada became tlatoani.
Luis de Tejada was the tlatoani (ruler or king) of the pre-Columbian Acolhua altepetl (ethnic state) of Tepetlaoztoc in the Valley of Mexico
in the first half 16th century.
Kittur (Kannada Kitturu)
Kittur (Kannada Kitturu) is a village in Belgaum District of Karnataka state. It was a part of Bailahongal taluk in Belgaum Dist. It was declared
as an independent taluk on October 23, 2012 by Chief Minister of Karnataka on the inaugural of Kittur Utsav and it is 177th Taluk of Karnataka
State. It is a place of historical importance because of the resistance of Rani Chennamma of the State of Kittur (1778–1829) against the British
East India Company, during which a British Commissioner, St John Thackeray was killed. On the outskirts of the town lies the ruins of the
palace within a fort. The palace was the residence of the Rani Chennamma. In connection with a disputed succession to this chiefship in 1824, St
John Thackeray, Commissioner of Dharwad, was killed in a battle when approaching the Kittur fort. Later another unit stormed Kittur and
captured Queen Chennamma, who was imprisoned in Bailhongal Jail where she died. Rani Chennamma became a legend. The town is also the
setting for the 2008 novel Between the Assassinations by Aravind Adiga. However, it is described in the novel wrongly as a coastal village.(which
would put it in Uttara Kannada rather than Belgaum).
Queen of Kittur
Kitturu Rani Chennamma (born October 23, 1778 in Kakati, Belgaum District, Karnataka,
India - died February 21, 1829) was the Queen of Kittur, India in the first half 19th century. She was
best known for leading an armed rebellion against the British East India Company in 1824. The
resistance ended with her arrest and she became a symbol of the independence movement in India. In
the state of Karnataka, she is celebrated along with Abbakka Rani, Keladi Chennamma and Onake
Obavva. Chennamma was born in a small village of Belgaum in Karnataka. She became queen of her
native kingdom and married Raja Mallasarja, of the Desai family, and had one son. After their son's
death in 1824 she adopted Shivalingappa, and made him heir to the throne. The British East India

Company did not accept this and ordered Shivalingappa's expulsion, using a policy of paramountcy and complete authority (doctrine of lapse
officially codified between 1848 and 1856 by Lord Dalhousie), but Chennamma defied the order. Rani Chennamma sent a letter to the governor
at Bombay to plead the cause of Kittur, but Elphinstone turned her down, and war broke out. The British tried to confiscate the treasure and
jewels of Kittur, valued around fifteen Lakhs of rupees. They attacked with a force of 200 men and four guns, mainly from the third troop of
Madras Native Horse Artillery. In the first round of war, during October 1824, British forces lost heavily and St John Thackeray, collector and
political agent, was killed by Kittur forces. Amatur Balappa, a lieutenant of Chennamma, was mainly responsible for his killing and losses to
British forces. Two British officers, Sir Walter Elliot and Mr. Stevenson were also taken as hostages. Rani Chennamma released them with an
understanding with Chaplin that the war would be terminated but Chaplin continued the war with more forces. During the second assault,
Subcollector of Sholapur, Mr. Munro, nephew of Thomas Munro was killed.[5] Rani Chennamma fought fiercely with the aid of her lieutenant,
Sangolli Rayanna, but was ultimately captured and imprisoned at Bailhongal Fort, where she died on February 21, 1829. Chennamma was also
helped by her lieutenant Gurusiddappa in the war against British. Sangolli Rayanna continued the guerrilla war to 1829, in vain, until his
capture. He wanted to install the adopted boy Shivalingappa as the ruler of Kittur, but Sangolli Rayanna was caught and hanged. Shivalingappa
was arrested by the British. Chennamma's legacy and first victory are still commemorated in Kittur, during the Kittur Utsava, October 22-24. On
September 11, 2007 a statue of Rani Chennamma was unveiled at the Indian Parliament Complex by Pratibha Patil, the first woman President of
India. On the occasion, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, Home Minister Shivraj Patil, Lok Sabha Speaker Somanath Chatarjee, BJP leader
L.K.Advani, Karnataka Chief Minister H.D.Kumaraswamy and others were present, marking the importance of the function. The statue was
donated by Kittur Rani Chennamma Memorial Committee and sculpted by Vijay Gaur. Rani Chennamma's statues are installed at Bangalore
and Kittur also. Rani Chennamma's samadhi or burial place is in Bailhongal taluk, but is in neglected state with poor maintenance and the place
is surrounded by a small park maintained by Government agencies. The heroics of Kittur Rani Chennamma are sung by folk in the form of
ballada, lavani and GiGi pada. Kittur Chennamma, 1962 film in Kannada, directed by B. Ramakrishnaiah Panthulu. Coast guard ship "Kittur
Chennamma" was commissioned in 1983 and decommissioned in 2011. The popular daily Indian Railways train Rani Chennamma Express
connecting Bangalore and Kolhapur is named after this former warrior.
Ullal
Ullal (Tulu: ಉಳ್ಳಾಲ, Kannada: ಉಳ್ಳಾಲ Uḷḷāla, Beary dialect, Konkani language: ಉಳ್ಳಾಲ) is a City Muncipality and former kingdom in Mangalore
Taluk in Dakshina Kannada district in the Indian state of Karnataka. Ullal town is one of the oldest towns in India. In the 15th century it came
under the rule of the Portuguese. Still the remains of its glorious history can be seen in the beaches and other parts of Ullal. It is a small town
about 8–10 km south of Mangalore city center close to the border between the two southern states of Karnataka and Kerala. It comprises two
revenue villages, Ullal and Parmannur, in Mangalore Taluk. Ullal is adjacent to City Corporation of Mangalore, 10 km from District
headquarters. Most of the people in Ullal belong to either Beary or Mogaveera ethnic group. Ullal, which was otherwise considered to be a very
peaceful place, became notorious for the communial riots for last few years. It is very famous for historic locations like Someshwara Temple,
Summer Sands Beach Resort, Queen Abbakka's Fort at Ranipura, Sayyid Madani Darga, K Pandyarajah Ballal Institutes and college of nursing,
Kadapara jara Darga, Fish Meal & Oil Plant, and Queen Abbakka's Jain temple at Melangadi. This quaint little sea town on the shore of Arabian
Sea was the setting for wide-scale sea-erosion that occurred in the late 1990s and early this millennium. The local authorities, however, have
tried to reduce the damage by placing sand bags near the advancing coastline, the benefits of this step are yet to be noted.[citation needed].
Adjacent to summer sands beach resort is subhash nagar. The remains of Rani Abbakka's fort can be seen in the vicinity of Someshwara Temple.
This town is an important trading centre for fish and fish manure. Fishing and Beedi rolling are main occupations of the residents of this town.
This Town was the Capital of the Tulu Kingdom Ullal and was ruled by Jain Queen, Rani Abbakka Devi in the middle of the 16th Century.
List of Rulers of the Chowta Dynasty of Ullal
Tirumalaraya Chowta I was a ruler of the Chowta Dynasty of Ullal from 1160 until 1179.
Channaraya Chowta I was a ruler of the Chowta Dynasty of Ullal from 1179 until 1219. He moved it inland to Puttige.
Bhojaraya Chowta II was a ruler of the Chowta Dynasty of Ullal from 1470 until 1510. He was the greatest of the Chowta rulers. He visited
the court of Krishnadevaraya, the Vijayanagar emperor, and received royal insignia from him.
Tirumala Raya Chowta was a ruler of the Chowta Dynasty of Ullal from 1510 until 1525.
Rani Abbakka Chowta was the Jain Queen of Ullal from 1525 until 1570s who fought the Portuguese in the
latter half of the 16th century. She belonged to the Chowta dynasty who ruled over parts of coastal Karnataka (Tulu
Nadu), India. Their capital was Puttige. The port town of Ullal served as their subsidiary capital. The Portuguese
made several attempts to capture Ullal as it was strategically placed. But Abbakka repulsed each of their attacks for
over four decades. For her bravery, she came to be known as Abhaya Rani (The fearless queen). She was also one of
the earliest Indians to fight the colonial powers and is sometimes regarded as the 'first woman freedom fighter of
India'. The Chowtas who were Jain Digambara followed the system of matrilineal inheritance (Aliyasantana) by
which Tirumala Raya, Abbakka's uncle, crowned her the queen of Ullal. He also forged a matrimonial alliance for
Abbakka with Lakshmappa Bangera Arasa, the powerful king of Baindoor. This alliance was to later prove a source
of worry for the Portuguese. Tirumala Raya also trained Abbakka in the different aspects of warfare and military
strategy. The marriage, however was short lived and Abbakka returned to Ullal. Her husband thus longed for
revenge against Abbakka and was to later join the Portuguese in their fight against Abbakka. After overrunning
Goa and taking control of it, the Portuguese turned their attention southwards and along the coast. They first
attacked the South Kanara coast in 1525 and destroyed the Mangalore port. Ullal was a prosperous port and a hub of the spice trade to Arabia
and other countries in the west. Being the profitable trading center that it was, the Portuguese, the Dutch and the British vied with one another
for control of the region as well as the trade routes. They however, had not been able to make much headway as the resistance from the local

chieftains was very strong. The local rulers even forged alliances cutting across caste and religion lines. Though Abbakka was a Jain by faith, her
administration was well represented by Hindus and Muslims. Her army too consisted of people of all sects and castes. She even forged alliances
with the Zamorin of Calicut. Together, they kept the Portuguese at bay. The marital ties with the neighbouring Banga dynasty added further
strength to the alliance of the local rulers. She also gained support from powerful king Venkatappanayaka of Bidnur and ignored the threat of
Portuguese forces. The Portuguese, clearly upset by Abbakka's tactics, demanded that she pay them tribute but Abbakka refused to yield. In
1555, the Portuguese sent Admiral Dom Álvaro da Silveira to fight her after she refused to pay them tribute. In the battle that followed, Rani
Abbakka once again managed to hold her own and repulsed the attack successfully. In 1557, the Portuguese plundered Mangalore and laid
waste to it. In 1568, they turned their attention to Ullal but Abbakka Rani resisted them yet again. João Peixoto, a Portuguese general and a fleet
of soldiers were sent by the Portuguese Viceroy António Noronha. They managed to capture the city of Ullal and also entered the royal court.
Abbakka Rani, however, escaped and took refuge in a mosque. The same night, she gathered around 200 of her soldiers and mounted an attack
on the Portuguese. In the battle that ensued, General Peixoto was killed, seventy Portuguese soldiers were taken prisoners and many of the
Portuguese retreated. In further attacks, Abbakka Rani and her supporters killed Admiral Mascarenhas and the Portuguese were also forced to
vacate the Mangalore fort. In 1569 however, the Portuguese not only regained the Mangalore fort but also captured Kundapur (Basrur). Despite
these gains, Abbakka Rani continued to remain a source of threat. With the help of the queen's estranged husband, they mounted attacks on
Ullal. Furious battles followed but Abbakka Rani held her own. In 1570, she formed an alliance with the Bijapur Sultan of Ahmed Nagar and the
Zamorine of Calicut, who were also opposing the Portuguese. Kutty Pokar Markar, the Zamorine's general fought on behalf of Abbakka and
destroyed the Portuguese fort at Mangalore but while returning he was killed by the Portuguese. Following these losses and her husband's
treachery, Abbakka lost the war, was arrested and jailed. However, even in prison she revolted and died fighting. According to traditional
accounts, she was an immensely popular queen and this is also attested by the fact that she is even today a part of folklore. The queen's story has
been retold from generation to generation through folk songs and Yakshagana, a popular folk theatre in [Coastal Karnataka]. In Bhuta Kola, a
local ritual dance, the persona in trance recounts the great deeds of Abbakka Mahadevi. Abbakka is portrayed as dark and good looking, always
dressed in simple clothes like a commoner. She is portrayed as a caring queen who worked late into the night dispensing justice. Legends also
claim that Abbakka was the last known person to have the used the Agnivana (fire-arrow) in her fight against the Portuguese. Some accounts
also claim that she had two equally valiant daughters who fought alongside her in her wars against the Portuguese. Tradition however treats all
three - mother and two daughters as the same person. Abbakka's memory is much cherished in her home town of Ullal. The "Veera Rani
Abbakka Utsava" is an annual celebration held in her memory. The Veera Rani Abbakka Prashasti(award) is awarded to distinguished women on
the occasion. On January 15, 2003, the Indian postal department issued a special cover on Rani Abbakka. There have been calls to name the
Bajpe airport and a naval vessel after the queen. A bronze statue of the queen has been erected in Ullal and another in Bangalore. The Karnataka
Itihasa Academy has called for renaming the Queen's road in the state capital as 'Rani Abbakka Devi road'. India's First Inshore Patrol Vessel
ICGS Rani Abbakka is named after the Queen. The Vessel was commissioned in Visakhapatnam on January 20, 2012, and will be based in
Chennai.
Nayaks of Kalahasti
The Nayaks of Kalahasti were rulers of Kalahasti and Vandavasi principalities. Members of the group include Damarla Chennappa Nayaka and
his son Damarla Venkatadri Nayaka. These Nayaks served as vassals and loyalists to the Aravidu Dynasty of Vijayanagara Empire, then
headquarted at Chandragiri Fort and Vellore Fort.
List of Rulers (Nayakar) of Vandavasi (Kalahasti)
Damal Chennappa Nayakudu or Chennapa Nayagar (Tamil: சென்னப்ப நாயக்கர்) was a Nayakar of Vandavasi (Kalahasti) ho served
as a general under Sriranga Deva Raya of the Aravidu Dynasty. The historical city of Chennai is believed to have been named after him. This
Nayaks were Originated from Damal near Vandavasi, and they were Vanniyar by communty, still the people living around this region are
Vanniya Naickers. Chennappa served under Sriranga Deva Raya assisting him against the Golkonda forces of Ibrahim Qutb Shah in several
battles,notably in 1576 when Penukonda was captured by Ali Adil Shah and in 1579 when he captured the Golkonda Commander Murari Rao. In
1580, Ibrahim Qutb Shah invaded Kondavidu. Later he took the Udayagiri Fort and began to massacre the locals. However he was defeated after
a brief fight with the Raya's army. Qutb Shah later took the fort of Vinukonda. Sriranga defeated the Sultan's forces with the assistance of his
generals Muthuraja Chennappa (Damal was his surname) and Kasturiranga. During this fight, Chennappa lost his life. He was succeeded by
Kasturiranga. The East India Company established the St.George fort in the present day Chennai, for which the permission was granted by
Damal Venkatadri Nayaka, the local polygar of that area, under the condition that the area is to be named in the honour of his father Damal
Chennappa Nayaka as Muthuraja Chennapatanam, the East India Company in brief named the area as Madras (Madras being a corrupt form of
Muthuraj). In the earlier days there were two small areas known as Madraspattanam and Chennapatnam. Later the two areas grew into each
other which the Govt. of Tamil Nadu renamed it as Chennai in the year 1996.
Kasturi Ranga was a Nayakar of Vandavasi (Kalahasti) who served as a general under Sriranga Deva Raya of the Aravidu Dynasty during
1580s.
Yachama Naidu was a Nayakar of Vandavasi (Kalahasti) who served as a general under Venkata II and Sriranga II of the Aravidu Dynasty
from late 1580s until around 1614. He was one of the famous chiefs of this line. He was a loyalist of Venkata II and Sriranga II. Yachama Naidu
was also the son of Kasturi Ranga, another famous general of Kalahasti adn was part of Venkatagiri royal family. He helped Venkata II to
capture territory from the Deccan Sultans and also quelled rebellions by Nayaks of Vellore and Madurai. When Sriranga II succeeded Venkata
II, Yachama supported him against Jagga Raya's faction. Yachama Naidu saved Sriranga II's son Rama Deva Raya by smuggling him out of the
Vellore prison, with the help of a Washerman, when Sriranga II's family was imprisoned by Jagga Raya. However, he was unable to prevent the
murder of Sriranga II's entire family. He fought on behalf of Rama Deva Raya at Toppur with support from Raghunatha of Tanjore and killed
Jagga Raya seizing his Gobburi Estates which formed the regions of Pulicat, Chengalpet and Maduranthakam, but later completely brought
under control of Vellore, under control of Rama Deva Raya, the Vijayanagara Emperor.

List of Kings of Kashmir
Gonandiya dynasty of Kashmir
List of Rulers of Gonandiya Dynasty of Kashmir
Gonandiya was a king of Kashmir who features in Kalhana's The Chronicle of the Kings of Kashmir. After an Abhimanyu, we come to the
main Gonandiya dynasty, founded by Gonanda III. He was (I.191) the first of his race. Nothing is known about his origin. His family ruled for
many generations.
Pratapaditya was a king of Kashmir who features in Kalhana's The Chronicle of the Kings of Kashmir. Eventually a Pratapaditya, a relative of
Vikrmaditya (not the Shakari) became king (II.6).
Jayendra was a king of Kashmir who features in Kalhana's The Chronicle of the Kings of Kashmir.
Aryarajawas a king of Kashmir who features in Kalhana's The Chronicle of the Kings of Kashmir. He was reconsidered the reincarnation or
resurrection of a wise man, Samdhimati, who had been killed by the previous king Jayendra. Witches used magic to bring the skeleton of the
wise man back to life, and he then ascended the throne as Aryaraja. Comparison of the reincarnation of Samdhimati as Aryaraja have been made
with the resurrection accounts in Christianity, with the later being influenced by the former. In Kalhana's account, after a just reign Aryaraja
resigned the throne and became a monk.
Meghavahana was a king of Kashmir who features in Kalhana's The Chronicle of the Kings of Kashmir. After the Huna, Meghavahana of
the Gonandiya family was brought back from Gandhara. His family ruled for a few generations. Meghavahana was a devout Buddhist and
prohibited animal slaughter in his domain.
Kashmiri Karkoṭa Dynasty of Kashmir
List of Rulers of Kashmiri Karkoṭa dynasty of Kashmir
Durlabhavardhana was a ruler of the Kashmiri Karkoṭa dynasty from 625 until 661.
Pratapaditya was a ruler of the Kashmiri Karkoṭa dynasty from 661 until 711.
Chandrapida was a ruler of the Kashmiri Karkoṭa dynasty from 711 until 719. He was recognized by an imperial order of the Chinese
emperor as the king of Kashmir.
Durlabhaka-Pratapaditya II was a ruler of the Kashmiri Karkoṭa dynasty from 719 until 723.
Lalitāditya Muktapīḍa was an emperor of the Kashmiri Karkoṭa dynasty from AD 724 until AD 760, which exercised influence in
northwestern India from 625 until 1003. He is known primarily for his successful resistance to Muslim and Tibetan advances into Kashmiri-
dominated regions. He defeated the forces of Yashovarman, the successor to the emperor Harsha. Prior to these foreign incursions, he had
expanded his own empire; it was among the more powerful states of Northern India. Lalitaditya Muktapida, son of Durlabhaka-Pratapaditya
II,[1] who preceded him as Karkoṭa emperor, was known to be a skilled horse rider and warrior, according to historian R.C. Majumdar. He
conducted campaigns of expansion in areas to the south of Kashmir and was able to concentrate his attention on regions to the north. His
empire expanded to the borders of the Karakoram mountains. During this period, he was drawn into a war with Yashovarman of Kannauj, the
successor to the Emperor Harsha. Lalitaditya is believed to have defeated Yashovarman's forces. In the beginning of the 8th century, the Arab
invasion had started knocking at the door of the Kabul valley. Simultaneously after the end of Tang reign in China, many Central Asian states
that had come under the Chinese rule had disintegrated because of civil wars. During this period, the Muslim power in Sindh was trying to
march towards the north. While the empires of Kabul and Gandhar were occupied by these invasions, Lalitaditya used the opportunity to
establish his foothold in the north, moving with his victorious army from Dardistan to Turkestan. The entire area was rich in Kashmiri traditions
and education, due to the efforts of Buddhist monks and Kashmiri people in towns of Central Asia. Kashmir, at that time, was one of the most
powerful state in the South and Central Asia. During the time of Lalitaditya, its boundaries covered an area from Tibet in the east to Iran in the
west and from Turkestan in the north. He expressed interest in other areas besides his military campaign. Art and trade gained importance
during his reign, religious festivals were held, and special facilities as well as encouragement were provided to support painters and sculptors.
He was a successful writer and a Veena player. Bamzai wrote that Lalitaditya's war victories have received special place among different accounts
of his reign. Kalhana in his Rajatarangini credits king Lalitaditya with leading an aggressive military campaigns in Northern India and Central
Asia. He broke into the Uttarapatha and defeated the rebellious tribes of the Kambojas, Tukharas (Turks in Turkmenistan and Tocharians in
Badakhshan), Bhautas (Tibetans in Baltistan and Tibet) and Daradas (Dards). His campaign then led him to subjugate the kingdoms of
Pragjyotisha, Strirajya and the Uttarakurus.
Kuvalayapida was a ruler of the Kashmiri Karkoṭa dynasty around 760/761.
Vajraditya was a ruler of the Kashmiri Karkoṭa dynasty from 761 until 768.

Prithivyapida was a ruler of the Kashmiri Karkoṭa dynasty from 768 until 772.
Sangramapida I was a ruler of the Kashmiri Karkoṭa dynasty from 772 until 779.
Jayapida was a ruler of the Kashmiri Karkoṭa dynasty from 779/782 until 813.
Lalitapida was a ruler of the Kashmiri Karkoṭa dynasty from 813 until 825.
Sangramapida II was a ruler of the Kashmiri Karkoṭa dynasty from 825 until 832.
Utpala Dynasty of Kashmir
List of Rulers of Utpala Dynasty of Kashmir
Utpala was a king of Kashmir who features in Kalhana's The Chronicle of the Kings of Kashmir.
Avantivarman was a ruler of Utpala Dynasty of Kashmir from 855 until 883.
Shankaravarman was a ruler of Utpala Dynasty of Kashmir from 883 until 902. Kalhana describes Shamkaravarman thus (Stein's trans.):
"This [king], who did not speak the language of the gods but used vulgar speech fit for drunkards, showed that he was descended from a family
of spirit-distillers". This refers to the fact that the power had passed to the brothers of a queen, who was born in a family of spirit-distillers.
Gopalavarman was a ruler of Utpala Dynasty of Kashmir from 902 until 904.
Yashaskara was a king of Kashmir who features in Kalhana's The Chronicle of the Kings of Kashmir. After the Utpala dynasty, a Yashaskara
became king (V.469).
Kutumbi was a king of Kashmir who features in Kalhana's The Chronicle of the Kings of Kashmir. He was a great-grandson of a Viradeva, a
Kutumbi (V.469). Here maybe Kutumbi = kunabi (as in kurmis of UP and Kunbi of Gujarat/Maharastra). He was the son of a treasurer of
Karkota Shamkaravarman.
Divira, Pravaragupta was a king of Kashmir who features in Kalhana's The Chronicle of the Kings of Kashmir. After a young son of
Yashaskara, Pravaragupta, a Divira (clerk), became king. His son Kshemagupta married Didda, daughter of Simharaja of Lohara. After ruling
indirectly and directly, Didda (980-1003) placed Samgramaraja, son of her brother on the throne, starting the Lohara dynasty.
Sugandha(died 914) was the Queen and Regent of Kashmir during early 10th century. At this time, two opposing military factions were vying
for ascendancy in Kashmir: the Ekangas and the Tantrins, a wild, ungovernable, and unpredictable clan. Queen Sugandha allied herself with the
Ekangas in order to maintain her control of Kashmir as a whole. In a 914 clash between the two factions, Queen Sugandha’s forces were
defeated, leaving the Tantrins in complete control. Queen Sugandha was deposed, and none of the succeeding rulers was able to assert his
authority over the Tantrins.
Ksemgupta (died 958) was a ruler of Kashmir around middle 10th century and husbend Didda, also ruler of Kashmir. Didda was a daughter
of Simharāja, the king of Lohara, and a granddaughter of Bhima Shahi, one of the Hindu Shahi of Kabul. Lohara lay in the Pir Panjal range of
mountains, on a trade route between western Punjab and Kashmir. She married the king of Kashmir, Ksemgupta, thus uniting the kingdom of
Lohara with that of her husband. When Ksemgupta died following a fever contracted after a hunt in 958, he was succeeded by his son,
Abhimanyu II.
Abhimanyu II was a ruler of Kashmir around 958. When his father Ksemgupta died following a fever contracted after a hunt in 958, he was
succeeded him. As Abhimanyu was still a child, Didda his mother acted as Regent and effectively exercised sole power.
Diddawas a ruler of Kashmir from 958 until 1003, first as a Regent for her son and various grandsons, and thereafter as sole ruler in her own
right. Most knowledge relating to her is obtained from the Rajatarangini, a work written by Kalhana in the twelfth century. Didda was a
daughter of Simharāja, the king of Lohara, and a granddaughter of Bhima Shahi, one of the Hindu Shahi of Kabul. Lohara lay in the Pir Panjal
range of mountains, on a trade route between western Punjab and Kashmir. She married the king of Kashmir, Ksemgupta, thus uniting the
kingdom of Lohara with that of her husband. When Ksemgupta died following a fever contracted after a hunt in 958, he was succeeded by his
son, Abhimanyu II. As Abhimanyu was still a child, Didda acted as Regent and effectively exercised sole power. Compared to other societies of
the period, women in Kashmir were held in high regard. Even prior to becoming Regent Didda had considerable influence in state affairs, and
coins have been found which appear to show both her name and that of Ksemgupta. Her first task was to rid herself of troublesome ministers
and nobles, whom she drove from office only to have them rebel against her. The situation was tense and she came close to losing control, but
having asserted her position with support from others, including some whom she bribed, Didda displayed a ruthlessness in executing not only
the rebels who had been captured but also their families. Further trouble erupted in 972 when Abhimanyu died. He was succeeded by his son,
Nandigupta, still a young child himself, and this caused restlessness among the Dāmaras, who were feudatory landlords and later to cause huge
problems for the Lohara dynasty which Didda founded. In 973 she "disposed of" Nandigupta, in Stein's phrase, and then did the same to
Tribhuvanagupta, his younger brother, in 975. This left her youngest grandson, Bhimagupta, on the throne, again with Didda as Regent. Her
desire for absolute power became untrammeled, especially after the death of Phalunga, a counsellor who had been prime minister of her
husband before being exiled by Didda after Ksemgupta's death and then brought back into her fold when his skills were required. She also took
a lover called Tunga at this time and although he was a mere herdsman this provided her with a sense of security sufficient that in 980 she
arranged for Bhimagupta to be tortured to death and assumed unfettered control for herself, with Tunga as her prime minister. Although there

remained some discontent among the Dāmaras, Didda and Tunga were able to resolve the issues by force and by diplomacy, causing Stein to
comment that The statesmanlike instinct and political ability which we must ascribe to Didda in spite of all the defects of her character, are
attested by the fact that she remained to the last in peaceful possession of the Kashmir throne, and was able to bequeath it to her family in
undisputed possession. She adopted a nephew, Samgrāmarāja, to be her heir in Kashmir but left the rule of Lohara to Vigraharāja, who was
either another nephew or perhaps one of her brothers. From this decision arose the Lohara dynasty of Kashmir, although Vigraharāja even
during her lifetime made attempts to assert his right to that area as well as Lohara.
Lohara Dynasty of Kashmir
The seat of the Lohara dynasty was a hill-fortress called Loharakotta, the precise location of which has been the subject of academic debate over
a prolonged period. Stein, a translator of Kalhana, has discussed some of these theories and concludes that it lay in the Pir Panjal range of
mountains, on a trade route between western Punjab and Kashmir. As such, it was not itself in Kashmir but in the kingdom of Lohara, centred
around a group of large villages collectively known as Lohrin, which itself was a name shared by the valley in which they were situated and a
river that ran through it. The Lohara kingdom probably extended into neighbouring valleys.
Nara of Darvabhisara was founder of Lohara family. He was a vyavahari (perhaps merchant) who along with others who owned villages like him
had set up little kingdoms during the last days of Karkotas. The Loharas ruled for many generations.
List of Rulers of Lohara Dynasty of Kashmir
Simharāja was a King of Lohara in Kasmir in the first half 10th century and father of Didda, ruler of Kashmir.
Samgrāmarāja was a ruler of the Lohara Dynasty of Kashmir from 1003 until 1028. Didda, Queen of Kashmir subsequently adopted a
nephew, Samgrāmarāja, to be her heir in Kashmir but left the rule of Lohara to Vigraharāja, who was either another nephew or perhaps one of
her brothers. From this decision arose the Lohara dynasty of Kashmir, although Vigraharāja even during her lifetime made attempts to assert
his right to that area as well as Lohara. What was to follow was around three centuries of "endless rebellions and other internal troubles". The
reign of Samgrāmarāja between 1003 and June or July 1028 was largely characterised by the actions of those in his court, who preyed on his
subjects to satisfy their own greed, and by the role of the prime minister, Tunga. The latter was a former herdsman who had become the lover of
Didda and was her prime minister. He had wielded much power in working with Didda to assert her dominance over the kingdom and he
continued to use that power after her death. Samgrāmarāja was afraid of him and for many years allowed him to have his way. Indeed, it was
Tunga who appointed many of the corrupt officials who proceeded to extract significant amounts of wealth from the kingdom's subjects. These
appointees, and their actions, made Tunga unpopular, and his age may well have contributed to his increasing inability to deal with challenges
from opponents within and without the court. Samgrāmarāja quietly supported the plots to remove the minister, and eventually Tunga was
murdered; however, this did little to improve matters either in the court or the country as his death caused an influx of royal favourites who
were no less corrupt than those who had been appointed by him.
Harirāja was a ruler of the Lohara Dynasty of Kashmir in 1028. Samgrāmarāja's son, Harirāja, succeeded him but reigned for only 22 days
before dying and being succeeded in turn by another son, Ananta. It is possible that Harirāja was killed by his mother, Shrilakhā, who may have
been desirous of holding power herself but was ultimately thwarted in that scheme by those protecting her children. It was around this time that
Vigraharāja attempted once more to take control of Kashmir, taking an army to do battle near to the capital at Srinagar and being killed in
defeat.
Ananta (died 1081) was a ruler of the Lohara Dynasty of Kashmir from 1028 until 1063. Samgrāmarāja's son, Harirāja, succeeded him but
reigned for only 22 days before dying and being succeeded in turn by another son, Ananta. It is possible that Harirāja was killed by his mother,
Shrilakhā, who may have been desirous of holding power herself but was ultimately thwarted in that scheme by those protecting her children. It
was around this time that Vigraharāja attempted once more to take control of Kashmir, taking an army to do battle near to the capital at
Srinagar and being killed in defeat. The period of rule by Ananta was characterised by royal profligacy; he accumulated debts so large that it
necessitated the pawning of the royal diadem, although when his queen, Sūryamatī, intervened the situation was improved. She was able to settle
the debts incurred by her husband by use of her own resources and she also oversaw the appointment of ministers with ability in order to
stabilise the government. In 1063, she forced Ananta to abdicate in favour of their son, Kalaśa. This was probably in order to preserve the
dynasty but the strategy proved not to be successful because of Kalaśa's own unsuitability. It was then arranged that Ananta was effective king
even though his son held the title. Ananta to leave the capital along with many loyal courtiers and then laying siege to them in their new abode
at Vijayesvara. On the verge of being pushed into exile, and faced with a wife who even at this stage doted on her son, Ananta committed suicide
in 1081.
Kalaśa(died 1089) was a ruler of the Lohara Dynasty of Kashmir from 1063 until his death in 1089. In 1063, his mother Shrilakhā forced his
brother Ananta to abdicate in favour of their son, Kalaśa. This was probably in order to preserve the dynasty but the strategy proved not to be
successful because of Kalaśa's own unsuitability. It was then arranged that Ananta was effective king even though his son held the title. Kalaśa
was king until 1089. Another weak-willed man, who involved himself in an incestuous relationship with his daughter, Kalaśa was dominated by
those surrounding him at court and spent little time on matters of government until his later years. He freed himself from the effective rule of
his father in 1076, causing Ananta to leave the capital along with many loyal courtiers and then laying siege to them in their new abode at
Vijayesvara. On the verge of being pushed into exile, and faced with a wife who even at this stage doted on her son, Ananta committed suicide in
1081. It was after this that Kalaśa reformed his licentious ways and began to govern responsibly, as well as operating a foreign policy that
improved the influence which the dynasty held over surrounding hill tribes. Kalaśa experienced difficulties with his oldest son, Harsa, who felt
that the allowance granted by his father was insufficient for his extravagant tastes. Harsa plotted to kill Kalaśa, was found out and eventually
imprisoned. His position as heir to the throne was given instead to his younger brother, Utkarsa, who was already ruler of Lohara. The strain of
dealing with Harsa caused Kalaśa to revert to his previous dissolute lifestyle and Stein believes that this contributed to his death in 1089. Despite
being removed as heir, Hasan believes Harsa did immediately succeed his father but Stein says that Utkarsa succeeded and that Harsa remained
in prison. With the accession of Utkarsa to the throne of Kashmir came the reunification of that kingdom with Lohara, as they had been during
the reign of Didda. It is at this point that the fortress became the dynastic seat. Hasan and Stein agree that Harsa became king in 1089.

Utkarsa was a ruler of the Lohara Dynasty of Kashmir in 1089. His brother Harsa was heir to the throne but it given instead to his younger
brother, Utkarsa, who was already ruler of Lohara. The strain of dealing with Harsa caused Kalaśa to revert to his previous dissolute lifestyle and
Stein believes that this contributed to his death in 1089. Despite being removed as heir, Hasan believes Harsa did immediately succeed his father
but Stein says that Utkarsa succeeded and that Harsa remained in prison. With the accession of Utkarsa to the throne of Kashmir came the
reunification of that kingdom with Lohara, as they had been during the reign of Didda. It is at this point that the fortress became the dynastic
seat. Hasan and Stein agree that Harsa became king in 1089. Utkarsa was disliked and soon deposed, with a half-brother called Vijayamalla
supporting Harsa and being at the forefront of the rebellion against the king. Utkarsa was in his turn imprisoned and he committed suicide.
Harsa was a ruler of the Lohara Dynasty of Kashmir from 1089 until his death in 1101. Kalaśa his father was king until 1089. Another weak-
willed man, who involved himself in an incestuous relationship with his daughter, Kalaśa was dominated by those surrounding him at court and
spent little time on matters of government until his later years. He freed himself from the effective rule of his father in 1076, causing Ananta to
leave the capital along with many loyal courtiers and then laying siege to them in their new abode at Vijayesvara. On the verge of being pushed
into exile, and faced with a wife who even at this stage doted on her son, Ananta committed suicide in 1081. It was after this that Kalaśa
reformed his licentious ways and began to govern responsibly, as well as operating a foreign policy that improved the influence which the
dynasty held over surrounding hill tribes. Kalaśa experienced difficulties with his oldest son, Harsa, who felt that the allowance granted by his
father was insufficient for his extravagant tastes. Harsa plotted to kill Kalaśa, was found out and eventually imprisoned. His position as heir to
the throne was given instead to his younger brother, Utkarsa, who was already ruler of Lohara. The strain of dealing with Harsa caused Kalaśa to
revert to his previous dissolute lifestyle and Stein believes that this contributed to his death in 1089. Despite being removed as heir, Hasan
believes Harsa did immediately succeed his father but Stein says that Utkarsa succeeded and that Harsa remained in prison. With the accession
of Utkarsa to the throne of Kashmir came the reunification of that kingdom with Lohara, as they had been during the reign of Didda. It is at this
point that the fortress became the dynastic seat. Hasan and Stein agree that Harsa became king in 1089. Utkarsa was disliked and soon deposed,
with a half-brother called Vijayamalla supporting Harsa and being at the forefront of the rebellion against the king. Utkarsa was in his turn
imprisoned and he committed suicide. Harsa had been a cultured man with much to offer his people but became as prone to the influence of
certain favourites and as corrupt, cruel and profligate as his predecessors. He, too, indulged in incest and Stein has said that he was undoubtedly
the most striking figure among the later Hindu rulers of Kashmir. His many and varied attainments and the strange contrasts in his character
must have greatly exercised the mind of his contemporaries ... Cruelty and kindheartedness, liberality and greed, violent selfwilledness and
reckless supineness, cunning and want of thought – these and other apparently irreconcilable features in turn display themselves in Harsa’s
chequered life. After an initial period during which the economic fortunes of the kingdom appear to have improved, as evidenced by the issue of
gold and silver coinage, the situation deteriorated and even night soil was taxed, while temples were looted to further raise money to fund his
failed military ventures and his indulgent lifestyle. All but two of the statues of Buddha in his kingdom were destroyed during his rule. It is
possible that his iconoclasm was influenced by the ingress of the Muslim faith in areas surrounding Kashmir, although certainly he garnered
much needed wealth from his destruction. Even in 1099, when his kingdom was ravaged by plague, flood and famine, as well as by lawlessness
on a large scale, Harsa continued mercilessly to plunder the wealth of his subjects. Harsa faced numerous challenges to his reign and he
executed many of his relatives, some but not all of whom had been among the challengers. He conducted campaigns in the east of the valley to
wrest control of land back from feudatory landlords, who were known as dāmaras, and in 1101 they murdered him. Stein describes that while
Harsa's rule seemed at first to have "secured a period of consolidation and of prosperous peace ... [it] had subsequently fallen a victim to his own
Nero-like propensities".
Uccala (died 1111) was a ruler of the Lohara Dynasty of Kashmir from 1101 until 1111. Uccala, who was from a side-branch of the Lohara
royal line, succeeded to the throne and reigned for a decade. He and his younger brother, Sussala, had been spotted by Harsa as pretenders to his
crown during the unrest and in 1100 had been forced to flee. The move did them no harm as it increased their status among the dāmaras: if
Harsa wanted the brothers dead then that was all the more reason to rally around them. It was as a consequence of this that Uccala was able to
mount armed attacks on Harsa, as in 1101, which although initially unsuccessful did eventually achieve their aim as those closest to Harsa
deserted him. The two kingdoms of Kashmir and Lohara were again split at the time of Uccala's accession, with Uccala ceding rule over Lohara
to Sussala in an attempt to head off any potential challenge from his ambitious brother. The rule of Uccala was largely a victim of inherited
circumstances, and in particular the fact that the power of the dāmaras which had caused the downfall of Harsa was also a strength that could
now be turned on him. He was unable to stabilise the penurious kingdom, either economically or in terms of authority, although it was not due
to any lack of capability on his part and he did succeed in forming an alliance with the most powerful dāmara, Gargacandra. He was, in the
opinion of Hasan, an able and conscientious ruler. Stein has explained the method adopted to counter the dāmaras: By fomenting among them
jealousy and mutual suspicion, he secured the murder or exile of their most influential leaders, without himself incurring the odium. Then,
reassured in his own position, he openly turned upon the Dāmaras and forced them into disarmament and submission. The downfall of Uccala
came in December 1111 as a result a conspiracy, and after a prior attempt by Sussala to overthrow him. Sussala was not in the vicinity at the time
that Uccala was murdered but within days had attempted a hazardous winter crossing over the mountains to Srinagar.
Sussalawas a ruler of the Lohara Dynasty of Kashmir from 1112 until 1120 and from 1128. The two kingdoms of Kashmir and Lohara were
again split at the time of Uccala's accession, with Uccala ceding rule over Lohara to Sussala in an attempt to head off any potential challenge
from his ambitious brother. The rule of Uccala was largely a victim of inherited circumstances, and in particular the fact that the power of the
dāmaras which had caused the downfall of Harsa was also a strength that could now be turned on him. He was unable to stabilise the penurious
kingdom, either economically or in terms of authority, although it was not due to any lack of capability on his part and he did succeed in
forming an alliance with the most powerful dāmara, Gargacandra. He was, in the opinion of Hasan, an able and conscientious ruler. Stein has
explained the method adopted to counter the dāmaras: By fomenting among them jealousy and mutual suspicion, he secured the murder or
exile of their most influential leaders, without himself incurring the odium. Then, reassured in his own position, he openly turned upon the
Dāmaras and forced them into disarmament and submission. The downfall of Uccala came in December 1111 as a result a conspiracy, and after
a prior attempt by Sussala to overthrow him. Sussala was not in the vicinity at the time that Uccala was murdered but within days had attempted
a hazardous winter crossing over the mountains to Srinagar. Foiled by the winter weather on this occasion, he was able a few months later to
venture once more and he proceeded to take control of Kashmir from a half-brother, Salhana. Salhana had himself taken the throne after the
briefest of reigns by Radda, one of the leaders of the conspiracy against Uccala, whose rule lasted a single day. It was Gargacandra who
organised the defeat of the conspirators and it was he who installed Salhana, using him as a puppet for the violent four months until the arrival
of Sussala, a period which Kalhana described as a "long evil dream". Gargacandra had again been kingmaker in allying with Sussala, whom Stein
believes to have been "personally brave, but rash, cruel and inconsiderate" and whose rule was, "practically one long and disastrous struggle with

the irrepressible Dāmaras and with dangerous pretenders." As part of their alliance, Gargacandra arranged the marriage of two of his daughters,
one to Sussala and one to Sussala's son, Jayasimha.
Radda was a ruler of the Lohara Dynasty of Kashmir only one day in December 1111. The downfall of Uccala came in December 1111 as a
result a conspiracy, and after a prior attempt by Sussala to overthrow him. Sussala was not in the vicinity at the time that Uccala was murdered
but within days had attempted a hazardous winter crossing over the mountains to Srinagar. Foiled by the winter weather on this occasion, he was
able a few months later to venture once more and he proceeded to take control of Kashmir from a half-brother, Salhana. Salhana had himself
taken the throne after the briefest of reigns by Radda, one of the leaders of the conspiracy against Uccala, whose rule lasted a single day. It was
Gargacandra, powerful dāmara who organised the defeat of the conspirators and it was he who installed Salhana, using him as a puppet for the
violent four months until the arrival of Sussala, a period which Kalhana described as a "long evil dream".
Salhana was a ruler of the Lohara Dynasty of Kashmir from December 1111 until spring 1112. The downfall of Uccala came in December
1111 as a result a conspiracy, and after a prior attempt by Sussala to overthrow him. Sussala was not in the vicinity at the time that Uccala was
murdered but within days had attempted a hazardous winter crossing over the mountains to Srinagar. Foiled by the winter weather on this
occasion, he was able a few months later to venture once more and he proceeded to take control of Kashmir from a half-brother, Salhana.
Salhana had himself taken the throne after the briefest of reigns by Radda, one of the leaders of the conspiracy against Uccala, whose rule lasted
a single day. It was Gargacandra, powerful dāmara who organised the defeat of the conspirators and it was he who installed Salhana, using him
as a puppet for the violent four months until the arrival of Sussala, a period which Kalhana described as a "long evil dream".
Jayasimha was a ruler of the Lohara Dynasty of Kashmir from 1128 until his death in 1155. In 1123, during a period of intense pressure from
besieging dāmaras and while mourning the death of one of his wives, Sussala abdicated in favour of his son, Jayasimha, He soon changed his
mind and although Jayasimha was formally crowned as king it was Sussala who continued to govern. Jayasimha succeeded his father in 1128
during a period when there was open rebellion. A plot intended to assert authority had backfired on Sussala and caused his death. Jayasimha was
not a forceful character but he did nonetheless manage to bring about both peace and a degree of economic well-being during his reign, which
lasted until 1155. Bhikşācara mounted further attempts to regain the throne during the first two years and no sooner had he been killed than
another challenger, Lothana, a brother of Salhana, succeeded in taking control of Lohara. That territory was subsequently recaptured but
challenges continued from Lothana and two others who sought the throne, Mallājuna and Bhoja, the latter being a son of Salhana. Throughout
this period there was also further troublesome behaviour generally from the dāmaras, as so often in the past, and also as in the past it was the
fact that those chiefs also fought among themselves which enabled Jayasimha to survive. Peace came after 1145 and Jayasimha was able to
employ his methods of kingship, which relied on diplomacy and Machiavellian plotting, for the greater good of his kingdom. In particular,
Kalhana refers to the piety of Jayasimha, who rebuilt or constructed many temples which had been destroyed during the long years of war. His
success has led Hasan to describe him as "the last great Hindu ruler of Kashmir." An example of Jayasimha's vision can be found in his decision
to enthrone his oldest son, Gulhana, as king of Lohara even though Gulhana was a child and Jayasimha was still alive. The reason for this
appears to have been better to ensure the succession would not suffer any disturbance.
Paramanu Deva was a ruler of the Lohara Dynasty of Kashmir from 1155 until 1164.
Jagadeva (died 1212 or 1213) was a ruler of the Lohara Dynasty of Kashmir from 1198 until 1212 or 1213. He was attempted to emulate
Jayasimha but had a turbulent time, being at one stage forced out of his own kingdom by his officials. His death came by poison in 1212 or 1213
and his successors met with no more success; his son, Rājadeva.
Rājadeva (died 1235) was a ruler of the Lohara Dynasty of Kashmir from 1212 or 1213 until his death in 1235. He was survived until 1235 but
any power that he may have had was shackled by the nobility; his grandson, Samgrāmadeva, who ruled from 1235 to 1252, was forced out of the
kingdom just as Jagadeva had been and then killed soon after his return.
Samgrāmadeva (died 1252) was a ruler of the Lohara Dynasty of Kashmir from 1235 until his death in 1252. Samgrāmadeva, who ruled
from 1235 to 1252, was forced out of the kingdom just as Jagadeva had been and then killed soon after his return.
Rāmadevawas a ruler of the Lohara Dynasty of Kashmir from 1252 until 1273. He was without children and appointed Laksmandadeva, the
son of a Brahmin, to be his heir. Although the period of Rāmadeva's reign was calm, that of Laksmandadeva saw deterioration in the situation
once more. In this reign, which began in 1273, the troubles were caused not only by the fractious nobility but also by the territorial
encroachment of Turks.
Laksmandadeva was a ruler of the Lohara Dynasty of Kashmir from 1273 until 1286. Rāmadeva, prevous ruler who had no children,
appointed Laksmandadeva, the son of a Brahmin, to be his heir. Although the period of Rāmadeva's reign was calm, that of Laksmandadeva saw
deterioration in the situation once more. In this reign, which began in 1273, the troubles were caused not only by the fractious nobility but also
by the territorial encroachment of Turks. As with his predecessors and successors, he thought little of spending money on border protection. By
1286, when Laksmandadeva'a son, Simhadeva, came to the throne, the kingdom was a much smaller place.
Simhadeva (died 1301) was a ruler of the Lohara Dynasty of Kashmir from 1286 until his death in 1301. By 1286, when Laksmandadeva'a son,
Simhadeva, came to the throne, the kingdom was a much smaller place. Simhadeva survived until 1301, a largely ineffective ruler who w as
dominated by his advisers. He was killed by a man whom he had cuckolded.
Sūhadeva (died 1320) was a ruler of the Lohara Dynasty of Kashmir from 1301 until his death in 1320. The last of the dynasty was Sūhadeva,
the brother of Simhadeva. He was a strong ruler but also an unpopular one. He taxed heavily and exempted not even the Brahmins from his
exactions. Although he managed to unite the kingdom under his control there is a sense in which the majority of it was united against him.
Furthermore, "Socially and morally the people of Kashmir had sunk to the lowest depths, for old and young alike had taken to falsehood,
intrigue, dishonesty and discord." The widow of Sūhadeva, queen Kotā took his place but was usurped by Shah Mir, a Muslim who had moved
into the area from the south. The kingdom had been subjected to Muslim influence even prior to his arrival and some people had already

converted to the religion from Hinduism. By the end of the 14th century the vast majority of the country had become Muslim, although the
Brahmins still maintained their traditional roles as the learned administrators until the accession of Sikandar Butshikan.
Gulhana was a ruler of the Kingdom of Lohara around middle 12th century and son of Jayasimha, King of the Kashmir. An example of
Jayasimha's vision can be found in his decision to enthrone his oldest son, Gulhana, as king of Lohara even though Gulhana was a child and
Jayasimha was still alive. The reason for this appears to have been better to ensure the succession would not suffer any disturbance.
Ramachandra(died 1320) was a ruler of Kashmir around 1320. Mongols under their leader Dulchoo, invaded Kashmir with 70,000 soldiers
and defeated King Suhadeva and he fled to Tibet. After the departure of Mongols the Kashmiri Chief of the state, Ramchandra, took advantage
of the anarchy and occupied the throne. Rinchan defeated Ramchandra and became the ruler of Kashmir. He sent a force in the fort in the
guise of merchants, who took Ramachandra's men by surprise. Ramachandra was killed and his family was taken prisoners. To earn local
support, Rinchan appointed Rawanchandra, the son of Ramachandra appointed as administrator of Lar and Ladakh, and married his sister Kota
Rani to legitimize his rule and he agreed to convert to Hinduism.
Rinchan (died 1323) was a Tibetan from Ladakh and he ruled Kashmir from 1320 until his death in 1323 and was instrumental in establishing
Islam in Kashmir. Rinchan was a Tibetan prince from Ladakh who revolted against his uncle, who was the ruler of Ladakh, he was defeated and
fled to Kashmir. King Suhadeva of Kashmir appointed Rinchan as a minister. Shah Mir was a Persian Muslim Sufi. He was appointed as a
minister in Kashmir by King Sahadev and he became good friend of Rinchan. Mongols under their leader Dulchoo, invaded Kashmir with
70,000 soldiers and defeated King Sahadev and he fled to Tibet. After the departure of Mongols the Kashmiri Chief of the state, Ramchandra,
took advantage of the anarchy and occupied the throne. Rinchan defeated Ramchandra and became the ruler of Kashmir. Rinchan married
Kotarani the daughter of Ramchandra to legitimize his rule and he agreed to convert to Hinduism. The Hindu Brahmin Pandits did not accept
Rinchin into Hinduism due to his race and ethnic origin. The Muslim Sufi missionaries from the Middle East and Central Asia had settled in
Kashmir and had converted many Kashmiris to Islam. There was competition and conflict between Buddhism and Hinduism in the court of
King Rinchan. Shah Mir convinced Rinchan that he could choose to convert to Hinduism, Buddhism or Islam. Shah Mir suggested to Rinchan
that he could convert to the religion of the first person they encounter next morning. The next morning when they left the palace the first
person they met was Muslim Sufi Sayed Sharafuddin Bulbul Shah who was performing his morning prayers. Rinchan converted to Islam and
adopted the Muslim name of Sultan Sadruddin. According to historical sources, Shah Mir pre-planned the morning meeting with Bulbul Shah to
convert King Rinchan to Islam. Rinchan was attacked by rebels and was badly wounded and died in 1323. Shah Mir attacked his capital city and
wanted to marry Kota Rani. Kota Rani fought bravely. Her kingdom was already weakened by the Mongol attacks. She committed suicide after
losing the battle. Rinchan is known by different version of his names: Rinchana,Richan, Rinchan Shah, Rinchan Malik, Malik Rinchan, Sultan
Sadruddin.
Kota Rani (died 1339) was the last Hindu ruler of Kashmir in Medieval India from 1323 until her death in 1339 (jointly with her husband
Udyana Deva from 1323 until 1338). She was the daughter of Ramachandra. Ramachandra had appointed an administrator Rinchan, a Ladakhi.
Rinchan became ambitious. He sent a force in the fort in the guise of merchants, who took Ramachandra's men by surprise. Ramachandra was
killed and his family was taken prisoners. To earn local support, Rinchan appointed Rawanchandra, the son of Ramachandra appointed as
administrator of Lar and Ladakh, and married his sister Kota Rani. He employed Shah Mir as a trusted courtier, who had entered Kashmir
earlier and had been given an appointment in the government. Rinchan's rule was hard and stern. Richan converted to Islam and adopted the
name of Sultan Sadruddin. He died as a result of an assassination after ruling for three years. Kota Rani was first appointed as a regent for
Rinchan's young son. Later she was persuaded to marry Udayanadeva by the elders. Udayanadeva died in 1338. Kota Rani had two sons.
Rinchana's son was under the charge of Shah Mir and Udayanadeva's son was taught by Bhatta Bhikshana. Kota Rani became the ruler in her
own right and appointed Bhatta Bhikshana as her prime minister. Shah Mir pretended to be sick, and when Bhatta Bhikshana visited him, Shah
Mir jumped out of his bed and killed him. He asked Kota Rani to marry him, but she declined. Shah Mir then attacked her and was forcing her
to marry him. Rather than marry him, according to the historian of that period Jonaraja, she committed suicide and offered her intestines to him
as a wedding gift. It is not known what happened to her sons. She was very intelligent and a great thinker. She saved the city of Srinagar from
frequent floods by getting a canal constructed, named after her and called "Kute Kol". This canal gets water from Jhelum River at the entry point
of city and again merges with Jhelum river beyond the city limits.
Udyana Deva (died 1338) was the last Hindu ruler of Kashmir in Medieval India jointly with his wife Kota Rani from 1323 until his death in
1338. After the death of Rinchan, who was assassinated, Kotarani married Udayana Deva, the brother of Suhadeva. The last Hindu ruler of
Kashmir was Udyana Deva. It was his chief Queen Kotarani, who practically governed the state. She was a very brave lady, shrewd and an able
ruler. Though she tried her best to save her Kingdom, odds were too heavy for her. The valley was again invaded by a Mongol and Turk invader
Achalla, and Udayana Deva fled to Tibet. But the Queen defeated (killed) Achalla and drove away all the foreign troops.
Sayyid or Shah Mir Dynasty of Kashmir
The Sayyid or Shah Mir Dynasty ruled Kashmir for nearly 222 years from 1339 to 1561. During the rule of this dynasty Islam was firmly
established in Kashmir. Shah Mir, (that means "The King of Commanders" in Persian) under the title of Sultan Shamas-ud-Din founded the
dynasty. Before that time Kashmir was predominantly Hindu. Under the Sayyid dyanasty, Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani, came from Hamadan (one
of the oldest cities of Iran), to bring Islam to Kashmir. As listed in the Rajataranginis he was succeeded by Jamshed 1342-1344, Alau-ud-Din
1344-1355, Shahab-ud-Din 1355-1373, Qutub-ud-Din 1373-1389, Sikandar Butshikan the book-burner 1389-1413, Alishah 1413-1419, Zain-ul-Abdin
1420-1470, Haidershah 1470-1472, Hassanshah 1472-1484, Mohammadshah 1484-1486, Fatehshah 1486-1495 Mohammadshah 1495-1496,
Fatehshah 1496-1497, Mohammadshah 1497-1509, Ibrahimshah (s/o Mohammadshah) 1509 Nazukshah (s/o Fatehshah) 1529 (one year),
Mohammadshah 1530-1535. Sultan Shams-ud-Din Shah was a sayyid, a direct descendant of Muhammad. He worked to establish Islam in
Kashmir and was aided by his consequent rulers, specially Sikander But-shikan. He reigned for three years and five months from 1339-42. He
was the ruler of Kashmir and the founder of the Shah Mir dynasty. He was followed by his two sons who became kings in succession. Sultan
Shamsu'd-Din Shah was succeeded by his elder son Sultan Jamshid who ruled for a year and two months. In 1343, Sultan Jamshid suffered a
defeat by his brother who ascended the throne as Sultan Alau'd-Din in 1347. Sultan Alau'd-Din, two sons became kings in succession, Sultan
Shihabu'd-Din and Sultan Qutbu'd-Din.

List of Rulers of Sayyid or Shah Mir Dynasty of Kashmir
Shams-ud-Din Shah Mir Swati(died 1342) was a ruler of Kashmir and the founder of the Shah Miri dynasty who reigned from 1339 until
his death in 1342. Sams'd-Din also Dhams-ud-din and Shah Mir, was the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir of Afghan origin and founder of the Shah
Mir Dynasty. Jonaraja, in his Dvitīyā Rājataraṅginī mentioned him as Sahamera. He came from Swat according to some sources. However,
Jonaraja a credible historian informs us that Shahmir was not from Swat so some historians say he was not from Swat but was a Kshatriya
descended from Arjuna whose ancestors had taken up Islam. Shah Mir arrived in Kashmir in 1313 along with his family, during the reign of
Suhadeva (1301-1320), whose service he entered. In subsequent years, through his tact and ability Shah Mir rose to prominence and became one
of the most important personalities of his time. Later after the death in 1338 of Udayanadeva, the brother of Suhedeva he was able to assume the
kingship himself, Rinchan (died 1323), a commander from Ladakh region who had entered Kashmir as a fugitive seized the throne of Kashmir,
started his personal quest for religion, was not accepted into Hinduism by the Brahmins due to his race, happened to watch Sayyid Bilal
(died1327) at prayer, was enchanted by the simplicity of the Sayyid's faith and embraced it with fervour. Rinchan from Ladakh, and Lankar Chak
from Dard territory near Gilgit came to Kashmir, and played a notable role in the subsequent political history of the valley. All the three men
were granted Jagirs by the King Rinchan for three years became the ruler of Kashmir, Shah Mir was the first ruler of Shah mir dynasty, which
had established in 1339. During the reign of Suhadeva, a Tatar chief Dulchoo invaded Kashmir and ravaged it. King Sehadeva fled the country
and his general Ramachandra occupied the throne. In the confusion Rinchan, the Ladhaki prince,organised an internal rising and seized the
throne. He married Kota Rani, the daughter of Ramachandra. The Hindu religious leaders of the time refused to admit into their fold. Rinchan
embraced Islam and took Muslim name of Sultan Sadruddin. He was attacked by rebels and was badly wounded and died in 1323 A.D. Just
before his death Sultan Sadruddin (Rinchan) summoned his trusted minister, Shah Mir, and entrusted his son, Hyder, and wife, Kotarani, to his
care. He had a son, Haidar by his queen Kota Rani. After the death of Rinchan, who was assassinated, Kotarani married Udayana Deva, the
brother of Suhadava. The last Hindu ruler of Kashmir was Udyana Deva. It was his chief Queen Kotarani, who practically governed the state. She
was a very brave lady, shrewd and an able ruler. Though she tried her best to save her Kingdom, odds were too heavy for her. The valley was
again invaded by a Mongol and Turk invader Achalla, and Udayana Deva fled to Tibet. But the Queen defeated (killed) Achalla and drove away
all the foreign troops. Finally another rising was led by Shah Mir, who defeated the queen at Jayapur (modern Sumbal). The defeat upset her and
seeing the indifference of the Hindu grandees and general public, she stabbed herself to death, because Shah Mir wanted to marry her. Her
death in 1339 paved the way for the establishment of Shah miri dynasty rule in Kashmir. The descent of Shahmiri dynasty is well documented
from Hindu (Jonaraja) Kshatriyas. After the fall of their empire the descendants disseminated to various areas in the valley like the saffron town
in Pampore (Numlabal) while others settled in Srinagar. Shahmiris are still looked at as royal elites and generally live in palatial houses in
Srinagar that were built in Victorian style architecture back in the 19th century. The first Sufi saint who reached Kashmir, during the time of
King Sehdev, was Sayed Sharafuddin Bulbul Shah from Turkey. That very time a rebel prince from Tibet, Rinchan, and a Muslim Warlord Shah
Mir, arrived in Kashmir.
Jamshed was a ruler of the Sayyid or Shah Mir Dynasty of Kashmir from 1342 until 1343.
Ala'u'din was a ruler of the Sayyid or Shah Mir Dynasty of Kashmir from 1343 until 1354.
Shihu'd-Din was a ruler of the Sayyid or Shah Mir Dynasty of Kashmir from 1354 until 1373.
Qutub'd-Din was a ruler of the Sayyid or Shah Mir Dynasty of Kashmir from 1373 until 1389.
Sikandar Butshikan ("Sikandar the Iconoclast"), also known as Alexander the Iconoclast, was the second Sultan of the Sayyid or Shah Miri
dynasty of Kashmir from 1389 until his death in 1413. Sultan Sikandar and Malik Saif-ud-Din working out the motivational inputs of Sufi Saint,
Mir Mohammad Hamadani waged a crusade against the Hindus to realise their conversion to Islam. Due to his actions, large numbers of Hindus
converted, fled, or were killed for refusal to convert. Sikandar won the sobriquet of but-shikan or idol-breaker, due to his actions related to the
desecration and destruction of numerous temples, caityas, viharas, shrines, hermitages and other holy places of the Hindus and Buddhists. He
banned dance, drama, music and iconography as aesthetic activities of the Hindus and Buddhists and fiated them as heretical and un-Islamic. He
forbade the Hindus to apply a tilak mark on their foreheads. He did not permit them to pray and worship, blow a conch shell or toll a bell.
Eventually he went on burning temples and all Kashmiri texts to eliminate Shirk. Sikandar stopped Hindus and Buddhists from cremating their
dead. Jizya (poll-tax) equal to 4 tolas of silver was imposed on the Hindus. Records Baharistan-i-Shahi: “Immediately after his (Sufi Mir
Mohammad's) arrival, Sultan Sikandar, peace be on him, submitted to his supremacy and proved his loyalty to him by translating his words into
deeds. He eradicated aberrant practices and infidelity. He also put an end to the various forbidden and unlawful practices throughout his
kingdom. Thus during the entire period of his rule, all traces of wines and intoxicants and instruments of vice and corruption, like the cord of
canticle, lyre and tamborin were wiped out. The clamour of the drum and the trumpet, the shrill notes of the fife and the clarion no longer
reached people's ears, except in battles and assaults.” "Hindus were forcibly converted to Islam and were massacred in case they refused to be
converted'," writes Hasan, a Muslim chronicler. He further observes, "And Sikandarpora (a city laid out by Sultan Sikandar) was laid out on the
debris of the destroyed temples of the Hindus. In the neighbourhood of the royal palaces in Sikandarpora, the Sultan destroyed the temples of
Maha-Shri built by Praversena and another by Tarapida. The material from these was used for constructing a 'Jami' mosque in the middle of the
city." "Towards the fag end of his life, he (Sultan Sikandar) was infused with a zeal for demolishing idol-houses, destroying the temples and idols
of the infidels. He destroyed the massive temple at Beejbehara. He had designs to destroy all the temples and put an end to the entire
community of infidels," puts Bharistan-i-Shahi. In his second Rajtarangini, the historian Jonraj has recorded, "There was no city, no town, no
village, no wood, where the temples of the gods were unbroken. When Sureshavari, varaha and others were broken, the world trembled, but not
so the mind of the wicked king. He forgot his kingly duties and took delight day and night in breaking images." Writes Ajit Bhatracharjee,
"Sikandar (1389–1413) equalled the most blood-thirsty and iconoclastic Muslim conquerors anywhere in his zeal to obliterate all traces of the
Hindu religion and convert its followers to Islam on pain of death. Temples were levelled and some of the grandest monuments of old damaged
and disfigured. Thousands of Hindus escaped across the borders of Kashmir, others were massacred." He further records, "Hindu temples were
felled to the ground and for one year a large establishment was maintained for the demolition of the grand Martand temple. But when the
massive masonry resisted all efforts, fire was applied and the noble buildings cruelly defaced." According to M.Mujeeb, Sikandar, the iconoclast
of Kashmir, made forcible conversions a sustained political policy. To quote Firishta, "Many of the Brahmans rather than abandon their religion
or their country poisoned them selves, some emigrated from their homes while a few escaped the evil of banishment by becoming
Mohamadans." Puts A.K. Mujumdar, "These Sufi Muslim immigrants brought with them that fanatic iconoclastic zeal which distinguished Islam

in other parts of India, but from which Kashmir was happily free up to this time." He further records, "Sikandar's reign was disgraced by a series
of acts, inspired by religious bigotry and iconoclastic zeal for which there is hardly any parallel in the annals of the Muslim rulers of Kashmir."
His cousins were ruling the area from Kabul to Sind (Indus). They had been ruling Kabul lagmant and Swat in 1190–1520, are known as
Jahangiri dynasty in history. During the Shah Miri dynasty, Islam was firmly established in Kashmir and his rule has been considered
controversial by some due to his rigid policies in Kashmir. In consonance with the customs in Delhi and elsewhere, Sikandar created the office of
Sheikh-ul-Islam and more important, decided that the Islamic law should be valid instead of the traditional law. But, as in other places, that may
have been restricted mainly to the personal law. It was during Sikander's reign that a wave of Sufi warriors headed by Mir Muhammad
Hamadani (1372–1450) arrived in Kashmir in 1393. Sikunder issued orders proscribing the residence of any other than Muslims in Kashmir. He
insisted on all golden and silver images being broken and melted down, and the metal coined into money. Many of the Hindus, rather than
abandon their religion or their country, poisoned themselves; some emigrated from their native homes, while a few escaped the evil of
banishment by becoming Muslims. After the emigration of the Hindus, Sikunder ordered all the temples in Kashmir to be thrown down and
destroyed; among which was one dedicated to Maha Deo, in the district of Punjhuzara, which they were unable to destroy, in consequence of its
foundation being below the surface of the neighbouring water. But the temple dedicated to Jug Dew was levelled with the ground; (...) but
Sikunder (...) did not desist till the building was entirely razed to the ground, and its foundations dug up. In another place in Kashmir was a
temple built by Raja Bulnat, the destruction of which was attended with a remarkable incident. After it had been levelled, and the people were
employed in digging the foundation, a copper-plate was discovered, on which was the following inscription: "Raja (king) Bulnat, having built this
temple, was desirous of ascertaining from his astrologers how long it would last, and was informed by them that after eleven hundred years, a
king named Sikundar would destroy it, as well as the other temples in Kashmir. Sikandar was surprised, though vexed, that the Hindu prophet
should have predicted the truth, and declared, if they had placed the plate against the wall, he would have preserved the temple to belie the
prophet. Having broken all the images in Kashmir, he acquired the title of the Iconoclast, 'Destroyer of Idols'." "He [Sikander] prohibited all types
of frugal games. Nobody dared commit acts which were prohibited by the Sharia. The Sultãn was constantly busy in annihilating Hindus and
destroyed most of the temples. He strived to destroy the idols of the infidels. He demolished the famous temple of Mahãdeva at Bahrãre. The
temple was dug out from its foundations and the hole (that remained) reached the water level. Another temple at Jagdar was also demolish. Rãjã
Alamãdat had got a big temple constructed at Sinpur. (...) The temple was destroyed [by Sikander]. Sikander burnt all books the same wise as fire
burns hay. All the scintillating works faced destruction in the same manner that lotus flowers face with the onset of frosty winter."
Ali Shah was a ruler of the Sayyid or Shah Mir Dynasty of Kashmir from 1413 until 1420.
Ghiyas-ud-Din Zainu'l'Abadin was a ruler of the Sayyid or Shah Mir Dynasty of Kashmir from 1418 until 1419 and from 1420 until 1472.
Mohibbul Hasan has said that "Of all the Sultans who sat on the throne of Kashmir, Zain-ul-Abidin was undoubtedly the greatest ... He acquired a
halo in popular imagination which still surrounds his name in spite of the lapse of nearly five hundred years." He was known by his subjects, and
indeed still is, as Bud Shah (the Great King). The first thirty-five years of his reign are described by Jonaraja in the Rajatarangini Dvitiya, while
the subsequent years are described by Jonaraja's pupil, Srivara, in the Rajatarangini Tritiya. Shahi Khan, a son of Sultan Sikander the ruler of
Kashmir, was charged with the rule of the kingdom of Kashmir when his elder brother, Ali Shah, left the kingdom on a pilgrimage to Mecca. It
was at this time that Ali Shah gave Shahi Khan the title of Zain-ul-Abidin. Although a religious man, Ali Shah was weak-willed and his desire to
attain Mecca buckled under descriptions of the arduous journey ahead. He abandoned his pilgrimage when he arrived at the court of his father-
in-law, the king of Jammu, and raised an army consisting of soldiers from Jammu and Rajauri in order to regain his throne. The ancient texts
vary regarding why it was that Zain-ul-Abidin relinquished his recently acquired status without a fight but there is no disagreement that this is in
fact what happened. Retiring to Sialkot, Zain-ul-Abidin sought the support of its chief, Jasrat Khokhar. Ali Shah became angered when this
support was forthcoming and he rashly set out with his army to challenge Khokar. The forces met at Thanna and Khokhar defeated the
challenger, who had ignored the advice of his father-in-law to hold back until the Jammu army could join him. Zain-ul-Abidin was then able to
return to the capital city of Srinagar, where he was welcomed by his subjects. The fate of Ali Shah is uncertain: he may have died in captivity or
have been put to death by Khokhar. Although fundamentally a peaceful man, Zain-ul-Abidin was protective of his territory. He raised and led an
army to stabilise the fractious areas of Ladakh and Baltistan which had originally been conquered by his grandfather, Shihabu'd-Din, and then
had become independent on his death until Sikander reasserted control. With the arrival of Ali Shah on the throne, the territories had once again
begun to assert their independence and Zain-ul-Abidin recognised that they had an economic and strategic significance which entailed that they
could not be allowed to secede. Similarly, he regained control of Ohind, the chief of which had been overcome by Sikander but had then
announced independence during the period of rule by Ali Shah. He was on friendly terms with regard to the rulers of territories over which he
inherited no historic control. The ancient records indicate that he gave and received presents to, and also exchanged embassies with, those who
governed over Egypt, Gwalior, Mecca, Bengal, Sindh, Gujurat and elsewhere. Many of the gifts demonstrated the cultured nature of Zain-ul-
Abidin; they included works about music, manuscripts and people who were scholars, the latter being sent to him when he commented that an
original gift of precious stones was of less interest to him than a gift of a learned nature would have been. During the last days of his reign, his
three sons, Adam Khan, Haji Khan and Bahram Khan rebelled against him but he took energetic measures to crush them. He was succeeded by
his son Haji Khan, who took the title of Haidar Khan. Zain-ul-Abidin enforced the system of responsibility of the village communities for local
crimes. He regulated the price of the commodities. He stabilized the currency which had been debased during the reign of his predecessors. He
was responsible for a large number of public works. He founded several new cities, built many bridges and dug many irrigation canals. He also
prevented the local governors from exacting illegal taxes and gave the peasants much needed tax relief. Zain-ul-Abidin earned a name for
himself for his policy of religious toleration and public welfare activities. He abolished Jaziya on the Hindu majority of Kashmir, banned the
slaughter of cows and extended liberal patronage to Sanskrit language and literature. He knew Persian, Sanskrit and Tibetan. The Mahabharata
and Kalhana's Rajatarangini were translated into Persian by his order. He was known for his religious tolerance. He called back the Hindus who
left Kashmir during his father's reign and abolished the Jizya. He allowed the Hindus to build their temples and follow the personal law
according to the Dharmashastras. He stopped the killing of cows by means of poison and passed some regulations about eating beef. He re-
introduced the grant of stipends to the learned Brahmans.
Hasan Shah was a ruler of the Sayyid or Shah Mir Dynasty of Kashmir from 1472 until 1484.
Muhammad Shah I was a ruler of the Sayyid or Shah Mir Dynasty of Kashmir from 1484 until 1486.
Fateh Shah I was a ruler of the Sayyid or Shah Mir Dynasty of Kashmir from 1486 until 1493.

Muhammad Shah II was a ruler of the Sayyid or Shah Mir Dynasty of Kashmir from 1493 until 1505.
Fateh Shah II was a ruler of the Sayyid or Shah Mir Dynasty of Kashmir from 1505 until 1514.
Muhammad Shah III was a ruler of the Sayyid or Shah Mir Dynasty of Kashmir from 1514 until 1515.
Fateh Shah II was a ruler of the Sayyid or Shah Mir Dynasty of Kashmir from 1515 until 1517.
Muhammad Shah IV was a ruler of the Sayyid or Shah Mir Dynasty of Kashmir from 1517 until 1528.
Ibrahim Shah I was a ruler of the Sayyid or Shah Mir Dynasty of Kashmir from 1528 until 1529.
Nazuk Shah I was a ruler of the Sayyid or Shah Mir Dynasty of Kashmir from 1529 until 1530.
Muhammad Shah V was a ruler of the Sayyid or Shah Mir Dynasty of Kashmir from 1530 until 1537.
Shamsu'd-Din II was a ruler of the Sayyid or Shah Mir Dynasty of Kashmir from 1537 until 1540.
Ismail Shah I was a ruler of the Sayyid or Shah Mir Dynasty of Kashmir in 1540.
Nazuk Shah II was a ruler of the Sayyid or Shah Mir Dynasty of Kashmir from 1540 until 1552.
Ibrahim Shah II was a ruler of the Sayyid or Shah Mir Dynasty of Kashmir from 1552 until 1555.
Ismail Shah II was a ruler of the Sayyid or Shah Mir Dynasty of Kashmir from 1555 until 1557.
Habib Shah was a ruler of the Sayyid or Shah Mir Dynasty of Kashmir from 1557 until 1561.
Dhaka Nawab
The Dhaka Nawab family reigned in Dhaka from mid 19th century to mid 20th century, after the fall of the Naib Nazims. The hereditary title of
Nawab, similar to the British peerage, was conferred upon the head of the Family by the British Raj as a recognition of their loyalty in the time
of the Sepoy Mutiny. The Family is a legal entity, created by a Waqfnama back in 1854. The self-definition is a Family instead of an Estate due to
certain legal considerations imposed by the East Bengal State Acquisition and Tenancy Act of 1950. They were not sovereigns, but played an
important role in the politics of South Asia. The family was owner of Dhaka Nawab Estate, and were seated at Ahsan Manzil. Nawab of Dhaka
was the title of the head of family and estate. Khwaja Alimullah was the first Nawab of Dhaka instated by the British Raj. Khwaja Abdul Ghani
was the first person in the family to wield that title as a statesman. Considerable infighting within the Nawab family lead to the decline of the
estate. In 1952 the East Pakistan Estates Acquisition Act formally abolished the estate. Khwaja Habibullah Khan Bahadur was the last reigning
Nawab of Dhaka. Successive land reform in Pakistan and Bangladesh brought an end to the remaining landholdings of the Nawab family.
List of Nawabs of Dhaka
Khwaja Abdul Kader Kashmiri was the head of the family and ruler of the estate of Dhaka in the second half 18th century. The
ancestors of the Khwajas were Muslim merchants in Kashmir and North India. The history of Dhaka Nawab Family begins with Khwaja Abdul
Kader Kashmiri, who migrated from Kashmir to Sylhet sometimes in the 18th century. He married Asuri Khanam, the daughter of Khwaja
Abdul Hakim Kasmiri, an Administrator of Kashmir. Abdul Hakim also migrated to Sylhet and died there. His son Moulvi Khwaja Abdullah, an
alem, arrived in Dhaka and settled in Begumbazar. The transition from Khwaja family to the Dhaka Nawab family was largely founded by
Khwaja Hafizullah Kashmiri, a merchant prince of Dhaka, who acquired considerable wealth from trading in leather, salt and spices together
with Marwari trading partners. He also purchased some floundering zamindari estates, on sale everywhere in Bengal under Permanent
Settlement, and indigo factories in Barisal District and Mymensingh District. Some of the major land acquisitions of Hafizullah were: Atia
pargana in the then Mymensingh district (now in the Tangail district). Hafizullah bought a 4-anna (one fourth) share of the pargana, including
Dhamrai, the Atia Mosque built in 1608 and much of Madhupur forest, in 1806 on the strength of a mortgage bond for Rs. 40,000. Profits from
this purchase inspired him to buy more land properties. Aila Phuljhuri in the Bakarganj Sundarbans, a 44000 acres (180 km²) area bought for Rs
21000 in 1812, at a revenue demand of only Rs 372 annually. After claring of the jungle was affected, in the late 1870s, its estimated total rental
income appeared as high as Rs 2,20,502.
Moulvi Khwaja Abdullah (died 1796) was the head of the family and ruler of the estate of Dhaka in late 18th century. Moulvi Khwaja
Abdullah, an alem, arrived in Dhaka and settled in Begumbazar. After his death in 1796 he was buried there with Shah Nuri.
Khwaja Hafizullah (died 1795) was the head of the family and ruler of the estate of Dhaka in the second half 18th century.

Khwaja Alimullah (died August 24, 1856) was the first Nawab of Dhaka from 1843 until 1846. He was the
founder of the Dhaka Nawab Family. He was the nephew and heir of the merchant prince Khawaja Hafizullah, son
of Khwaja Ahsanullah, and father of Khwaja Abdul Ghani, the first Nawab of Dhaka to be recognized by the British
Raj. The ancestors of the Khwajas are said to have been traders of gold dust and skins in Kashmir. The earliest
founding man of the Dhaka Nawab Estate is Maulvi Hafizullah, who upheld the family tradition and made his
fortune in trade and commerce. Leather and salt were the major items of his business. In collaboration with the
European merchants in Dhaka, he developed a flourishing business in hides and skins, salt and spices. Alimullah
took major responsibilities in the business of Hafizullah, whom raised in childhood, since the early death of
Ahsanulla (his brother and Alimullah's father) in 1795, and groomed as an estate manager. Alimullah, an
enterprising man himself, acquired extensive profitable landed property in and around Dhaka city, as well as in
Barisal District, Khulna District, Dhaka, Mymensingh and Tripura, in his own name. He also had a moneylending
business and was one of the major shareholders and directors of Dhaka Bank. During this time, zamindari estates of the defaulting proprietors
were on sale everywhere in Bengal under the operation of Permanent Settlement. Hafizullah purchased some zamindari estates and indigo
factories in Barisal. Those purchases included Atia pargana in the then Mymensingh district (now in the Tangail district) and Aila Phuljhuri in
the Bakarganj Sundarbans. On Khwaja Hafizullah's death, his estate descended on Alimullah, who became the sole heir to his enormous wealth.
His landed acquisitions were added to those of his uncle, and the merger effected due to an absence of any surviving male successor of
Hafizullah, consequently made the united zamindari one of the biggest in the province. Before his death (1854), Alimullah made an waqf
(vestment) for a united status of the zamindari, turning all his property, landed and otherwise, into an indivisible family concern. The property
was to be managed jointly by a mutwalli (Administrator), a responsibility which descended upon his second son Khwaja Abdul ghani Mia. This
measure saved the Khwaja Estate from sub-division and fragmentation like other landed estates through a series of successions and transfers. It
empowered the Mutawalli to administer the zamindari and other concerns of the family as representative and sole spokesman of the family. He
also was to distribute the family income in the form of individual allowances stipulated in the waqfnama (deed of the waqf). A member of the
Dhaka Municipal Committee, Khwaja Alimullah took part very actively in the corporate activities of the city, including playing an important
role in the preservation of the Lalbagh Fort. He made a wakq of the income of his estate at Atiya Pargana in Tangail for the welfare of the
destitute. Since the death of Ghaziuddin Haider, the last of the Naib Nazims of Dhaka in 1843, Khwaja Alimullah, a Sunni Muslim himself, bore
all the expenses of Muharram, the central festival of the Shi'ite Muslims, and was appointed by the government as the mutwalli of Husseini
Dalan, the shrine of the Shi'ites in Dhaka. Through a long association with Eurasian and European business partners, Khwaja Alimullah acquired
their lifestyle and habits. He bought thoroughbred horses for racing and made a modest stable for them, and used to go hunting with horses and
elephants. He earned considerable fame as an organiser of sports by setting up the Ramna Racecourse and the Gymkhana Club. Besides sports
and games, Alimullah also developed a fancy for jewels. He purchased the famous diamond Dariya-i-Noor at a government auction. He also
bought many unique precious jewellery of the house of the Naib Nazim Ghaziuddin Haider when he became heavily indebted due to the
English government stopping his allowance on charges of immoral activities. Alimullah also introduced dance, music and mushairah (literary
meet) into the Khwaja family. In 1830, Alimullah purchased the French Trading House at Kumartuli on the bank of the Buriganga as part of his
land acquisitions in and around Dhaka. The French bought it from Matiullah, whose father, Sheikh Enayetullah, a zamindar of Jamalpur
pargana in Barisal during Mughals reign, built it as his Rang Mahal (pleasure house). Alimullah converted it into his residence, effecting
necessary reconstruction and renovations, which was carried further by his son and successor Khwaja Abdul Ghani. This mini palace
subsequently became the nucleus of the Ahsan Manzil, the residential palace and the kachari (administrative office) of the Nawabs of Dhaka. It
is now a national heritage museum of Bangladesh. The Hunting Park at Baigunbari, Sadullahpur mauja, Biralia Union, Savar, was a hunting and
pleasure park of the Nawabs of Dhaka. Khwaja Alimullah proclaimed the forest land of Sadullapur as a wildlife sanctuary, and the started
setting the hunting park, which was completed by Khwaja Abdul Ghani. The hunting park, an area naturally conducive for breeding animals
and birds for hunting, used to feature various species of indigenous and exotic deer, peacocks, wild-cocks, francoline partridges, hares etc. and set
them free in the forest for breeding. There also were plenty of huntable hogs and various types of birds on the banks of the lakes of the forest. By
1895, the area set apart as an exclusive hunting ground for the Nawab of Dhaka and his guests, became an attraction for illegal hunters. Khwaja
alimullah purchased the famous diamond Daria-i-Noor [Sea of Light; Persian: ‫ع‬ ‫دري‬ (Daria, meaning Sea), Persian: ‫ور‬ ‫ن‬ (Noor, meaning Light)] for
Tk 75 thousand when it was auctioned on behalf of the British government by Hamilton and Company of Calcutta in November 1852. It was
auctioned after it was exhibited, along with another famous Indian diamond Koh-i-Noor or the "mountain of light", in 1850 at the Great
Exhibition at Hyde Park organised in honour of Queen Victoria. As it did not get the expected price at the exhibitions, Daria-i-Noor was sent back
to India to be sold in an auction. The 26-carat (5.2 g) oblong table-shaped diamond is largest and most precious jewel stone in Bangladesh. It is
believed to be quarried in a south Indian mine, like the Koh-i-Noor. It is set in the centre of a gold armlet, with ten 5-carat (1 g) oval shaped
smaller diamonds around it, used by the Nawabs of Dhaka, who also used as it an ornament on the turban. It is now preserved in a vault of
Sonali Bank. In 1840 khwaja alimullah bought the two garden-houses set up by Aratun, the Armenian businessman, and Griffith Cook, the
British Justice, in the Sujatpur area. He renamed the area as Shahbag (Garden of Kings) and started a project to bring back the splendour to the
area known in the Mughal times as Bag-e-Badshahi (also Garden of Kings). He also bought much of vast medow, known as Ramna, between the
garden houses and the Sujatpur Palace flanked by Nurkhan Bazaar (set up by Nuruddin Hossain).
Khwaja Abdul Ghani Mian, KCSI (July 30, 1813 - August 24, 1896) was the first Nawab of Dhaka recognized by
the British Raj from 1846 until his death on August 24, 1896. He introduced the panchayat system, gaslights, water
works, newspaper, and the zoological garden to Dhaka. He established Ahsan Manzil, the residence and seat of power for
Dhaka Nawab Family, Victoria Park, the gardens at Dilkhusha and Shahbag, where he initiated many annual events like
Boli Khela and agricultural and industrial fair to celebrate the Christian New Year. He was also responsible for the
Buckland Bund and the first female ward in the first hospital in Dhaka, and was a founding commissioner of Dhaka
municipality. Khwaja Abdul Ghani was the second son of Khwaja Alimullah, who consolidated the Khwaja estates to be
come the first Nawab of the family. He inherited the estate from his father, which included the French kuthi at
Kumartuli bought by Alimullah in 1830, the Shahbag garden bought by Alimullah from Griffith Cook, a British Justice
in 1840. His mother was Zinat Begum. Alimullah had 8 other wives and 15 other children. Abdul Ghani was quite a multilingual person. He
spoke Urdu, his native tongue, Bengali, English, and Persian. He learnt Arabic and Persian at home, and English at Dhaka Collegiate School,
where he was the student of the very first batch. He is known as patron of Urdu and Persian literature in Dhaka. He observed the Shi'a
Remembrance of Muharram, and contributed to renovate Hoseni Dalan, the Shi'ite centre in Dhaka, though he was a Sunni himself. He also had
close relations with the Hindu, Armenian and European community. Abdul Ghani had four wives – Ismatunnesa Khanam, Umda Khanam,
Munni Bibi, and Dulhan Bibi. His successor, Khwaja Ahsanullah, was his second son born to his first wife Ismatunnesa (d. 1887). He had 10 other
children and 21 known grandchildren. Among his non-succeeding grandchildren the most famous was poet Khwaja Muhammad Afzal, son of

his daughter Nurhahan Khanam and Khwaja Yusuf Jan. In 1846, Khwaja Abdul Ghani inherited all the family properties, landed or otherwise, as
an indivisible concern by a waqfnama executed by his father Khwaja Alimullah. As the mutawalli (trustee) he was made the sole administrator
of the estate, as well as the sole representative and spokesperson of the family. He had the sole responsibility to distribute the family income as
individual allowances and to select a successor as he deemed fit. During the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, Abdul Ghani supported the British Raj. He
served the Raj long as member of the Municipality and the Magistracy, and was known as a fine arbiter of conflicts. In 1869, he settled a violent
Shi'ite-Sunni riot through arbitration. Abdul Ghani struck a good relation with Lord Northbrook, Governor General of India (1872–1876) who
was against the Disraeli government in England, and Lord Dufferin, Viceroy of India (1884–1888) who enacted the Bengal Tenancy Act 1885.
The Raj eventually vested the title of Nawab, which was made hereditary and was upgraded to the title of Nawab Bahadur. Abdhul Ghani
developed the property he inherited and was put in charge of, taking it to height of the history of the family. He also contributed significantly to
development of Dhaka. He introduced gaslights to light Dhaka streets, and running water facilities at his own expense. Ghani Mian's Water
Works cost about Rs 250,000.00. Its foundation stone was laid by Lord Northbrook on August 6, 1874. He also established a Langarkhana
(asylum) in Dhaka in 1866 for the destitute, a high school at Kumartuli in 1863 (which later became Khwaja Salimullah College, named after his
grandson), and the Abdul Ghani High School in Jamurki, Tangail. Abdul Ghani engaged Martin & Company, a European construction and
engineering firm, from 1859 to 1872 to develop the kuthi in Kumartuli and rebuilt it into one of Dhaka's finest landmarks. Renamed Ahsan
Manzil after his favourite son and successor Khwaja Ahsanullah, it became the seat of power for the family. In the newly built Rang Mahal (the
older building was known as Andar Mahal) he received Lord Northbrook and Lord Dufferin as guests. Abdul Ghani restored former property of
Aratun and Cook to its lost glory as Bag-e-Badshahi (the Garden of Kings) of the Mughals, and renamed it Shahbag. He expanded the area
further by buying land from the son of Nuruddin Hossain, who set up Nurkhan Bazar in the area. It was further expanded by more land bought
in 1876–77, bringing the whole land area to 26.5 hectares. He started the garden house in 1873, which took several years to complete. Abdul
Ghani was the first to donate funds for the project undertaken by City Commissioner C T Buckland to create a dam to protect Dhaka from
flooding and river erosion, along with Kalinarayan Roy, the zamindar of Bhawal. In the 1870s, he also undertook its extension westward from
Wiseghat. Like the Strand, the Buckland Bund came to serve Dhaka people as a promanade of enjoyment. It is where the Bhawal Sannyasi
appeared covered in ahses. In 1866, Nawab abdul ghani purchased the land near the lake of Motijheel from E F Smith and made there a garden-
house named Dilkusha for his son Khwaja Ahsanullah. Later, he expanded the garden by buying land from Armenian zaminder Manuk, whose
name is still borne by a building in the Bangabhaban, official residence of the President of Bangladesh. This Manuk House was a part of the land
that was acquired by the Britich Governor General of India from the Dhaka Nawab Family. Abdul Ghani was one of the proprietors (1856–1858)
of the Weekly Dhaka News, the first English newspaper from Dhaka. It was edited by Alenzander R. Forbes as a planters' journal and printed by
the first printing press in Dhaka, the Dhaka News Press, founded in 1856. Abdul Ghani was a great patron of the arts of the baijees, the
hereditary dancing girls introduced to Bengal by Wajid Ali Shah, the Nawab of Awadh. Baijees, known as the Tawaif in Northern India, danced a
special form of Kathak focused at popular entertainment along with singing mostly in the form of Thumri. Apart from the Nawab's mansions
they also danced at Durga puja and at European mansions at that time. During his reign, baijees used to perform regularly for mehfils and
mujras at the Rangmahal of Ahsan Manzil, Ishrat Manzil of Shahbagh, and the garden house of Dilkusha. The performance of Mushtari Bai at
Shahbag earned much praise from eminent littérateur Abdul Gafur Naskhan. The most prominent baijees were Suponjan, Mushtari Bai, Piyari
Bai, Heera Bai, Wamu Bai and Abedi Bai. Among them Suponjan married Swapan Khan, grandson of singer and tabla maestro Mithan Khan.
Abdul Ghani introduced the first female performers on Dhaka theater stages. In 1876, he invited a theater troupe from Bomaby to stage two
Hindi plays, Indrasabha and Yadunagar, featuring three sister among performers- Annu Bai, Nannu Bai and Nawabin Bai.
Khwaja Ahsanullah (August 22, 1846 - December 16, 1901), Khan Bahadur KCIE, was the Nawab of Dhaka from
1896 until his death on December 16, 1901. He was a renowned Urdu litterateur. He was born in 1846 the son of
Khwaja Abdul Ghani and Ismatun Nesa. As a young child he learned Urdu, Arabic and Persian in addition to his native
Bengali. He was noted as being a very gifted child, and mastered the Koran at a young age. By age 22, he handled the
maintenance and expansion of the family estates. He wrote widely in Urdu under the pen name "Shaheen". Those
around him noted that he had a talent for composing spontaneous poetry which generally evoked sunny imagery.
Much of his spare time was spent composing literature in Urdu and Persian. He published a book of Urdu poems
Kulliyat-e-Shaheen which has been preserved at Dhaka University. He also published his diaries, titled Tariq-e-Kandan-
e-Kashmiriya. In 1884, he started an Urdu magazine, Ahsanut Qasas, which was published in Dhaka. Ahsanullah was a
noted philanthropist. He donated over 5 million rupees to various charitable projects. He spent over 50,000 rupees on famine relief in Barisal
District, Mymensingh District and Dhaka District in 1896. He also was one of the chief backers for the building of Comilla. Many hospitals were
funded and constructed by him, including: the Patuankali Begam Hospital, Lady Dufferin Women's Hospital, and the Mitford Hospital. He also
spend 40 thousand rupees on creating an Engineering College in Dhaka, which is now Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology.
Ahsanullah was an ardent advocate for Muslims. He created a number of mosques and madrassahs including the Madaripur and Begambari
mosques and madrassas. He also restored and rebuilt over 15 dargahs and mosques. He was a member of the Central Northern Muhammadan
Association and this played a large role in his works. He also was an ardent supporter of the Partition of Bengal (1905) which his son Khwaja
Salimullah facilitated. Khwaja Ahsanullah was awarded many titles for his social and philanthropic work. Both he and his father were noted
allies of the British Raj. Khwaja Ahsanullah died on December 16, 1901 of heart failure. The Nawab was buried in the family plot in
Begumbazar.
Khwaja Salimullah Bahadur, GCIE, KCSI (June 7, 1871- January 16, 1915) was the fourth Nawab of Dhaka from
1901 until his death on January 16, 1915 and one of the leading Muslim politicians during the British Raj. In the wake
of partition of Bengal in 1905,he consulted with Nawab Muhsinul Mulk at Aligarh over the issue of formation of the
All India Muslim League. In 1906, the Muslim League was officially found at the educational conference held in
Dhaka to protest against the efforts towards re-unification of Bengal, and Salimullah played a pioneering role in it.[2]
The convention was held at Ahsan Manzil, the official residence of the Dhaka Nawab Family. Sir Salimullah was a key
patron of education for the Eastern Bengal. He was one of the founders of the University of Dhaka and the prestigious
Ahsanullah School of Engineering (now the Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology). Sir Salimullah
was a staunch supporter of the Partition of Bengal and was a member of East Bengal and Assam Legislative Council
from 1906 to 1907. He was also a member of Bengal Legislative Assembly from 1913 till his death in Calcutta in 1915 at the age of 43. He was
the founder President of Bengal Muslim League in 1907. Khwaja Salimullah was the eldest son of the third Nawab of Dhaka, Sir Khwaja
Ahsanullah and grandson of the first Nawab of Dhaka, Sir Khwaja Abdul Ghani. Khawaja Salimullah was born at the Ahsan Manzil Palace on
June 7, 1871. Salimullah began his career in government service in 1893 as Deputy Magistrate, a position he held until he departed in 1895 to
start his business in Mymensingh. In 1901 he inherited the position of Nawab of the Dhaka Nawab Family following his father's death. In 1903-

04, Nawab Salimullah began supporting the partition of Bengal in the face of opposition of the Indian National Congress. On October 16, 1905,
the day the Bengal Province was parted, Salimullah presided over a meeting of Muslim leaders from all over East Bengal in Northbrook Hall
where a political front called Mohammedan Provincial Union was formed. With others of the front, Salimullah organized meetings around East
Bengal in favor of the partition, while the Congress built up a movement to oppose it. On April 14 and 15, 1906, Salimullah organized and was
named president at the first convention of East Bengal and Assam Provincial Educational Conference at Shahbag, Dhaka. Later that year,
newspapers published a dispatch from Salimullah to various Muslim leaders around India urging to form an all-India political party he called
Muslim All India Confederacy, and leaders of the Aligarh Movement requested him to convene the 20th meeting of the All India Mohammedan
Educational Conference at his own cost. Over two thousand people covering Muslim leaders from all over India gathered at the Nawab's family
garden-house in Shahbag, Dhaka for the conference held from December 27 until 30, 1906. On the last day, the assembly formed the All India
Muslim League, appointing Nawab Salimullah the Vice President and placing him on a committee to craft its constitution. Two years later, in
December 1908, Salimullah would speak out for free speech in educational institutes and also rights for Muslims to separate elections.The
Muslims in East Bengal who hoped that a separate province of Eastern Bengal and Assam as created in 1905 would give them more control over
education and employment,found a new leader in Nawab Salimullah. Throughout these years, Salimullah held positions of authority in several
leagues and conferences and continued to speak out on important political issues. In 1907, he became president of the All Bengal Muslim
League, formed newly Kolkata. In 1908, he became the secretary of the newly established East Bengal and Assam Provincial Muslim League,
becoming president in 1909. He served as the chairman at the 22nd Convention of the All India Mohammedan Educational Conference at
Amritsar in December 1908. In 1909, he led people of wealth in the newly formed province to form the Imperial League of Eastern Bengal and
Assam. In March 1911, at a meeting at the Ahsan Manzil, he presided over a decision to maintain the provincial Muslim League and provincial
Educational Conference separate for political and educational activities. On March 2, 1912, Salimullah chaired a meeting at which the two
Muslim Leagues of the Bengal were combined into the Presidency Muslim League and the two Muslim Associations were combined into the
Bengal Presidency Muslim Association. Salimullah was made president of both the organisations. In August 1911, Salimullah demanded a
university for Dhaka at a function at a political function at Curzon Hall, but it was not until after the shock of the annulment of the partition by
George V on December 12, 1911 that Salimullah was able to achieve this goal. Within days of the annulment, Salimullah submitted a list of
demands to Viceroy Lord Hardinge to protect the interest of Muslims. In response, a pledge was made to establish a university at Dhaka and to
provide for Muslims an education officer, which pledge led to the inclusion of an Islamic Studies Department in Dhaka University. Salimullah
continued afterwards to champion this cause, making speeches to counter those who argued against it and, in 1914, organizing a convention on
April 11-12, for the Muslim Education Conference of United Bengal. Along with his continued championing of education, Salimullah's last
focuses before withdrawing from active politics in 1914 included situations involving Turkey. In 1912, he raised money from East Bengal to
assist Turkish Muslims threatened by the Balkan wars. During World War I, however, he supported the Allied Powers after Turkey aligned with
Germany. He had following honours: Companion of the Order of the Star of India (CSI)-New Year Honours, 1906, Knight Commander of the
Order of the Star of India (KCSI)-New Year Honours, 1909 and Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire (GCIE)-23
December 1911. Sir Salimullah is regarded in both Bangladesh and Pakistan as a great freedom fighter. Several of his descendants have gone
onto to become prominent politicians in the later days of the British Raj and in Pakistan. They include one of his sons Khwaja Nasrullah who
was the Governor of Calcutta, his grandson Sir Khwaja Nazimuddin who was the second Prime Minister of Pakistan, his great grandson Khwaja
Hassan Askari who became a Member of the National Assembly of Pakistan. Other family members also became prominent political figures
such as Khwaja Atiqullah, Khwaja Khairuddin, Khwaja Shahbuddin, Khwaja Nuruddin and Lieutenant General Khwaja Wasiuddin(the senior
most general of Bangladesh Army). Sir Salimullah's great leadership had transformed the Dhaka Nawab Family into one of the most historic
and significant political dynasties in the Indian Subcontinent. Several places in Bangladesh have been dedicated in Sir Salimullah's name. They
include most notably the following Salimullah Muslim Hall, University of Dhaka, Sir Salimullah Medical College, Dhaka, Salimullah
Orphanage, Nawab Salimullah Road, Naryanganj. In 1990 the Pakistani government launched commemorative postage stamps honouring Sir
Salimullah as one of the Pioneers of Freedom. In 1993 the Bangladeshi government launched a commemorative postage stamp in honour of Sir
Salimullah.
Khwaja Habibullah Bahadur (April 26, 1895 - November 21, 1958) was the fifth and last Nawab of Dhaka
from 1915 until 1952. He was the son of his more prominent father, Nawab Sir Khwaja Salimullah Bahadur. Under
his rule, the Dhaka Nawab Estate went into decline until its actual relinquishment in 1952 by the East Pakistan
Estates Acquisition Act. Nawab Habibullah had repeatedly tried to carry on his father's political legacy by himself
but had failed due to the strong political power base of other family members such as Khwaja Khairuddin and Sir
Khwaja Nazimuddin. Nawab Habibullah contested the assembly election of Bengal as an independent candidate
but suffered a heavy defeat at the hands of his relative, Khwaja Khairuddin who was on a Muslim League ticket. In his closing days he gave up
politics due to broken health. He left the Ahsan Manzil Palace and resided in another of the royal residences, Green House, in Dhaka's Paribagh
area. On November 21, 1958 Nawab Habibullah died and was buried alongside his father at the royal family graveyard in Begumbazar in Dhaka.
Che Siti Wan Kembang is the legendary queen regnant over a region in the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, which
is now encompassed within Kelantan state. She is believed to have ruled from 1548 until 1580, while other accounts state
that she ruled in the 14th century. Che Siti was famous for her beauty and wisdom. She was said to be of Arab blood and
was descendant of the royal lineage of Champa-Kelantan-Patani. She was also known as a warrior princess and was said to
be able to enter battle on horseback with a sword with an army of female horseriders. It was said that she and her adopted

daughter, Puteri Saadong had mystical powers. Kelantanese are very proud of their history and the deer generally symbolises Che Siti Wan
Kembang as it was her favourite pet. The current state emblem of Kelantan has two deers which represents Kelantan's rich history which can be
traced back to the popular queen. According to certain historical records, Che Siti Wan Kembang was born in 1585. Her parents were Raja
Ahmad and Cik Banun, both of royal lineage. Raja Ahmad was crowned Ruler of Kelantan in 1584. However, Raja Ahmad died in 1589, when
the princess was only 4 years old. Therefore Raja Hussein of Johor was made Regent of Kelantan. Che Siti Wan Kembang ascended to the throne
of Kelantan in 1610 upon the death of Raja Hussein. She was said to have resided in Gunung Chinta Wangsa, Ulu Kelantan, located
approximately 40 km from Kuala Krai. Che Siti never married, and therefore never had children of her own. She adopted Puteri Saadong as her
daughter. Puteri Saadong was the princess of the ruler of Jembal, whom Che Siti had close ties with. Differing views are given regarding the
origin of the Kijang gold coins. Kijang means deer in the Malay language and derives its name from the deer engraving on the coin. The Kijang
coins are generally associated with Che Siti. According to Kelantanese folklore, some Arab traders presented a Kijang to the Queen. She became
very fond of her pet and had it inscribed on the gold coins. Another version was linked to the influence of Saivite Hinduism. The connection was
based on the fact that the earliest issue of Kijang coins resembled the Indian humped-back bull and the bull motif was depicted on ancient
Hindu coins which were circulated in the Northern Malay States. Jelasin fort is situated approximately 4 to 8 km from Kota Bharu, the state
capital of Kelantan. It was built in 1563 for Cik Siti Wan Kembang, her adopted daughter Puteri Saadong and Puteri Saadong's husband, Raja
Abdullah. The fort was made from thick wood with beautiful carvings and was very famous during the reign of Che Siti. It was used to defend
Kelantan from outside attacks. According to history, Jelasin Fort was attacked by the King of Siam and Puteri Saadong disappeared after that.
The condition of the fort soon deteriorated after her disappearance and the ruins of the fort is hardly noticeable nowadays as not much effort has
been taken to conserve it. Legend has it that Che Siti never died but instead "disappeared" into the mystical world, and reappears from time to
time. After her "disappearance", she was succeeded by her adopted daughter, Puteri Saadong, who was the youngest daughter of Raja Jembal.
Puteri Saadong or Mariam was Raja of Kelantan from 1667 until 1671. She was the adopted daughter of Siti Wan Kembang (Che Siti), the
legendary Queen of Kelantan. Her full title is Tuan Puteri Saadong binti Raja Loyor, Puteri Vijaya Mala, Raja of Jembal, daughter of Raja Loyor
bin Raja Sakti, Raja of Jembal. Puteri Saadong was brought up in Bukit Marak by Che Siti, after her mother died. She succeeded her father as
Raja of Jembal in 1663, and was later installed as Raja of Kelantan in 1667. Che Siti gave Puteri Saadong's hand in marriage to her cousin, Raja
Abdullah bin al-Marhum Sultan Samiruddin, Raja of Kelantan-Selatan (Jembal) when the princess was only 15 years old. She was captured by
the Siamese and forced to become a concubine of King Narai of Siam (now Thailand) in order to spare her husband's life. Raja Abdullah vowed
to wait for her return and never to remarry. However, after several years Raja Abdullah gave up and remarried. When Puteri Saadong returned
to Bukit Marak to find Raja Abdullah remarried, a quarrel ensured. It was believed that Puteri Saadong, overwhelmed with rage, killed Raja
Abdullah with her hair pin. After the incident, Puteri Saadong left Bukit Marak and subsequently disappeared. Raja Abdullah's tomb can still be
seen at Padang Halban, Melor in the district of Bachok, Kelantan.
Chulduor Huldu was the wife of Aretas IV and Queen of the Nabataeans. She ruled jointly with her husband from around AD 9 until around
AD 16. Copper and silver coins where she is depicted with her husband have been recovered. Little is known about the exact date and reason of
the transition from Chuldu to Shaqilath, who appears on coins after an unexplained gap in 18 CE. Maurice Satre suggested previous gaps in the
minting of coins could have been due to a period of capitulation to Ancient Rome. She has been presumed to be the mother of Malichus, Obodas
and Rabbel, and of three daughters, Phasa'el, Shu'dat and Hagera. The latter also had a son, also called Aretas, grandson of Aretas IV.
Shaqilath was the Queen of the Nabataeans. She ruled jointly with her husband-brother Malichus II from AD 40 until AD 70. is the daughter
of Aretas IV of the Nabataeans. After his death she was regent for her son Rabel II. Copper and silver coins where she is depicted with her
husband and coins of her with her son have been recovered. Some of these coins are dated with regnal years to the left of the queen.
Gamilath was the Queen of the Nabataeans ruled jointly with her brother Rabbel II Soter from AD 70/71 until AD 106.
Massagetae
The Massagetae, or Massageteans (Greek: Μασσαγέται, Massagetai), were an ancient Eastern Iranian nomadic confederation, inhabiting the
steppes of Central Asia east of the Caspian Sea, in modern-day Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, western Uzbekistan, and southern Kazakhstan. They
are known primarily from the writings of Herodotus. About the origin of the name Massagetae, scholars have emphasized that: "The classical
and modern authorities say that the word "Massagetae" means "great" Getae. The ninth-century work De Universo of Rabanus Maurus states,
"The Massagetae are in origin from the tribe of the Scythians, and are called Massagetae, as if heavy, that is, strong Getae." Weer Rajendra Rishi
wrote, "In Pahlavi language the word massa means great. In Avesta massa is also used in the sense of greatness."
Queen of Massagetae
Tomyris (/ˈtoʊmɨrɪs/; from Eastern Iranian: ‫هم‬ ‫يإت‬ ‫ري‬ Tahm-Rayiš), also called Thomyris, Tomris, Tomiride, or Queen Tomiri, was an ancient
Eastern Iranian queen who reigned over the Massagetae, a Scythian pastoral-nomadic confederation of Central Asia east of the Caspian Sea, in
parts of modern-day Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, western Uzbekistan, and southern Kazakhstan. Tomyris led her armies to defend her nation
against attack by Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid Empire, and defeated and killed him in 530 BC. Tomyris is mentioned by several ancient
writers, among whom the first is Herodotus. She is also mentioned by Strabo, Polyaenus, Cassiodorus, and Jordanes. The names of Tomyris, and
her son Spargapises, who was the head of her army, are of Iranian origins. Since the historians who first wrote of her were Greek, the Hellenic
form of her name is used most frequently. Many Greek historians recorded that she "defeated and killed" the Persian ruler Cyrus the Great, the
founder of the Achaemenid Empire, during his invasion and attempted conquest of her country. Herodotus, who lived from approximately 484
to 425 BC, is the earliest of the classical writers to give an account of her career, writing almost one hundred years later. Her history was well
known and became legendary. Strabo, Polyaenus, Cassiodorus, and Jordanes (in De origine actibusque Getarum, The Origin and Deeds of the
Goths - also known as Getae or Dacians) also wrote of her. According to the accounts of Greek historians, Cyrus was victorious in his initial
assault on the Massagetae. His advisers suggested laying a trap for the pursuing Scythians: the Persians left behind them an apparently

abandoned camp, containing a rich supply of wine. The pastoral Scythians were not used to drinking wine—"their favored intoxicants were
hashish and fermented mare's milk" and they drank themselves into a stupor. The Persians attacked while their opponents were incapacitated,
defeating the Massagetae forces, and capturing Tomyris' son, Spargapises, the general of her army. Of the one third of the Massagetae forces
that fought, there were more captured than killed. According to Herodotus, Spargagises coaxed Cyrus into removing his bonds, thus allowing
him to commit suicide while in Persian captivity. Tomyris sent a message to Cyrus denouncing his treachery, and with all her forces, challenged
him to a second battle. In the fight that ensued, the Massagetae got the upper hand, and the Persians were defeated with high casualties. Cyrus
was killed and Tomyris had his corpse beheaded and then crucified,[9] and shoved his head into a wineskin filled with human blood. She was
reportedly quoted as saying, "I warned you that I would quench your thirst for blood, and so I shall" (Hdt 1.214). Eustache Deschamps added
Tomyris to his poetry as one of the nine Female Worthies in the late 14th century. The history of Tomyris has been incorporated into the
tradition of Western art; Rubens, Allegrini, Luca Ferrari, Mattia Preti, Gustave Moreau and the sculptor Severo Calzetta da Ravenna are among
the many artists who have portrayed events in the life of Tahm-Rayiš and her defeat of Cyrus and his armies. The name "Tomyris" also has been
adopted into zoological taxonomy, for the tomyris species-group of Central Asian Lepidoptera. 590 Tomyris is the name given to one of the
minor planets. The given name Tomris or Toʻmaris has also become very popular in Central Asia and Turkey in the 20th and 21st centuries.
Toʻmarisning Koʻzlari (The Eyes of Tomyris) is a 1984 book of poems and stories by Uzbek author Xurshid Davron. Toʻmarisning Aytgani (The
Sayings of Tomyris) is a 1996 book of poetry by Uzbek poet Halima Xudoyberdiyeva.
Qedarites
The Qedarites (also Kedarites/Cedarenes, Cedar/Kedar/Qedar, and Kingdom of Qedar) were a largely nomadic, ancient Arab and Semitic tribal
confederation. Described as "the most organized of the Northern Arabian tribes", at the peak of its power in the 6th century BC it controlled a
large region between the Persian Gulf and the Sinai Peninsula. Biblical tradition holds that the Qedarites are named for Qedar, the second son of
Ishmael, mentioned in the Bible's books of Genesis (25:13) and 1 Chronicles (1:29), where there are also frequent references to Qedar as a tribe.
The earliest extrabiblical inscriptions discovered by archaeologists that mention the Qedarites are from the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Spanning the
8th and 7th centuries BC, they list the names of Qedarite kings who revolted and were defeated in battle, as well as those who paid Assyrian
monarchs tribute, including Zabibe, queen of the Arabs (šar-rat KUR.a-ri-bi). There are also Aramaic and Old South Arabian inscriptions
recalling the Qedarites, who further appear briefly in the writings of Classical Greek and Roman historians, such as Herodotus, Pliny the Elder,
and Diodorus. It is unclear when the Qedarites ceased to exist as a separately defined confederation or people. Allies with the Nabataeans, it is
likely that they were subsumed into the Nabataean state around the 2nd century AD. Arab genealogical scholars widely consider Ishmael to be
an ancestral forefather of the Arab people, and assign great importance in their accounts to his first two sons (Nebaioth and Qedar), with the
genealogy of Muhammad, a Messenger of God in Islam, alternately assigned to one or the other son, depending on the scholar.
List of Kings of the Nomadic Arab tribes of Qedar
Gindibu (also transliterated Zabibi, Zabiba, Zabibah) was a King of the Nomadic Arab tribes of Qedar from around 870 BC until 850 BC.
Gindibu led the Arab forces at the Battle of Qarqar (853 BC), as an ally of Ben Haddad the king of the Aramean state of Damascus, as they
fought against Assyria. He appears on the Kurkh Monolith, on which an Assyrian scribe recorded a description of the size of the enemy forces
facing king Shalmaneser III, and a record containing "the first known reference to the Arabs as a distinct group". Little else is known of Gindibu
or the Arabs of his time.
Zabibe (also transliterated Zabibi, Zabiba, Zabibah) was a Queen of the Nomadic Arab tribes of Qedar who reigned for five years from 738 BC
until 733 BC. She was a vassal of Tiglath-Pileser III, king of Assyria, and is mentioned in the Annals of Tiglath-Pileser III among a list of
monarchs who paid tribute to the king in 738 BC. The title accorded her is queen of the Aribi (Arabs). Israel Eph'al argues that, until the time of
Assurbanipal, the title "queen of the Arabs" in Assyrian manuscripts was a general one accorded to leaders of the nomadic tribes of the Syrian
desert. So, he infers that Zabibe would have been properly titled "queen of the Qidri" (Qedarites). Zabībah is an ancient Arabic name, likely
derived from zabīb, meaning "raisin". She was succeeded by another queen, Samsi, who also reigned for five years.
Samsi (also Shamsi) was a Queen of the Nomadic Arab tribes of Qedar from 733 BC until around 710 BC. As an ally of Rakhianu of Damascus,
she fought the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III in 732 BC. According to the Assyrian records, Samsi took part in a rebellion, however "Tiglath-
Pileser defeated Samsi in the neighbourhood of Mount Sa-qu-ur-ri, killed many of her men, and took a great deal of booty." Israel Eph'al notes
the Assyrian records claim she "fled for her life 'like a wild she-ass' to the desert. At this point she apparently decided to surrender to Tiglath-
Pileser, and paid tribute." "Samsi remained queen after surrendering to Tiglath Pileser, but a qēpu was appointed over her by the king of Assyria."
Samsi's predecessor was Zabibe, and her successor Yatie.
Yatie (also Iati'e) was a Queen of the Nomadic Arab tribes of Qedar from 710 BC until 695 BC. Yatie sent her forces, headed by her brother
Baasqanu, to aid Merodach-Baladan in his bid to hold onto Babylon. Merodach-Baladan, the leader of the Chaldeans, was also supported by an
army from Elam and together these faced the Assyrian forces of Sennacherib on his first campaign in 703 BC. The events of the battle are
recorded in the annals of Sennacherib which mention Yatie, "queen of the Arabs", and the capture of her brother Baasqanu in the battle. Israel
Eph'al writes that this is the first mention in Assyrian documents of Arabs as an ethnic element in Babylonia. Yatie's predecessor was Samsi and
she was succeeded by queen Te'el-hunu.
Te'elkhunu was a Queen of the Nomadic Arab tribes of Qedar from 695 BC until 690 BC. Te'elkhunu and Tabua, both referred to as both
"queens of Qidri" and "queens of Aribi," have Adummatu explicitly denoted as their seat and capital city in the inscriptions. The conquest of
Adummatu by Sennacherib in 690 BC and the capture of a Qedarite queen, Te'elkhunu, who was brought back to Assyria with other loot,
including divine images, is also mentioned in the annals of the Assyrian monarchs. Esarhaddon eventually returned the "renewed" images of the
Arab gods to Adummatu with Tabua, "who grew up in the palace of Sennacherib," and was appointed Qedarite queen by Esarhaddon to replace
Te'elkhunu. However, strained relations between the Assyrians and the Qedarites meant that she ruled for only a brief period, with Esarhaddon
recognizing Hazael as the king of Qedar after he increased his tribute to the Assyrian monarch by 65 camels.

Hazael (ibn Hazael) was a King of the Nomadic Arab tribes of Qedar from 690 BC until around 678 BC. He was described as a Qedarite king by
Ashurbanipal, King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and "king of the Arabs" by Esarhaddon, King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. After Sennacherib's
invasion of Babylonia in 691–689 BC, Hazael fled to Dumah. Dumah is referred to as Adummatu by the Assyrians, and the city is described by
them as the seat of the Qedar confederation and the base of their cult.
Tabua was a Queen of the Nomadic Arab tribes of Qedar from 678 BC until 676 BC. Te'elkhunu and Tabua, both referred to as both "queens of
Qidri" and "queens of Aribi," have Adummatu explicitly denoted as their seat and capital city in the inscriptions.
Yauta,'Iauta, Iata, Uaite or Yawthi'i[b] was a King of the Nomadic Arab tribes of Qedar from 676 BC until around 652 BC. He was son of Hazael
(ibn Hazael), King of Qedar. Esarhaddon, King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire then appointed Yauta, son of Hazael, as a Qedarite king, following
Hazael's death. That Yauta paid a tribute in the form of 10 minas of gold, 1,000 precious stones, 50 camels, and 1,000 leather pouches of
aromatics is also recorded. The defeat of Ammuladi and Yauta after they mounted Qedarite forces to march against the kings of the Amurru is
recorded by Ashurbanipal. Yauta is said to have "roused the people of Arabia to revolt with him." His wife, Adiya, is the only woman mentioned
in Assyrian inscriptions as both a Qedarite queen and the wife of a Qedarite king, and is thought to be the only woman who was not a ruler in
her own right. The inscriptions record how Adiya was sent by Yauta to accompany Ammuladi and the Qedarite forces, and their subsequent
defeat and capture in 604 BC by the forces of Kamushaltu, king of Moab and a loyal vassal of the Assyrian empire. Yauta is said to have "fled to
the Nabataeans." His subsequent capture and sentencing in Nineveh are recorded by Ashurbanipal who relates that, "I put a dog chain upon him
and made him guard a kennel." Abiyate was appointed as Yauta's successor, and soon joined with the Nabataeans to revolt against Assyria again,
prompting Ashurbanipal to launch a three-month campaign to end it, beginning in Palmyra, continuing on to Damascus and ending in the
southern part of al-Leja.
Abiyate, Abyate was a King of the Nomadic Arab tribes of Qedar from 652 BC until around 644 BC. Abiyate was appointed as Yauta's
successor, and soon joined with the Nabataeans to revolt against Assyria again, prompting Ashurbanipal to launch a three-month campaign to
end it, beginning in Palmyra, continuing on to Damascus and ending in the southern part of al-Leja.
Mahlay, Mahaly was a King of the Nomadic Arab tribes of Qedar from 510 BC until 490 BC. He was mentioned in Lachish inscription.
Iyas was a King of the Nomadic Arab tribes of Qedar from 490 BC until 470 BC. He was son of Mahlay, King of Qedar and mentioned in
Lachish inscription.
Shahr I (ben Shahr), Shahru was a King of the Nomadic Arab tribes of Qedar from 470 BC until 450 BC.
Gashmu I (bar Geshem), Geshem was a King of the Nomadic Arab tribes of Qedar from 450 BC until 430 BC. He was son of Shahr (ben
Shahr), King of Qedar. Geshem the Arabian (or Geshem the Arab; Hebrew: ‫ג‬ ֶ‫ֶש‬‫ם‬ ‫עָה‬ ַ‫ר‬ ְ‫ב‬ִ‫)י‬ is the only Arab person mentioned in the Hebrew bible.
He was an ally of Sanballat and Tobiah and adversary of Nehemiah (Neh. ii. 19, vi. 1). In Neh. vi. 6 he is called "Gashmu," which is probably more
correct, as an Arab tribe named "Gushamu" is known (Cook, "Aramaic Glossary," s.v. ‫.)םשמו‬ When Nehemiah proceeded to rebuild the walls of
Jerusalem, the Samaritans and the Arabs made efforts to hinder him. Geshem or Gashmu, who probably was the chief of the Arabs, joined the
Samaritans and accused Nehemiah of conspiracy against the Persian king.
Qainu, Kaynau, Qaynu was a King of the Nomadic Arab tribes of Qedar from 430 BC until 410 BC. He was son of Gehsem (bar Geshem), King
of Qedar.
Dedan
Dedan was oasis kingdom mentioned in the prophetic vision of the war of Gog and Magog (Ezekiel 38; see also, Revelation 20:8), and appears to
be a nation of significance in this end-times prophecy of Ezekiel. In Ezekiel 38:13, Dedan is joined with Sheba, and "Tarshish and all her strong
lions", all these nations joining together to inquire of the advancing armies of Gog: "Have you come to plunder? Have you gathered your hordes
to loot, to carry off silver and gold, to take away livestock and goods and to seize much plunder?" Now known as Al Ula in northern Saudi
Arabia, known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Hijra, Hegra or Egra, the former is about the same distance, about 250 miles north from
Medina as Medina is north of Mecca. The location where the extinct tribe of Thamud used to dwell. In the ruins of the old city there are
inscriptions that indicate the Dedanites were preceded by a Minean settlement. The Mineans established a center at this desert oasis in order to
protect the incense trade.
List of Kings of the Nomadic Arab tribes of Dedan
Mati-il (ibn Mati-il) was a King of the Nomadic Arab tribes of Dedan from 580 BC until 565 BC.
Kabaril was a King of the Nomadic Arab tribes of Dedan from 565 BC until 550 BC. He was son of Mati-il (ibn Mati-il) King of Dedan.
Tanûkhids
The Tanûkhids (Arabic: ‫يون‬ ‫نوخ‬ ‫ت‬ ‫)يد‬ or Tanukh (Arabic: ‫نوخ‬ ‫)ت‬ were originally from the Qahtani ( Arabic : ‫يون‬ ‫حطعن‬ ‫)ق‬ confederation of Arab
tribes, sometimes characterized as Saracens. They first rose to prominence in northern Arabia and south of Syria in the 3rd century BCE. Both
Lakhmid and Tanukhid inscriptions have been found at Umm al-Jimal in Jordan and Namara in Syria.The ancient Tanukhi tribal confederation

was largely taken over by several branches of the large Al Azd tribe. They were joined in the 11th century by other Qahtani tribes from southern
Arabia, such as the Banu Ma'an. The Ma'an tribe settled in the Lebanon Mountains on order of the governor of Damascus to defend against the
encroaching Crusaders. Most Ma'an's in Lebanon later became Druze.They were later defeated by a rival Qais tribe who had also became Druze,
the Qaysi Druze. In the late 2nd century, a branch of the tribe of Azd, from Southern Arabia, migrated to Al-Hasa where Tanukhids were
settling. The Azdies allied with the Tanukhids, becoming part of the confederation. The two sheikhs (tribal leaders) of Tanukh gave up the rule
to certain Malik ibn Fahm the Azdite (196-231), who led them into Iraq and Oman, and after some skirmishes he controlled all of Oman, and
parts of Iraq, he was succeeded by his brother 'Amr ibn Fahm who reigned for a short period, later Jadhima ibn Malik reigned (233-268). He
incorporated in war with Palmyra, and after its fall, he took control of much of the lands it previously controlled. After Jadhima's death, he was
succeeded by his sister's son 'Amr ibn Adi the Lakhmid, because Jadhima had no sons, thus establishing the Lakhmid dynasty. Other parts of
Tanukh settled in Syria. In the 4th century CE, the Tanukhids formed a major grouping of Rome's allies in the East, ranging from Syria in the
north to the Gulf of Aqaba, areas into which they had migrated from southern Arabia after the rise of Sassanian influence in Yemen a century
previous. The Tanukhids played a key role in the defeat of Zenobia's forces by Emperor Aurelian and served as foederati in the Roman East. In
378, their Queen Mavia led them in a revolt against Emperor Valens. A truce was struck and was respected for a time, with Mavia even sending a
fleet of cavalry in response to Roman requests for assistance in staving off an attack by the Goths. The alliance crumbled under Theodosius I,
with the Tanukhids again revolting against Roman rule.
List of Kings of the semi-nomadic Tanukh confederation
Malik ibn Fahm the Azdite was the king of the semi-nomadic Tanukh confederation in southern Syria from AD 196 until AD 231. who
led them into Iraq and Oman, and after some skirmishes he controlled all of Oman, and parts of Iraq, he was succeeded by his brother 'Amr ibn
Fahm who reigned for a short period, later Jadhima ibn Malik reigned (233-268).
'Amr ibn Fahm was the king of the semi-nomadic Tanukh confederation in southern Syria from AD 231 until AD 233.
Jadhima ibn Malikwas the king of the semi-nomadic Tanukh confederation in southern Syria from AD 233 until AD 268. He incorporated
in war with Palmyra, and after its fall, he took control of much of the lands it previously controlled. After Jadhima's death, he was succeeded by
his sister's son 'Amr ibn Adi the Lakhmid, because Jadhima had no sons, thus establishing the Lakhmid dynasty.
al-Hawari (died AD 375) was the king of the semi-nomadic Tanukh confederation in southern Syria in the latter half of the fourth century.
When he died in AD 375 without leaving an heir, his wife Mavia rose to command the confederation in a revolt against Roman rule that
extended throughout the Levant.
Mavia, (Arabic: ‫ة‬ ‫,سعوي‬ Māwiyya; also transliterated Mawia, Mawai, or Mawaiy, and sometimes referred to as Mania) was an Arab warrior-queen,
who ruled over a confederation of semi-nomadic Arabs, in southern Syria, in the latter half of the fourth century. She led her troops in a
rebellion against Roman rule, riding at the head of her army into Phoenicia and Palestine. After reaching the frontiers of Egypt and repeatedly
defeating the Roman army, the Romans finally made a truce with her on conditions she stipulated. The Romans later called upon her for
assistance when being attacked by the Goths, to which she responded by sending a force of cavalry. Considered to be "the most powerful woman
in the late antique Arab world after Zenobia," much of what is known about Mavia comes from early, almost contemporaneous accounts, such as
the writings of Rufinus, thought to be derived from a now lost account by Gelasius of Caeserea. Later authors transformed her into a Christian of
Roman stock, though she was evidently Arab, and perhaps initially pagan. The ancestors of Mavia, whose Arabic name was Mawiyya, were
Tanukhids, a loose affiliation of Arab tribes that migrated northwards from the Arabian peninsula a century before Mavia was born, because of
growing Sassanian influence in Iran. Mavia's husband was al-Hawari, the last king of the semi-nomadic Tanukh confederation in southern Syria
in the latter half of the fourth century. When he died in AD 375 without leaving an heir, Mavia rose to command the confederation in a revolt
against Roman rule that extended throughout the Levant. The reasons for the revolt are thought to have been religious. After al-Hawari's death,
the Roman emperor Valens, an Arian heterodox, decided to disregard the requests of the Arabs for an orthodox bishop, insisting on the
appointment of an Arian bishop instead. Mavia withdrew from Aleppo into the desert with her people, forming alliances with desert Arabs and
gaining support throughout muchof Arabia and Syria, in preparation for the fight against Roman rule. It is unclear as to whether Mavia herself
was Christian at this time or not. Some historians report that it was during her military exploits that she met an ascetic monk who so impressed
her that she converted to orthodox Christianity. All agree, however, that the conditions she set for any truce with Rome, was this monk's
appointment as bishop over her people. It was in the spring of AD 378 that Mavia launched the massive revolt against the central government,
often compared to that launched by Zenobia a century earlier. Her forces, which she often led personally, swept into Arabia and Palestine and
reached the edges of Egypt, defeating the armies of Rome many times. Because she and the Tanukhids had left Aleppo to use the desert as their
base, the Romans were left without a standing target upon which to inflict retribution. Mavia's highly mobile units, using classic guerilla warfare
tactics, conducted numerous raids and frustrated Roman attempts to subdue the revolt. Mavia and her forces proved themselves to be superior to
Roman forces in open battle as well. A century of having fought alongside Roman forces meant that they were familiar with Roman tactics and
easily defeated the forces of the Roman governor over Palestine and Phonecia, the first to be sent in to crush the revolt. She gained favour
among townspeople in the region, sympathetic to her cause as well, and it seemed as though the whole Roman East would break away to be
ruled by Mavia and her Arabs. A second force, led by the Roman military commander of the East himself, was sent out to meet Mavia's forces in
open battle. Personally leading her forces into battle, Mavia proved to be not only an able political leader but also a strong field tactician. Her
forces, using Roman battlefield techniques and their own traditional fighting methods had a highly mobile cavalry that used long lances with
deadly effect. The Romans were defeated, and it was not the first time they had been humiliated at the hands of a woman. This time, however,
they had no indigenous forces to call upon for help as had been the case in their battles against Zenobia, since it was the Tanukh confederation
they were now fighting, that had come to their aid then. Valens had no choice but to sue for peace. Church historians record Mavia's exploits,
focusing in particular on the condition she set for the truce she procured from the Romans, which is considered to be important to early
Christian evangelical efforts in the Levant. For example, Rufinus writes, "Mavia, queen of the Saracens, had begun to convulse the villages and
towns on the border of Palestine and Arabia with a violent war and to ravage the neighboring provinces. After she had worn down the Roman
army in several battles, had felled a great many, and had put the remainder to flight, she was asked to make peace, which she did on the
condition already declared: that a certain monk Moses be ordained bishop for her people." Socrates of Constantinople writes of these same

events, and notes that Moses, "a Saracen by birth, who led a monastic life in the desert" had become "exceedingly eminent for his piety, faith and
miracles." He suggested that Mavia was "therefore desirous that this person should be constituted bishop over her nation, and promised on this
condition to terminate the war." Mavia's firm commitment to the truce, as exemplified in her marrying her daughter to Victor, the commander-
in-chief of the Roman army, is also noted by Socrates. Sozomen provides even more detail on Mavia, referred to in his text as Mania, describing
her rule, and the history of her people, whom he calls "Saracens". He writes that they are Ishmaelites, descended from the son of Hagar,
Abraham's concubine, and that they name their children after Sarah, so as not to be regarded as sons of Hagar, and therefore as slaves. Of battle
with "Mania, who commanded her own troops in person," Sozomen writes that it was considered "arduous" and "perilous", and that the general of
the entire cavalry and infantry of the East had to be "rescued with difficulty" from battle against her and her troops by the general of the troops
of Palestine and Phonecia. Moses was appointed the first Arab bishop of the Arabs, and an incipient Arab church began to emerge in the Roman
East, attracting many Tanukh from Mesopotamia. Mavia also managed to regain the Tanukh's allied status and the privileges they enjoyed prior
to Julian's reign. At the war's conclusion, Mavia's daughter, Princess Chasidat, was married to a devout Nicene commander in Rome's army,
Victor, to cement the alliance. It was thus that Mavia brought the Arabs a just peace; however, it did not last long. As part of the truce
agreement, Mavia sent her forces to Thrace to help the Romans fight the Goths. Her forces proved less effective outside of their native territory
and the Goths pushed the Romans back to Constantinople, even killing Valens, the emperor, in the process. Mavia's forces returned home, badly
bruised and depleted in number. The new emperor, Theodosius I, favored the Goths, giving them many positions within the Roman
establishment, at the expense of the Arabs. After having demonstrated their loyalty to Rome, the Arabs felt increasingly betrayed and mounted
another revolt in 383 CE. This revolt was quickly put down and the Tanukh-Roman alliance ended for good, as Rome courted another Arab tribe,
the Salih. It is not known whether Mavia commanded this second revolt or not as there is no mention of its leadership. It is known that she died
in Anasartha, east of Aleppo in the heart of the Tanukh tribal territory, where there is an inscription recording her death there in 425 CE. More
recent scholarship has approached Mavia within the context of the history of Arab warrior queens who preceded her, most prominent among
them, Zenobia. For example, Irfan Shahid notes that the armies of both queens reached the same waterway dividing Asia from Europe, with
Mavia even crossing the Bosporus into Byzantium. Noting the absence of any mention of Mavia in Zosimus' work who was familiar with the
writings of Sozomen and Socrates, Shahid concludes this omission is deliberate since it did not accord with the Zosimus' thesis regarding the
destructive effects of the Christianization and barbarization he associated with Constantine I's reforms. Shahid writes that, "The contrast between
the careers of the two Arab queens - the first belonging to the world of the third century, pagan and disloyal to Rome, the second belonging to
the new world of the fourth century, Christian and loyal - would have been attributed only to the success of the Constantinian experiment."
Dardania
Dardania (Greek: Δαρδανία) in Greek mythology is the name of a city founded on Mount Ida by Dardanus from which also the region and the
people took their name. It lay on the Hellespont, and is the source of the strait's modern name, the Dardanelles. From Dardanus' grandson Tros
the people gained the additional name of Trojans and the region gained the additional name Troad. Tros' son Ilus subsequently founded a
further city called Ilion (in Latin Ilium) down on the plain, the city now more commonly called Troy, and the kingdom was split between Ilium
and Dardania. Dardania has also been defined as "a district of the Troad, lying along the Hellespont, southwest of Abydos, and adjacent to the
territory of Ilium. Its people (Dardani) appear in the Trojan War under Aeneas, in close alliance with the Trojans, with whose name their own is
often interchanged, especially by the Roman poets."
Satrap of Dardanus
Mania was satrap of Dardanus around 399 BC. Mania was satrap of Dardanus under Pharnabazus II, Persian statesman around 399 BC. She was
the wife of Zenis, satrap of ancient Dardanus under Pharnabazus II, and became satrap herself in about 399 BC after her husband's death. She
attended the battles of her mercenaries in a carriage or chariot, and was never defeated. Polyaenus describes her as an excellent general. She had
one daughter whose husband Medias murdered Mania in her apartments.
Comana
Comana was a city of Cappadocia (Greek: τὰ Κόμανα τῆς Καππαδοκίας) and later Cataonia (Latin: Comana Cataoniae; frequently called Comana
Chryse or Aurea, i.e. "the golden", to distinguish it from Comana in Pontus). The Hittite toponym Kummanni is considered likely to refer to
Comana, but the identification is not considered proven. Its ruins are at the modern Turkish village of Şar, Tufanbeyli district, Adana Province.
List of Priest-Rulers of Comana
Lycomedes of Comana was a Bithynian nobleman of Cappadocian Greek descent who ruled Comana, Cappadocia in the second half of the
1st century BC. In 47 BC Lycomedes was probably about 50 years old, when he was named by Roman Dictator Gaius Julius Caesar the priest of
the goddess Bellona in the temple-state of Comana, and sovereign, therefore, of the surrounding country. The predecessor of Lycomedes was
Archelaus, the grandson of the Pontic General Archelaus. Strabo reports that with Roman Client King Polemon I of Pontus, Lycomedes besieged
a fortress held by Arsaces, a rebel chief who was guarding the sons of King Pharnaces II of Pontus, until Arsaces surrendered. Lycomedes was an
adherent of Roman Triumvir Mark Antony, who at some point enlarged the territory of Lycomedes' kingdom. Due to Lycomedes’ partisanship
with Mark Antony, he was deposed by Roman Emperor Augustus after the Battle of Actium.He was succeeded as priest and ruler, briefly, by
Medeius and the brigand-king Cleon of Gordiucome, and more permanently by Dyteutus. Lycomedes had married a Pontian Princess called
Orsabaris who was the youngest daughter of King Mithridates VI of Pontus. Orsabaris bore Lycomedes adaughter called Orodaltis.

Medeius was priest-ruler of Comana, city of Cappadocia in the 1st century BC.
Cleon of Gordiucome (Greek: Κλέων), or Cleon the Mysian, was a 1st-century BC brigand-king in Asia Minor. Cleon made a reputation for
himself with robbery and marauding warfare in and around Olympus, long occupying the fortress called by ancient geographers Callydium
(Strabo) or Calydnium (Eustathius). He at first courted the favor of Mark Antony, and was awarded a good deal of land in exchange. In 40 BC
Cleon's forces harried an invading body of Parthians led by Labienus. Around the time of the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, Cleon switched sides to
that of Augustus. In exchange for services rendered in the wars against Mark Antony, Augustus appointed Cleon the priest of the goddess
Bellona in the temple-state of Comana and sovereign, therefore, of the surrounding country. Cleon added what he had been given by Augustus
to what he had received from Mark Antony and styled himself a dynast. Under Augustus he also founded the city of Juliopolis out of the town of
his birth, Gordiucome. Strabo mentions that Cleon was a priest of Jupiter Abrettenus, and ruler of Morene, a region of Mysia noticed by no other
writer. Cleon's rule was unsuccessful and exceedingly brief; he died only one month after his appointment. In contemporary accounts, it was
written that Cleon died because he ignored a taboo against eating pork in the temple precinct of Bellona. It is sometimes recorded that Cleon
succeeded Lycomedes as ruler of Comana after the very brief reign of Medeius. Strabo suggests that Medeius and Cleon are different names for
the same person, the former being the Greek name, the latter the native one. Cleon was in any case succeeded by Dyteutus.
Dyteutus (died AD 34) was a ruler of Comana in the first half 1st century AD. He was eldest son of the Galatian ruler Adiatorix. After the
father and his eldest son were sentenced to death by Octavianus for the father's partisanship towards Mark Antony, Dyteutus's younger brother
asked to die in his brother's place, claiming that he was in fact the elder son. At first Dyteutus resisted, but was persuaded by his father and
mother to go along with the deception, on the grounds that his maturity would secure greater protection for his mother and the other surviving
members of his family, and the younger brother was put to death. Some contemporary writers reckon the guilt over this false execution was
what led Augustus to elevate Dyteutus to rule Comana After extremely brief intervening reigns by Medeius and the brigand-king Cleon of
Gordiucome, Dyteutus succeeded Lycomedes as priest of the celebrated goddess Bellona, and therefore ruler of Comana. He had a long reign;
the temple-state of Comana was annexed to the Roman province of Galatia upon his death in 34 AD.
Cius
Cius (/ˈsaɪəs/; Greek: Kίος Kios), later renamed Prusias on the Sea (/ˈpruːʒəs/; Latin: Prusias ad Mare) after king Prusias I of Bithynia, was an
ancient Greek city bordering the Propontis (now known as the Sea of Marmara), in Bithynia (in modern northwestern Turkey), and had a long
history, being mentioned by Aristotle, Strabo and Apollonius Rhodius. It was colonized by the Milesians and became a place of much
commercial importance. It joined the Aetolian League, and was destroyed by Philip V of Macedon in the Cretan War. It was rebuilt by Prusias I
of Bithynia who renamed it for himself. An important chain in the ancient Silk Road, it became known as a wealthy town. Following the
population exchange in 1923, the Greek refugees from Cius established the village of Nea Kios, in Argolis, Greece. There are only few remnants
of the ancient town and its harbour today. Somewhat more to the west, the new modern town of Gemlik, Bursa Province, Turkey can be found.
Princess of Cius
Orodaltis (Greek: Ωροδάλτις) was a princess of Cius (Prusias ad Mare), ancient Greek city in Anatolia reigned in the 1st century BC. Orodaltis is a
name of Iranian origin. She was of Persian and Greek ancestry. Orodaltis was the daughter of Lycomedes of Comana a nobleman from Bithynia
who was of Cappadocian Greek descent, who was the priest of the goddess Bellona and priest-ruler of the temple-state of Comana, Cappadocia
who ruled as priest-ruler from 47 BC until after 30 BC and his wife Orsabaris. The mother of Orodaltis, Orsabaris was a princess from the
Kingdom of Pontus, who was the youngest daughter born to King Mithridates VI of Pontus from an unnamed woman from the concubine of
Mithridates VI. Coins minted after 72 BC have been found at the Bithynian city of Prusias ad Mare, which inscribes the names of Orodaltis and
Orsabaris. The city of Prusias ad Mare was the city that the Pontian paternal ancestors of Orsabaris originated from. An example of coinage that
survives, that bears the name of Orodaltis is on one coin, on the obverse side inscribes in Greek: ΩΡΟΔΑΛΤΙΔΟΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΛΥΚΟΜΗΔΟΥΣ
ΘΥΓΑΤΡΟΣ, whichmeans of Orodaltis, daughter of King Lycomedes, showing the head of Orodaltis. On the reverse side of the coin, is inscribed
in Greek: ΠΡΟΥΣΙΕΩΝ ΠΡΟΣ ΘΑΛΑΣΣΗ. Orodaltis may have ruled the city of Prusias ad Mare. The portraits on her surviving coinage shows,
Orodaltis would still have been young in 22 BC and it is unlikely that she would have died before this date. Oradaltis may have been dethroned
by Augustus at an unknown date during his administrative reforms of Anatolia. The Romans had approved the status of Orodaltis and her
family, as they ruled over Comana and possibly Prusias ad Mare for a substantial period. Orodaltis and her mother could be viewed as potential
successors of Mithridates VI on the Pontian throne, however the Kingdom of Pontus at the time became a Roman Client State who was ruled by
her maternal uncle Pharnaces II of Pontus; the sons of Pharnaces II and eventually by Polemon I of Pontus.
Sulayhid Dynasty
The Sulayhid dynasty (‫نو‬ ‫ب‬ ‫يح‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ص‬ , Banū Ṣulaiḥ) was an Ismaili Shia dynasty established in 1047 by Ali ibn Muhammad al-Sulayhi that ruled
most of historical Yemen at its peak. The dynasty ended in 1138. The Sulayhid regime was affiliated to the Cairo-based Fatimid Caliphate and
was a constant enemy of the Zaidi Shia rulers of Yemen throughout its existence. The first Fatimid missionaries already appeared in Yemen in
881. Their creed was subsequently disseminated among the mounatain tribes in the early 10th century. During this period the Fatimid

commander al-Fadl managed to conquer San'a and the central highlands in 905. Nevertheless, this regime was beaten by the indigenous Yufirid
dynasty in 916. After this al-Fadl was murdered. In spite of this setback the mission of the Fatimids continued. The Fatimid da'i (leader) in
Yemen, Sulayman az-Zawahi, befriended a young man from the mountainous region Haraz to the south-west of San'a, Ali bin Muhammad as-
Sulayhi (died 1067 or possibly 1081). Ali was the son of a respected Sunni chief but nevertheless susceptible to the doctrines and decrees of the
Fatimids. In 1046, Ali was eventually converted to the Ismaili creed and was appointed khalifa within the da'wa (dissemination of the creed). In
1047 he gathered an armed force in Haraz and thus founded the Sulayhid dynasty (1047-1138). In the following years his regime managed to
subdue all of Yemen. The ruler of the Najahids in the Tihama lowland was poisoned in 1060 and his capital Zabid was taken by the Sulayhids.
The first Sulayhid ruler conquered the whole of Yemen in 1062, and proceeded northwards to occupy the Hejaz.[4] For a time, the Sulayhids
appointed the Emirs of Mecca.[4] Ali also controlled San'a since 1063, after bringing fighting against the Zaidiyyah to a successful conclusion.
San'a was made the capital of his kingdom. The Ma'nids of Aden were defeated in 1062 and forced to pay tribute. Ali as-Sulayhi appointed
governors in Tihama, al-Janad (close to Ta'izz) and at-Ta'kar (close to Ibb). Ali as-Sulayhi was eventually assassinated at the hands of relatives of
the Najahids whom he had previously defeated; the date is variously given as 1067 or 1081. He was succeeded on the throne by his son al-
Mukarram Ahmad. The beginning of his rule is not satisfactory documented, but the area controlled by the Sulayhids was severely diminished,
possibly to the San'a area. After some years, al-Mukarram Ahmad was able to rescue his mother Asma bint Shihab who had been captured by the
Najahids, and the Sulayhid armies regained much territory. He could certainly not prevent the Najahids from keeping outside his power in the
Tihama, but the Sulayhids nevertheless remained the most powerful regime in Yemen. In Aden the Zurayids, another Ismaili dynasty, came to
power in 1083, at first as Sulayhid tributaries. The reign of al-Mukarram Ahmad ended in 1086 when he turned over governance to his wife
Arwa. He may nevertheless have exerted some influence from behind during the next few years. He died in the fortress of Ashyah in 1091. Arwa
bint Ahmad (r. 1086-1138) had borne al-Mukarram Ahmad four children, but none of these took an active part in politics. The new queen was
recognized by the Fatimids of Egypt as the suzerain over the various Yemeni kings. She established her capital in Jibla rather than San'a in about
1087. Queen Arwa was known as an outstanding ruler, indeed one of the most renowned ruling queens of the Islamic world. She governed with
the help of a succession of strong henchmen. The first was Saba' bin Ahmad, a distant cousin of the Sulayhids who formally married queen
Arwa. The marriage, however, was probably not consummated. He fought vigorously against the Najahids in the lowland and died in 1098. After
his demise San'a was lost to the Sulayhids. The second was al-Mufaddal bin Abi'l-Barakat (died 1111) who governed from at-Ta'kar, a massive
mountain fortress south of the capital Jibla, and was likewise active in the field against the Najahids. The third was Ibn Najib ad-Dawla who
arrived in Yemen in 1119 from Egypt, being dispatched by the Fatimid caliph there. He managed to pacify much of southern Yemen and push
back the Najahids. As he saw the queen too old to rule over the territories, Ibn Najib attempted a coup in 1125. However, he was worsted and
sent back against Egypt in a wooden cage, and died on the way. The last years of queen Arwa's reign are ill documented. With her death in 1138
there was no-one left of the dynasty, and the Sulayhid era came to an end.
List of Rulers of Sulayhid dynasty in Yemen
Ali bin Muhammad Ali al-Sulayhi(died 1066) was the founder and sultan of the Sulayhid dynasty in Yemen from 1047 until his death
in 1066. He established his kingdom in 1047 and by 1063, the Sulayhids controlled had unified the entire country of Yemen as well as the
Muslim holy city of Mecca under his leadership. Al-Sulayhi was killed in 1066 during a tribal vendetta between the Sulayhids and the Najahids
of Zabid. He was succeeded by his son, Ahmad al-Mukarram. Al-Sulayhi was born and raised in the village of Jabal near Manakhah. He was the
son of Muhammad bin Ali al-Sulayhi, the chief qadi ("judge") of Jabal Haraz. His father was a leading Sunni Muslim and educated al-Sulayhi on
the Shafi'i madhab ("school of law.") Nonetheless, al-Sulayhi converted to Ismailism, a branch of Shia Islam, after coming under the influence of
the da'i ("missionary") Amir al-Zawahi. Zawahi had kept his Ismaili faith private and was well-regarded by al-Sulayhi's father who employed him
to teach his son. However, al-Zawahi, who also served as the Chief Da'i of the Ismailis, secretly taught al-Sulayhi the system of canon law used by
the Fatimid Caliphate and the allegorical interpretation of the Qur'an employed by the Ismailis known as tawil. Al-Sulayhi succeeded al-Zawahi
as Chief Da'i of Yemen after the latter's death. He married his cousin Asma bint Shihab in the 1030s. She who would later assist him during his
reign over the region. Al-Sulayhi kept his religion and his post as Chief Da'i of the Ismailis relatively secret. Starting in 1032, he served as amir
al-hajj, leading and protecting the annual hajj ("pilgrimage") caravan to Mecca through Yemen and Asir's rough terrain. He continued in this
capacity for 15 years, lecturing groups of pilgrims, including regional Muslim leaders of various ranks, on Ismaili thought on behalf of the
Fatimid caliphs. The position, which was a prestigious one among Muslims, also provided al-Sulayhi with a steady and high income. Following
his marriage to Asma, he moved to Jabal Masur with 60 loyal members of his clan, al-Yam, part of the Hamdani tribe. tribe. After being
temporarily besieged by local horsemen, he proceeded to build a large fort at the mountaintop and amassed a huge force of fighters from his
tribe and their allies. Raising the banner of his newly founded Sulayhid dynasty at Jabal Masur, he initiated his revolt against the Zaydi rulers of
Jabal Haraz in 1047. Consequently, a Zaydi army of 30,000 besieged al-Sulayhi's fortress, but were unsuccessful in breaching it. While the Zaydi
army was still positioned at the base of Jabal Masur, al-Sulayhi led a counterattack, killing the opposing generals, dispersing the remaining Zaydi
fighters and thereby securing his control over both Masur and Haraz. Establishing his capital at Sana'a and maintaining his fortress in Masur, al-
Sulayhi entered into a prolonged conflict with the Najahids, an Ethiopian ex-slave dynasty based in Zabid. Historian Ibn Khalikan states al-
Sulayhi sent a female slave to the Najahid leader Abu Said Najah as a peace offering with the real intent of killing him. In 1060 Najah was
poisoned by the slave and died. Al-Sulayhi's forces attacked and captured Zabid and the Tihamah later in 1062. After successfully demanding
religious legitimacy from the Fatimid caliph al-Mustansir in 1062, al-Sulayhi shifted Yemen's loyalty to the Cairo-based Ismaili Fatimid
Caliphate from the Baghdad-based Sunni Abbasid Caliphate. Thereafter, the Sulayhids served as a vassal for the Fatimids and the names of al-
Mustansir, al-Sulayhi and Asma were pronounced in mosques during the khutbah in Friday prayers. With full-fledged support from the
Hamdani and Himyar tribes, al-Sulayhi gradually conquered the rest of Yemen, including Aden, by 1063. Muslim historian Ibn al-Athir stated
that once al-Sulayhi obtained Fatimid legitimacy he "embarked on the conquest of the country and toppled the fortresses one after the other with
incredible speed." In Aden he had his daughter-in-law Arwa al-Sulayhi collect the annual revenue of 100,000gold dinars as her dowry. Because of
his Shia religion and his descent from the Hamdani tribe which was linked to the era of Sheba he was able to impose his rule over Yemen with
popularity and thus relative ease. The only Yemeni principality to challenge his rule throughout his reign was Zabid, still highly influenced by
the Najahids. In late 1063 al-Sulayhi led his forces into the Hejaz and challenged the Abbasids by conquering Mecca by 1064 and installing a
client king there. Regarding al-Sulayhi's conquest of Mecca, Ibn al-Athir stated, "He put an end to injustice, reorganized the supply system, and
increased the acts of beneficence." Al-Sulayhi brought Mecca firmly into the orbit of Shia Islam and had the name of the Fatimid caliphs
pronounced in the khutba. In 1066 al-Sulayhi made the hajj pilgrimage to Mecca with a large caravan that included Asma and the entourage of
her court, all of the emirs of the Sulayhid principalities in Yemen, and 5,000 Ethiopian (Abyssinian) soldiers. Al-Sulayhi invited all of his emirs to
accompany him in the hajj in safety measure to prevent any revolts against Sulayhid rule while he was away from Yemen. In his absence, he
assigned his son Ahmad al-Mukarram to preside over the kingdom. According to Muslim historian Ibn Khaldun, the main reason al-Sulayhi
undertook the hajj was because of a command by al-Mustansir to restore Shia order in Mecca after its sharif Muhammad ibn Ja'far, who

belonged to the Banu Hashim, disavowed the Fatimid Caliphate. Al-Sulayhi's caravan was highly luxurious and news of its departing spread
throughout Yemen. Sa'id al-Ahwal, the leader of the Najahids and son of their slain former leader, Najah, had prior knowledge of the caravan's
planned route and devised an attack on al-Sulaysi to avenge Najah's death. On its way to Mecca, the caravan was assaulted by al-Ahwal's force
and al-Sulayhi was killed. Ibn Khaldun wrote that al-Sulayhi was notified by his brother-in-law As'ad ibn Shihab al-Sulayhi who ruled Zabid that
al-Ahwal and his brother Jayyash ibn Najaj had emerged from their hiding and planned to attack the caravan. In response, al-Sulayhi dispatched
a force of 5,000 Ethiopian horsemen to protect the caravan and kill the Najahid brothers if they were confronted on the route to Mecca. Jayyash
and al-Ahwal successfully evaded notice while pursuing al-Sulayhi and together with a handful of their partisans attacked the caravan while it
was encamped outside al-Mahjam. His Ethiopian troops refused to aid him and many of them defected. Afterward, al-Sulayhi, his brother
Abdullah al-Sulayhi and 170 males from the Sulayhid family were executed by decapitation. Jayyash was believed to have been responsible for
al-Sulayhi's death. Asma and 35 Qahtani princes who ruled Yemen on behalf of al-Sulayhi were captured and stripped of their principalities.
According to Ibn Khalikan, al-Sulayhi and his men were camping outside the farm of al-Dulaim in the Hejaz when al-Ahwal and a handful of his
partisans clandestinely entered the camp. Al-Sulayhi's guards mistook them for soldiers, but his brother Abdullah realized they were Najahid
men and proclaimed, "To horse! For by Allah here is al-Ahwal and his men of whose coming we were warned yesterday by the letter which As'ad
ibn Shihab wrote us from Zabid!" Al-Sulayhi was "seized with terror" and remained in his spot before al-Ahwal killed him. The Najahids
proceeded to kill Abdullah and most of al-Sulayhi's family that was present before taking control of the caravan's mostly Ethiopian army.
Yemen's inhabitants were angered and largely saddened by al-Sulayhi's slaughter. Following the latter's death and the execution or
imprisonment of his family members and emirs, al-Ahwal enlisted al-Sulayhi's Ethiopian army and with them marched back toward Zabid and
successfully wrested control of the former Najahid city. Ibn Shihab escaped to San'a and the severed heads of both al-Sulayhi and Abdullah were
affixed to poles outside of Asma's new dwelling in Zabid. Al-Mukarram, who had succeeded al-Sulayhi as sultan, was in a state of disarray until
his mother Asma had a letter secretly delivered to him chastising him for his weakness and inciting him to free her. The letter allegedly stated
Asma had been impregnated by al-Ahwal and continued, "Come therefore unto me before disgrace light upon me and the whole Arab nation."
Asma had deemed bearing al-Ahwal's child to be a shameful act. In 1082, al-Mukkaram led a Sulayhid force against Zabid, quickly capturing the
city and Asma, forcing al-Ahwal to flee to the Island of Dahlak and reinstating Ibn Shihab as governor. Al-Sulayhi's head was recovered and then
buried.
Ahmad al-Mukarram (died 1091) was the sultan of the Sulayhid dynasty in Yemen from 1067 until 1086. Ali as-Sulayhi was eventually
assassinated at the hands of relatives of the Najahids whom he had previously defeated; the date is variously given as 1067 or 1081. He was
succeeded on the throne by his son al-Mukarram Ahmad. Following the death of Sayyidna Ali al-Sulayhi in 1067, Sayyada Arwa's husband
Ahmad became the de jure ruler of Yemen, but he was unable to rule being paralyzed and bedridden. He gave all of his power to his wife Arwa,
and she had her name mentioned in the khutba directly after the name of the Fatamid Caliph, Ma'ad al-Mustansir bi'l-Lāh, signifying her
authority to rule. The beginning of his rule is not satisfactory documented, but the area controlled by the Sulayhids was severely diminished,
possibly to the San'a area. After some years, al-Mukarram Ahmad was able to rescue his mother Asma bint Shihab who had been captured by the
Najahids, and the Sulayhid armies regained much territory. He could certainly not prevent the Najahids from keeping outside his power in the
Tihama, but the Sulayhids nevertheless remained the most powerful regime in Yemen. In Aden the Zurayids, another Ismaili dynasty, came to
power in 1083, at first as Sulayhid tributaries. The reign of al-Mukarram Ahmad ended in 1086 when he turned over governance to his wife
Arwa. He may nevertheless have exerted some influence from behind during the next few years. He died in the fortress of Ashyah in 1091.
Arwa al-Sulayhi (Arabic: ‫أروى‬ ‫نت‬ ‫ب‬ ‫أحسد‬ ‫ن‬ ‫ب‬ ‫سحسد‬ ‫ن‬ ‫ب‬ ‫فر‬ ‫ا‬‫ج‬ ‫ن‬ ‫ب‬ ‫مى‬ ‫سو‬ ‫يحي‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ص‬ ‫يد‬ ‫ية‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ي‬ ‫مسعع‬ ‫يي‬ ʾArwà bint ʾAḥmad bin
Muḥammad bin Jaʿafar bin Mūsà al-Ṣulayḥī al-ʾIsmāʿīliyyä, (also detailed in more authentic books as :ʾArwà bint ʾAḥmad
bin Muḥammad bin Qaasim bin Mūsà al-Ṣulayḥī al-ʾIsmāʿīliyyä') c. 1048 - 1138, death: 22nd Shabaan, 532 AH) was the
long-reigning ruler of Yemen, firstly through her first two husbands and then as sole ruler, from 1067 until her death in
1138. She was the greatest of the rulers of the Sulayhid Dynasty and was also the first woman to be accorded the
prestigious title of hujja in Ismāʿīlī branch of Shi'a Islam, signifying her as the closest living image of God's will in her
lifetime. She is popularly referred to as Sayyida Hurra (‫يدة‬ ‫م‬ ‫يد‬ ‫حرة‬ ‫يد‬ al-Sayyidä al-Ḥurrä, 'the Noble Lady'), al-Malika al-
Hurra (‫كة‬ ‫ل‬ ‫س‬ ‫يد‬ ‫حرة‬ ‫يد‬ al-Ḥurrätu 'l-Malikä, 'the Noble Queen') and the Little Queen of Sheba (‫كة‬ ‫ل‬ ‫س‬ ‫بأ‬ ‫م‬ ‫يرة‬ ‫غ‬‫ص‬ ‫يد‬ Malikät Sabāʾ
al-sagera). Arwa was born in 440 Hijri, 1048 in Haraz, which was the heartland of Ismāʿīlīsm in Yemen. She was the niece
of the then ruler of Yemen, Ali al-Sulayhi. Orphaned at a young age, she was brought up in the palace at Sana'a under the tutorship of her aunt,
the formidable Queen Asma binte Shihaab al-Sulayhiyya, her mother in Law, co-ruler with, and wife of, Sayyidna Ali bin Muhammad bin Ali bin
Muhammad As-Sulayhi. In 1066, at the age of 17, Arwa married her cousin Ahmad al-Mukarram al-Sulayhi bin Ali bin Muhammad As Sulaihi,
with the city of Aden as her mehr, and Queen Asma binte Shahaab became her mother-in-law. Arwa assisted her mother-in-law and her husband
after death of Sayyidna Ali al-Sulayhi. She had four children, their names being Mohammed, Ali, Fatema and Umm Hamdan. Arwa is said by
the chroniclers of her time to be brave, devout and have an independent character. She was also seen as highly intelligent and well learned,
having a great memory for poems, stories and historical events. She was very knowledgeable in the sciences of the Qur'an and the hadith. The
chroniclers also mention her as being extremely beautiful. Following the death of Sayyidna Ali al-Sulayhi in 1067, Sayyada Arwa's husband
Ahmad became the de jure ruler of Yemen, but he was unable to rule being paralyzed and bedridden. He gave all of his power to Arwa, and she
had her name mentioned in the khutba directly after the name of the Fatamid Caliph, Ma'ad al-Mustansir bi'l-Lāh, signifying her authority to
rule. One of her first actions was to move the capital from Sana'a to Jibla in order to be in a better position to destroy the Najahid ruler Sa'id ibn
Najar of Zabid and thus avenge her father-in-law's death. This she managed to do by luring him into a trap in 1088. She built a new palace at
Jibla, and transformed the old palace into a great mosque where she was eventually buried. After the death of Ahmad AlMukarram, Sayyada
Arwa was encouraged by Imām Al-Mustansir bi'l-Lāh to marry her late husband's cousin, Saba ibn Ahmad. This she did reluctantly in 1091 in
order to remain in power, but she probably did not allow the marriage to be consummated. She continued to rule Yemen until Saba died in 1101.
From that time on she ruled alone. Arwa was an Ismā‘īlī Shi’i and was well-versed in various religious sciences, Qur'an, hadith, as well as poetry
and history. Chroniclers describe her as being incredibly intelligent. She was given the highest rank in the Yemen da'wa, that of hujja, by Imām
Al-Mustansir bi'l-Lāh in 1084. This was the first time that a woman had ever been given such a status in the whole history of Islam. Under her
rule, Shi'a da'is were sent to western India. Owing to her patronage of missions, an Ismāʿīlī community was established in Gujarat in the second
half of the 11th century, which still survives there today as Dawoodi Bohra, Sulaymani and Alavi. In the 1094, Ismāʿīlī schism, Arwa supported
ʿAhmad al-Mustā‘līb’il-Lāh to be the rightful successor to Ma'ad al-Mustansir bi'l-Lāh. Due to the high opinion in which Arwa was held in Yemen
and western India these two areas followed her in regarding Imām al-Mustā‘līb’il-Lāh as the new Fatimid Caliph. Through her support of Imām
at-Tāyyīb she became head of a new grouping in Ismāʿīlī Shi'i Islam, which became known as the Taiyabi. Her enemies in Yemen in turn gave
their backing to al-Hafiz but they were unable to remove Sayyada Arwa from power. The Taiyabi believe that Ismāʿīlī Imām Al-Āmir
bi'Aḥkāmi’l-Lāh sent a letter to Arwa, commissioning her to appoint a vicegerent for his infant son Imām Taiyyab . In accordance with this wish,

she appointed Zoeb bin Musa as Da'i al-Mutlaq, the vicegerent of the secluded at-Tāyyīb Abū’l-Qāsim. The line of succession continues down to
today, Hafizi Ismāʿīlīsm, the following of al-Hafiz, intimately tied to the Fatimid regime in Cairo, disappeared soon after the collapse of the
Fatimid dynasty in 1171 and the Ayyubid invasion of southern Arabia in 1173. But the Taiyabi da'wa, initiated by Arwa, survived in Yemen with
its headquarters remaining in Haraz. Due to the close ties between Sulayhid Yemen and Gujarat, the Fatimid and Tayyibi cause was also upheld
in western India, which was gradually became home to largest population of Fatimid Taiyabi Ismāʿīlī believers, known there as Sulaimani and
Dawoodi Bohra. In Sana'a, Arwa had the grand mosque expanded, and the road from the city to Samarra improved. In Jibla, she had a new palace
and the eponymous mosque constructed. She is also known to have built numerous schools throughouther realm. Arwa improved the economy,
taking an interest in supporting agriculture. Arwa remained in power until her death in 1138. She was buried beside the mosque that she had
had built at Jibla. Her tomb later became a place of pilgrimage. The Queen Arwa University in Sana'a is named after her.
Najahid Dynasty
Najahid dynasty (Arabic: ‫نس‬ ‫ب‬ ‫;حاُن‬ Banū Najāḥ) was a slave dynasty of Abyssinian origin founded in Zabid in the Tihama (lowlands) region of
Yemen around 1050. They faced hostilities from the Highlands dynasties of the time, chiefly the Sulayhids. Their last sovereign was killed by the
Mahdids in 1158.
List of Rulers of the Najahid Dynasty of Yemen
al-Mu'ayyad Najah (died 1060) was a ruler of the Najahid Dynasty of Yemen from 1050 until his death in 1060. The last Ziyadid king died in
1018, leaving a child behind. The guardianship of the child was assumed by an Abyssinian eunuch named al-Hussien ibn Salama. Al-Hussein ibn
Salamah saved the Ziyadid Dynasty from total collapse after a devastating attack led by a highland emir named Abdullah ibn Qahtan in 989. Ibn
Salama recovered the original limits of the Ziyadid kingdom from Haly (present day Saudi Arabia) to Aden, He exercised the office of vizier and
had two Abyssinian slaves whom he had appointed them to administration of affairs. One bore the name of Nafis and the other was named
Najah, founder of what became to be known as the Najahid Dynasty. Nafis killed the child king of the Ziyadid dynasty. The murdered king was
the last of his race. With him the Arab dynasty of Banu Ziyad came to an end in Tihama, and their power passed into the hands of their
slaves.Najah, on hearing of the treatment his master had undergone at the hands of Nafis, marched toward Zabid and killed Nafis by immuring
him in a wall in 1050. He adopted the use of royal umbrella and struck the coinage in his name. Najah lost Aden to the Banu Ma'an Dynasty,
only Zabid remained under his possession. Being of an Abyssinian slave origin, Najah was not recognized as a sovereign by the tribal elements in
the Yemeni highlands. He belonged to an ancient Abyssinian tribe called "Jazal". A decade later, Ali al-Sulayhi founded an Ismaili Shia dynasty
in the highlands. He marched toward Zabid and killed Najah, forcing his sons to flee to Dahlak in 1060. Najah had four sons, two of them
committed suicide while in Dahlak.
Sa'id al-Ahwal (died 1088) was a ruler of the Najahid Dynasty of Yemen from 1081 until his death in 1088. Al-Sulayhi returned to Sana'a after
conquering Zabid. Ali al-Sulayhi headed a pilgrimage caravan to Mecca in 1066 but was ambushed by Said al-Ahwal, one of Najah's sons who
previously fled Zabid. Said al-Ahwal and his men were mistaken for servants by the Sulayhids. Ali al-Sulayhi was killed and al-Ahwal imprisoned
his wife Asma bint Shihab. Asma bint Shihab wrote to her son Ahmed al-Mukarram from Zabid: I am great with child by the squint-eye slave
(Said al-Ahwal). See that thou come unto me before my delivery. If not, everlasting disgrace will ensue. Al-Mukarram assembled an army of
3,000 horsemen from his own tribe and marhced toward Zabid to free his mother from captivity. The Najahid slave army was defeated and
immense numbers were slain. Said al-Ahwal fled the battle field again to Dahlak. Ahmed al-Mukaram found out later that his mother was not
pregnant, she thought to excite and stimulate her son to vindication of his honor. Ahmed al-Mukarram appointed his uncle As'ad ibn Shihab to
govern Zabid and its dependencies in Tihama and returned to Sana'a. In 1087, Said al-Ahwal returned to Zabid but was killed that same year by
Ahmed al-Mukkaram. Jayyash, another son of Najah, fled to India.
Abu't-Tami Jayyash was a ruler of the Najahid Dynasty of Yemen from 1089 until 1104. Jayyash, another son of Najah, fled to India.
Jayyash returned to Zabid in 1089 disguised as an Indian. Being a Sunni, he enjoyed the support of Zabid population and easily gained power in
the city. A dispute between two Sulayhids officials in Zabid played into his hands, Jayyash overheard one of them tell the other: By Allah, if I
could find a Najahid dog, of certainty, I would make him Emir of Zabid. Jayyash did not kill the Sulayhid governor of Zabid, but sent him with
his family to Sana'a. Jayyash continued to rule securely with no hardship from the Highalnds until his demise in 1104. He was succeeded by his
son al-Fatik, who however was opposed by his brothers Ibrahim and Abdulwahed. al-Fatik died in 1106 and his successor Mansur was installed as
a vassal of the Sulayhids in Zabid.
al-Fatiq I (died 1106) was a ruler of the Najahid Dynasty of Yemen from 1104 until 1106. He was opposed by his brothers Ibrahim and
Abdulwahed. al-Fatiq I died in 1106
al-Mansur (died 1130) was a ruler of the Najahid Dynasty of Yemen from 1106 until 1130. al-Mansur was installed as a vassal of the Sulayhids
in Zabid. In 1130, al-Mansur died peacefully and his son al-Fatik II succeeded him.
al-Fatiq II (died 1133) was a ruler of the Najahid Dynasty of Yemen from 1130 until his death in 1133. In 1130, his father al-Mansur died
peacefully and al-Fatik II succeeded him. He died after 3 years. With him the dynasty came to an end.
al-Fatiq III was a ruler of the Najahid Dynasty of Yemen from 1133 until 1158. A vizier named Anis al-Fatiki, held power and struck coinage
in his name in Zabid while keeping al-Fatik III as a figurehead.
Toda Aznárez, also Teuda de Larraun or Tota (c. 885–aft. 970), was the queen-consort of Pamplona through her
marriage to Sancho I, who reigned 905–925, and was regent of Pamplona from 931 until 934. Later in life, she ruled a

subkingdom created for her. She was the daughter of Aznar Sánchez, lord of Larraun, paternal grandson of king García Íñiguez of Pamplona,
while her mother Onneca Fortúnez was a daughter of king Fortún Garcés. Thus, Toda's children were also descendants of the Arista dynasty of
Navarrese monarchs. She was sister of Sancha Aznárez, wife of king Jimeno Garcés, her husband's brother and successor, while Toda and Sancha
were also aunts of Caliph Abd-ar-Rahman III, through their mother's first marriage to ‘Abdullah ibn Muhammad. With the death of her brother-
in-law Jimeno in 931, she became regent and guardian for her young son, García Sánchez I. In 934 Toda signed a treaty pledging allegiance to
her nephew Abd-ar-Rahman III, and released hostages of the Banu Di n-Nun clan, the caliph confirming the rule of her son García (this has
sometimes been interpreted as an act of the Caliph to liberate García from his mother's direct control). This led to the rebellion in Falces by a
count Fortún Garcés, an "irascible man who hated Muslims", the uprising being suppressed with Cordoban arms. Toda violated her treaty in 937,
forcing a punitive campaign. During several stretches she appears in the royal charters of the kingdom to the exclusion of her daughter-in-law,
the queen, from 947 to 955, and again in 959. In 958 she was ruling her own subkingdom, in the area of Degio and Lizarra, towns not otherwise
identified. The same year, she took an interest in the health of her Leonese grandson Sancho I, whose obesity was largely responsible for his
dethronement. Toda requested the assistance of Abd-ar-Rahman III, the Caliphate of Córdoba being renowned for its physicians. The caliph sent
her his Jewish physician Hasdai ibn Shaprut, who promised to cure Sancho on condition that Toda visit the city of Córdoba. Therefore, Toda, her
son García Sánchez I of Pamplona and grandson Sancho I of León, nobles and clergymen arrived in Córdoba, where they were received with full
honors and amid much pomp. The arrival of this Christian queen in the capital of an Islamic caliphate enhanced Abd-ar-Rahman III's prestige
among his subjects, and is considered a landmark in the history of medieval diplomacy. Sancho's medical treatment was successful, and he was
"relieved from his excessive corpulence." She had been an energetic diplomat, arranging political marriages for her daughters among the
competing royalty and nobility of Christian Iberia. The Codex of Roda gives Sancho and Toda six children: Oneca, married Alfonso IV of León
in 926, Sancha, married Ordoño II of León, Count Alvaro Herraméliz of Álava, and Fernán González, Count of Castile, Urraca, married Ramiro
II of León, Velasquita (or Belasquita), married firstly Munio, count of Vizcaya, secondly Galindo, son of Bernard count of Ribagorza, and thirdly
Fortún Galíndez, duke of Nájera, Orbita and García, king of Pamplona.
Ingeborg of Norway (DuchessIngeborg, Old Norse Ingibjörg Hákonardóttir, Swedish Ingeborg Håkansdotter; 1301 -
June 17, 1361), was a Norwegian and by marriage Swedish princess and royal duchess with a position in the regency
governments in Norway from 1319 until 1327 and Sweden from 1319 until 1326. In 1318-1319 she was Sweden's first de
facto female ruler and her position subsequently equalled that of an undeclared queen mother for over 40 years. In 1319-
1326, she was Sweden's first de jure female regent. Ingeborg was born as the only legitimate daughter of King Håkon V of
Norway from his marriage with Euphemia of Rügen. As a child, she was first betrothed to Magnus Birgerson, the son and
designated heir of King Birger I of Sweden. Soon afterwards the engagement was however broken for altered political
reasons, and in 1305 she was betrothed to Eric, Duke of Södermanland, a younger brother of king Birger of Sweden, thus
uncle of her first betrothed. In 1312, Ingeborg and Eric were formally married in a double wedding in Oslo; at the same
time, her cousin Ingeborg Eriksdottir of Norway, married Eric's brother duke Valdemar Magnusson. At her wedding, her mother queen
Euphemia had published the recently translated (by her command) famous poems, the Euphemia songs. The couple had two children before
Duke Eric was murdered. Upon the imprisonment of her spouse and her brother-in-law, she and her cousin and sister-in-law, Ingeborg
Eriksdottir, became the leaders of their spouses' followers. On April 16, 1318, the two duchesses Ingeborg made a treaty in Kalmar with the
Danish duke Christoffer of Halland-Samsö and archbishop Esgar of Lund to free their husbands and not to make peace with the kings of Sweden
and Denmark before they agreed to this, and the two duchesses promised to honor the promises they gave in return in the names of their
husbands. Later the same year, their husbands were confirmed to have died. Her son Magnus VII of Norway, at the age of 3, was proclaimed
king of Norway upon her father's death, in rights devolved from her. Ingeborg was recognized as formal regent of her son in Norway. Soon, the
Swedish nobility elected young Magnus king of Sweden after deposing Birger, and Ingeborg was made nominal regent of Sweden and given a
seat and vote in the Swedish government and the title: Ingeborg, by the Grace of God, daughter of Haakon, Duchess in the Kingdom of Sweden.
Duchess Ingeborg held her own court at her residence in Varberg. The exact position of Ingeborg in the regency council is hard to define
properly due to the documentation. Mats Kettilumndsson, her ally, presided over the Swedish regency council "alongside" the two "Duchesses
Ingeborg"; Ingeborg Håkansdotter and her cousin and sister-in-law Ingeborg Eriksdottir. Magnus, already King of Norway, was elected King of
Sweden with the approval of the Norwegian council in her presence. Ingeborg was the only one with a seat in both the Swedish and the
Norwegian minor regency and council of state. She was the independent reigning duchess of her own fiefs, which were autonomous under her
rule, and a large number of castles which controlled big areas thanks to their strategic positions. She was criticized for her way of conducting her
own politics without the counsel of the Swedish and Norwegian councils, and for using the royal seal of her son for her own wishes. On October
1, 1320, she liberated Riga from its debts in her name on behalf of her son. She was known to make large donations to her supporters. Canute
Porse had been one of the supporters of her spouse and was appointed governor of Varberg. Ingeborg surrounded herself with young foreign
men, thought to affect her politics, of which Canute was the most known. April 12, 1321, the Swedish council, after receiving complaints from
the Norwegian council regarding a rumour of crimes and disturbances in Ingeborg's lands made by foreigners, told the Norwegian council to
advise Ingeborg to listen more to the advice of the old experienced men in the councils rather than to young unexperienced foreign men; a law
was created which banned foreigners in the Swedish council. Ingeborg and Canute had the ambition to make the then Danish Scania a part of
her possessions. In 1321, Ingeborg arranged a marriage with her daughter Euphemia and Albert II, Duke of Mecklenburg. The marriage was
arranged with the terms that Mecklenburg, Saxony, Holstein, Rendsburg and Schleswig would assist Ingeborg in the conquest of Scania. This
was approved by the council of Norway but not Sweden. To finance the invasion, Ingeborg took a loan from Stralsund with free trade in Sweden
and Norway as security. When Ingeborg's forces under command of Canute invaded Scania in 1322-23, Mecklenburg betrayed her to Denmark
and the alliance was broken. In 1322, open conflict broke out between Ingeborg and the Swedish regency council; the council of state made an
agreement that no order from Ingeborg should hereby be accepted without the approval from the entire council, and all agreements made with
her by individual councillors was hereby annulled. In 1323, Ingeborg was forced to accept the terms and give up several of her strategical castles
and fiefs. On February 20, 1323, also the Norwegian regency council rebelled against Ingeborg. She was accused of misusing the royal seal, to
have broken the peace with Denmark and for greater costs, and was replaced as head of the regency. After 1323, Ingeborgs power was limited to
what was approved by votes in the councils, which in practice had deposed her. On February 14, 1326, in exchange for having her debts paid,
Ingeborg gave up several fiefs and was forced to send Canute into exile and was stripped from all political authority in the Swedish regency
council. In the Norwegian regency council, however, her signature was still needed in the peace treaty between Norway and Sönderjylland on
June 14, 1327. Ingeborg married her lover Canute Porse (died 1330), a noble from less than royal circles, in 1327. While Canute was allowed to
become Duke of Halland and holder of Ingeborg's inherited estates, her marriage was another reason why Swedes, and also increasingly
Norwegians, did not allow Ingeborg to use her governmental power in these kingdoms. The year of her marriage, Ingeborg was stripped from
her power also in the Norwegian regency council. Her husband was made Duke of Estonia in 1329. In 1330, she became a widow. Her younger

sons became dukes of Halland. Her eldest son became an adult in 1332, and the same year, Ingeborg secured the (temporary) Swedish
superiority over Scania. After the death of her second husband, Ingeborg again took an important position in the life of her son the king, but it is
not known how much influence she had on him. In 1336, Ingeborg welcomed her daughter Euphemia and her son-in-law Albert of
Mecklenburg, Rudolph of Saxony and Henry of Holstein with her own fleet to the coronation of her son and daughter-in-law in Stockholm. In
1341, Ingeborg and the counts Henry and Claus of Holstein went to war against Valdemar of Schleswig, John of Holstein and the Hanseatic
league in Denmark. Not much is known of this conflict, but king Magnus sealed the peace by telling Valdemar to keep the promise he had made
to Ingeborg in the peace treathy. In 1350, she inherited the title and position of Duke of Halland from her younger son. The controversy around
Ingeborg's second marriage and the potential succession of her son Haakon to the Norwegian throne are an important part of the plot of the
novel Kristin Lavransdatter by Sigrid Undset. From the first marriage with Eric of Sweden, Duke of Södermanland she had two children: Magnus
VII of Norway (1316–74) amd Euphemia of Sweden, duchess of Mecklenburg (1317-c 1370). From second marriage with Canute Porse, Duke of
Halland and Estonia she had three children: Haakon, Duke of Halland (died 1350), Canute, Duke of Halland (died 1350) and Birgitta, married
Jon Hafthorsson and had issue
Brigantes
The Brigantes were a Celtic tribe who in pre-Roman times controlled the largest section of what would become Northern England, a significant
part of the Midlands. Their kingdom is sometimes called Brigantia, and it was centred in what was later known as Yorkshire. The Greek
geographer Ptolemy named the Brigantes as a tribe in Ireland also, where they could be found around Wexford, Kilkenny and Waterford while
another probably Celtic tribe named Brigantii is mentioned by Strabo as a sub-tribe of the Vindelici in the region of the Alps. Within Great
Britain, the territory which the Brigantes inhabited was bordered by that of four other Celtic tribes: the Carvetii (to whom they may have been
related) in the North-West, the Parisii to the east and, to the south, the Corieltauvi and the Cornovii. To the North was the territory of the
Votadini, which straddled the present day border between England and Scotland.
List of Rulers of Brigantes
Cartimandua(or Cartismandua) was a queen of the Brigantes, a Celtic people living in what is now northern England reigned from c. AD 43
until c.AD 69. She came to power around the time of the Roman conquest of Britain, and formed a large tribal agglomeration that became loyal
to Rome. Our only knowledge of her is through the Roman historian Tacitus, though she appears to have been widely influential in early
Roman Britain. Her name may be a compound of the Common Celtic roots *carti- "chase, expel, send" and *mandu- "pony". Although
Cartimandua is first mentioned by Tacitus as in AD 51, her rule over the Brigantes may have already been established when the Roman emperor
Claudius began the organized conquest of Britain in AD 43: she may have been one of the eleven "kings" who Claudius' triumphal arch says
surrendered without a fight. If not, she may have come to power after a revolt of a faction of the Brigantes was defeated by Publius Ostorius
Scapula in AD 48. Of "illustrious birth" according to Tacitus, she probably inherited her power, as she appears to have ruled by right rather than
through marriage. She and her husband, Venutius, are described by Tacitus as loyal to Rome and "defended by our [Roman] arms". In AD 51 the
British resistance leader Caratacus sought sanctuary with Cartimandua after being defeated by Ostorius Scapula in Wales, but Cartimandua
handed him over to the Romans in chains. Having given Claudius the greatest exhibit of his triumph, Cartimandua was rewarded with great
wealth. She later divorced Venutius, replacing him with his armour-bearer, Vellocatus. In AD 57, although Cartimandua had seized his brother
and other relatives and held them hostage, Venutius made war against her and then against her Roman protectors. He built alliances outside the
Brigantes, and during the governorship of Aulus Didius Gallus (AD 52 - AD 57) he staged an invasion of the kingdom. The Romans had
anticipated this and sent some cohorts to defend their client queen. The fighting was inconclusive until Caesius Nasica arrived with a legion, the
IX Hispana, and defeated the rebels. Cartimandua retained the throne thanks to prompt military support from Roman forces. She was not so
fortunate in AD 69. Taking advantage of Roman instability during the year of four emperors, Venutius staged another revolt, again with help
from other nations. Cartimandua appealed for troops from the Romans, who were only able to send auxiliaries. Cartimandua was evacuated,
leaving Venutius in control of a kingdom at war with Rome. After this, Cartimandua disappears from the sources. Her life story is fictionalised
in Barbara Erskine's novel Daughters of Fire. In his Annals and the Histories, Tacitus presents Cartimandua in a negative light. Although he
refers to her loyalty to Rome, he invites the reader to judge her "treacherous" role in the capture of Caratacus, who had sought her protection;
her "self-indulgence" her sexual impropriety in rejecting her husband in favour of a common soldier; and her "cunning strategems" in taking
Venutius' relatives hostage. However, he also consistently names her as a queen (regina), the only one such known in early Roman Britain.
Boudica, the only other female British leader of the period, is not described in these terms.
Venutius was a 1st-century king of the Brigantes in northern Britain at the time of the Roman conquest. Some have suggested he may have
belonged to the Carvetii, a tribe that probably formed part of the Brigantes confederation. History first becomes aware of him as husband of
Cartimandua, queen of the Brigantes, in about 51 AD. After the British resistance leader Caratacus was defeated by Publius Ostorius Scapula in
Wales, he fled north to the Brigantes, only to be handed over to the Romans by Cartimandua. While the Brigantes were nominally an
independent kingdom, Tacitus says Cartimandua and Venutius were loyal to Rome and "defended by Roman power". However, after the capture
of Caratacus, Venutius became the most prominent leader of resistance to the Roman occupation. Cartimandua had apparently tired of him and
married his armour-bearer, Vellocatus, whom she elevated to the kingship in Venutius's place. Initially, Venutius sought only to overthrow his
ex-wife, only later turning his attention to her Roman protectors. The Romans defended their client queen and Venutius's revolt was defeated by
Caesius Nasica during the governorship of Aulus Didius Gallus (AD 52 - AD 57). Taking advantage of Roman instability during the year of four
emperors, Venutius revolted again, this time in AD 69. Cartimandua appealed for troops from the Romans, who were only able to send
auxiliaries. Cartimandua was evacuated and Venutius took the kingdom. This second revolt may have had wider repercussions: Tacitus says that
Vespasian, once emperor, had to "recover" Britain. He also says, introducing the events of the year of four emperors, that Britain was abandoned
having only just been subdued (although some think this is in reference to the consolidation of Agricola's later conquests in Scotland). What
happened to Venutius after the accession of Vespasian is not recorded. Quintus Petillius Cerialis (governor AD 71 to AD 74) campaigned against
the Brigantes, but they were not completely subdued for many decades: Agricola (governor AD 78 to AD 84) appears to have campaigned in
Brigantian territory, and both the Roman poet Juvenal and the Greek geographer Pausanias refer to warfare against the Brigantes in the first
half of the 1st century.

Vellocatus was a first-century king of the Brigantes tribe of northern Britain. He was originally armour-bearer to Venutius, husband of
Cartimandua, the queen of the Brigantes and an ally of Rome. Some time after AD 51 Cartimandua split with Venutius, divorcing him and
marrying Vellocatus and elevating him to kingship. Vellocatus appears to have been a member of the servant class, rather than a noble.
According to Roman historian Tacitus "the royal house was immediately shaken by this disgraceful act", as many aristocrats would not accept a
former servant as their king. The former king Venutius was able to gather followers, becoming an important figure in the resistance to Roman
occupation. Venutius staged two revolts against Cartimandua, first in the mid-50s, which was defeated by the Romans, and again in 69, this time
successfully. Cartimandua was rescued by the Romans as Venutius seized power. Vellocatus's fate is not recorded.
Rimatara
Rimatara is the westernmost inhabited island in the Austral Islands of French Polynesia. It has a total surface area of 8.6 km2 (3.3 sq mi) and a
population of 786 inhabitants (as of 2007 census). It is located 550 km (340 mi) south of Tahiti and 150 km (93 mi) west of Rurutu. The
commune of Rimatara includes the small and uninhabited Maria Islands. Rimatara is a circular volcanic plateau surrounded by a reef with a
height of 8 to 10 meters (26 to 32 feet). The highest point, at the peak of Mount Uhau, is 83 meters (272 feet). The main villages are Amaru (the
capital), Anapoto and Mutuaura. Rimatara was one of the last Polynesia islands to welcome European visitors. Captain Samuel Pinder Henry
discovered the island in 1821. Two missionaries arrived in 1822 and established a Protestant mission. France established a protectorate in 1889
and annexed Rimatara in 1900. The commune of Rimatara consists of the island of Rimatara, and the Maria Islets (Îlots Maria). Associated
communes are Amaru, Mutuaura and Anapoto.
List of Kings of Rimatara
Tamaeva III of Rimatara (died 1876) was the king of the Polynesian island of Rimatara who ruled in the second half 19th century until his
death in 1876.
Tamaeva IV (died 1892) was the reigning queen of the Polynesian island of Rimatara who ruled from 1876 until her death in 1892. French
sources refer to her as Temaeva, and one Australian newspaper called her Te Maere, while her tombstone in Rimatara gives her name as
Tamaeva. Her father was King Tamaeva III of Rimatara, an island kingdom which also controlled the neighboring coral atoll of Nororotu (or
Îles Maria), a claim it disputes with the neighboring kingdom of Rurutu. She was born during the period of westernization of the island and the
Christian conversion of the islanders to the Protestant faith. Sources differ on her actual age and her date of birth, although it is certain that
Tamaeva was only a teenager at the time of her death, which would place her birth in the early 1870s. Because of her youth and inexperience,
her aunt Heimataura served as regent. She had a close relationship with the neighboring island of Rurutu, which was also ruled by an adolescent
monarch, King Teuruarii IV. They would also share the same positions as the last independent rulers in the Austral Islands outside the sphere of
French colonial control. Hearing reports that the neighboring Cook Islands had been declared a protectorate of the British, a nation considered
more friendly than the French due to the islands' adherence to the Protestant faith, the queen decided to ally herself with Great Britain. On
November 27, 1888, the monarchs of both islands visited Rarotonga to ask for British protection against further French aggression. They sent a
formal petition to Queen Victoria seeking protectorate status for the two kingdoms. The request was ultimately refused. The efforts of the two
were in vain because the French responded immediately to what they presumed to be a threat to their interests in the Pacific. On March 29, 1889,
the French warship Dives landed on Rimatara with the colonial governor of French Oceania, Étienne Théodore Lacascade, on board, and he had
Rimatara and Îles Maria declared a French protectorate. The French version of the story was that the Queen and chiefs had personally petitioned
Governor Lacascade to take over the islands, but British sources believed the whole affair to be largely contrary to the desire of the majority of
the islanders. As a sign of the newly declared protectorate, the French tricolor was added to the canton of the kingdom's flag in 1891. In 1892,
French Protestant missionary Frédéric Vernier of the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society described Queen Tamaeva as "a girl of sixteen or
seventeen years". During his stay, he witnessed the restoration and reopening of the church in the capital, Amaru, which was celebrated with
much fanfare. She died on November 12, 1892 and was succeeded by her aunt who reigned as Tamaeva V. Her remains were interred in the
Royal Sepulchre at the Cemetery of Amaru, outside the settlement facing the sea; she was laid to rest beside other members of the Tamaeva
royal line.
Heimataura was the regent of the Polynesian island of Rimatara in late 1870s.
Tamaeva V was the reigning queen of the Polynesian of Rimatara who ruled from 1892 until 1901.
Rurutu
Rurutu is the northernmost island in the Austral archipelago of French Polynesia, and the name of a commune consisting solely of that island.
It is situated 572 km (355 mi) south of Tahiti. Geologically, Rurutu was initially formed 12 million years ago by the Macdonald hotspot, a
hotspot associated with the Macdonald seamount. Over the next 10 million years, erosion shrank the island until it was almost an atoll. Then,
just over a million years ago, Rurutu passed over the Arago hotspot, which lifted it roughly 150 meters (492 ft). Steep sea cliffs of ancient coral
lifted by the event — called makatea — now largely encircle the island. These are riddled with caves filled with concretions — indeed, Rurutu is
largely unique among islands in French Polynesia in that its historic inhabitants were cave-dwelling. Unique wooden statue of the god A'a found
on Rurutu in the early nineteenth century and now in the British Museum. Because it is endowed with a fringing reef, Rurutu has in recent years
become known for whale watching: Humpback whales come and reproduce here between July and October within easy sighting distance from
the beach. Although its tiny community still subsists primarily on fishing and basic agriculture, tourism has been a growing industry, especially

since François Mitterrand's visit in 1990. Whale watching season sees the bulk of tourists, but the largely untouched native culture, the white
sand beaches, and the lush tropical flora draw small numbers of tourists year-round.
List of Kings of Rurutu
Teuruarii III (died 1886) was the King of Rurutu, an island within the larger Austral Islands archipelago, who ruled in the second half 19th
century until 1886. He was abdicate by his son Teuruarii IV, born Epatiana a Teuruarii and journey back to his homeland of Huahine, where he
died shortly after arrival. The body of Teuruarii III was repatriated to Rurutu and interred in the royal cemetery.
Teuruarii IV, born Epatiana a Teuruarii (c. 1879 - 1933) was the last King of Rurutu, an island within the larger Austral Islands archipelago,
who ruled from around 1886 until the annexation of the island to France in 1900. Proclaimed king upon his father's abdication while still a child,
his mother ruled as regent. During this regency the Church of Moerari was consecrated and the death penalty was abolished. Teuruarii's reign
was disrupted by ongoing French expansionism in the Pacific. Teuruarii entreated the British to place Rurutu under a British protectorate, which
the islanders deemed more favorable due to their predominant adherence to Protestantantism. These efforts failed and Rurutu was proclaimed a
protectorate of the French Third Republic on March 27, 1889. Teuruarii was allowed to continue ruling as king until the annexation of the island
to the territory of French Oceania in 1900, today part of the overseas country of French Polynesia. Living out the remainder of his life as a
village chief, Teuruarii left many descendants who would have a strong influence in the islands to the modern day. King Teuruarii IV was born
Prince Epatiana in around 1879 on the island of Rurutu, in present-day French Polynesia, to King Teuruarii III and his second wife Taarouru a
Mootua. His family was originally from a chiefly line in Huahine rather than Rurutu, and it was only through the adoption of his father by King
Teuruarii I that his family was eligible to rule. The island of Rurutu was settled later than many of the surrounding islands and was historically
ruled as an unoccupied territory by the earliest kings of the archipelago. Including these early kings, the royal line of Epatiana stretched back
more than forty generations and included many of the founding chiefs of the Austral Islands kingdoms, as well as early kings of Rurutu after
the settlement of the island. Little is recorded of the prince's childhood, although it is known that Epatiana and his parents were visited by the
French writer and later governor of French Polynesia, Édouard Petit, in the early 1880s, when the young prince Epatiana was still nursing from
his mother. His full-siblings were Amaiterai, Tautiare, Mearoha and Tautiti. His older half-sister Tetuamarama, daughter of his father's first wife
Temataurarii a Tavita, was married into the royal family of Huahine and was the mother of that island's last queen, Tehaapapa III. Epatiana
succeeded his father as King of Rurutu around 1886, while still a young child. Due to historians' lack of consensus about his birth year, sources
differ on the actual age of Epatiana at the time. This early succession was a consequence of a decision taken in old age by Epatiana's father to
abdicate and journey back to his homeland of Huahine, where he died shortly after arrival. The body of Teuruarii III was repatriated to Rurutu
and interred in the royal cemetery. Because of Epatiana's youth and inexperience, his mother Taarouru served as regent for an indeterminate
number of years until the prince was deemed fit to rule independently. The young King Teuruarii's coronation was celebrated in the traditional
fashion. The ceremony included donning a feather headdress and the maro'ura, a sacred loincloth of red-tinted tapa cloth similar to the ones
worn by the chiefs in the Society Islands, before being carried on the backs of two natives. During the regency, he and his mother abolished the
Va'a Tai 'Aru, the law, enacted by his father, which had made crimes such as murder, treason and adultery punishable by death. Instead,
criminals were exiled to small island of Îles Maria. Teuruarii and his mother also presided over the opening of the Protestant church of Moerai.
The construction of the church had been begun by his father and the work was completed by a foreign carpenter named Quittaine Chapman. In
the late 19th-century, Rurutu shared a close relationship with the neighboring island of Rimatara, which was also ruled by an adolescent
monarch, in the person of Queen Tamaeva IV. The monarchs of both island kingdoms shared the same positions as being the last independent
rulers in the Austral Islands not under French colonial control. Teuruarii's reign coincided with continuing expansion of European authority in
the Pacific islands. By 1880, France had formally annexed the Kingdom of Tahiti and its dependencies in the Austral Islands, including Raivavae
and Tubuai, Rurutu's neighbors to the south. The following year, Rapa Iti and Marotiri, further south, were also annexed to France, such that
among the islands of the Austral archipelago, only Rurutu and Rimatara remained independent of French control. Teuruarii anticipated
eventual European interests in Rurutu, but viewed the United Kingdom as a friendlier state than France due to the island's adherence to
Protestantism. Upon hearing news that the neighboring Cook Islands had been declared a protectorate of the United Kingdom, the King decided
to ally himself with Great Britain. On November 27, 1888, Teuruarii and Tameava, along with their retinue of chiefs, visited the neighboring
island kingdom of Rarotonga aboard two ships named the Faaito and the Ronui, to ask for British protection against French aggression. They
sent a formal petition to Queen Victoria and the Prime Minister asking for protectorate status over the two kingdoms. The request was
ultimately refused. The petition read: November 27, 1888: Petition from the King of Rurutu and the Queen of Rimatara and their nobles to Her
Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, and to the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. May you have good health. We, Teuruarii, King of
Rurutu and Te Maere, Queen of Rimatara and our nobles, ask for the Prime Minister to place our islands and our ships under the protection of
the British flag. These are the islands, namely, Rurutu, Rimatara, and Marià, and there are the names of the ships: Faaito and Ronui, and the
masters of the same are natives. This is our word to you: Do not forsake us; we are your children; you taught us the word of God, and that has led
us in the path of civilisation; therefore we know that you are a good parent to us. The thoughts of the children cling fondly to their good parent;
they do not wish to be separated from their good parent. If the parent forsake the children, the children will seek the parent; so do we; we are
like those children, and we ask that you will give us your flag to protect us. We have heard that you have taken Rarotonga and the neighbouring
islands under your protection, but we remain without anyone to protect us. When we received the news that Rarotonga and the neighbouring
islands were placed under your protection, we wept aloud because we were forsaken by you; we were afraid lest we should be adopted by another
parent. The strange parent we mean is the French. They did not feed us with the milk of the gospel, but you did. O Great Britain; you fed us with
that milk which has given life to us. This is our last word to you; we do not wish for French annexation or protection, not at all, but we wish you
to be our parent, O Great Britain. We pray you now to accede to this our request. This letter was written in the house of Queen Pa. -TEURUARII,
TE MAERE ARII. The efforts of the two monarchs could not yield the desired result because the French, upon learning of their request,
responded promptly to what they perceived as a threat to their interests in the Pacific. On March 27, 1889, the French warship Dives landed on
Rurutu carrying the colonial governor of French Oceania, Étienne Lacascade. British and French sources provide differing accounts of
Teuruarii's response to Lacascade's arrival. According to the British, the King was initially reluctant to agree to a French protectorate but
ultimately decided to give his acquiescence. According to the French, however, King Teuruarii and his chiefs had personally petitioned
Governor Lacascade to take over the islands, largely contrary to the desire of the majority of the islanders. The French tricolor was added to the
canton of the Kingdom's flag to indicate its new status as a French protectorate. A 21-gun salute from the Dives, followed by the proclamation
"Vive la France! Vive Rurutu!", brought the island under French control. Under the French protectorate, the internal affairs of the Kingdom were
left to the King and chiefs including the judicial affairs of the island. Around 1895, Mormon Elder Frank Goff visited Rurutu, noting the political
situation at the time and giving a rather unflattering description of the young king: The island is ruled over by a king. His name is Epatiana. He
is a large, ignorant-looking boy of about 18 summers, and is one of the worst rowdies on the island, and there is no power to touch him. The first

time we met him he was just landing from an excursion trip to the island of Rimatara, near by. And you need not be told that I was surprised
when told that he was the king of the island; for instead of being dressed in a garb of rich apparel of some kind, with a crown about his head, as I
had expected, he had nothing whatever on to indicate his supreme power. His costume was composed of a red breech-clout, a red woolen shirt
and upon his bare head an old dried up wreath of faded flowers, such as is worn by all rowdies. When we spoke to him about his island, he
dropped his head, as he sat upon the sand, and blushingly answered us. We told him who we were and where we were from, saluted him and left
him with very different ideas formed about the king of Rurutu, than we had before meeting him. This was the first monarch of the kind I ever
saw, and the first time we were ever under the reign of a king. The island is under the French protection, still it regulates and governs its own
affairs, and the French have nothing to say in that respect. The king has judges under him, who make the laws and enforce them while he is in
his childhood days. By contrast, French observers remarked favorably on the industriousness and intelligence of the people of Rurutu, as well as
the success of Teuruarii in increasing revenues through maritime trade with neighboring islands. In 1899, Rurutu's annual exports were valued
at 59,881 French francs, of which 37,919 were exported to the Tahitian port of Papeete - exceptionally high trade volumes in light of the
relatively small size of the island and its population. The protectorate status had a negative effect on the island's trade with Tahiti. Ships from
Rurutu, as from other protectorates, were considered foreign vessels at the ports of France and its overseas territories such as the Tahitian port
capital of Papeete, Rurutu's nearest significant trading partner. Consequently, Rurutu's agricultural exports were subject to tariffs from which
the exports of annexed territories were exempted. The economic disadvantages of the protectorate status became even more evident when
France closed the Tahitian ports to all foreigners in 1899, including merchants from Rurutu, in response to an outbreak of bubonic plague in
San Francisco. This disruption of trade between the two islands occurred in a period during which Rurutu became increasingly reliant
economically on Tahiti. The growing prominence of Tahiti was evidenced in the activities of Teuruarii, who regularly visited Papeete for trade
and entertainment. Teuruarii incurred much debt during these trips, and the need to pay off his creditors along with the restriction on trade
prompted him to consider formal annexation to France. In May 1900, Teuruarii journeyed with a few island dignitaries to Papeete on the
invitation of Gustave Gallet, the French governor, to discuss the possibility of annexing the island. On May 11, 1900 Teuruarii signed a statement
of annexation, officially bringing Rurutu under French control. Months later, the L'Aube brought Gallet to Rurutu, where he officially took
possession of the island. On August 25, 1900 in a formal ceremony witnessed by Governor Gallet, the officers of the L'Aube, the French officials
aboard, the former king and the native population, the flag of the protectorate was lowered and the French tricolor raised in its place; this
moment, like the ceremony of 1888, was celebrated by a 21-gun salute from the French vessel. The French government gave the former king an
annual pension of eight hundred francs to pay off his debts. He was also given the task of administering over native affairs alongside the French
commissioners assigned to the island. Laws that punished adultery and violation of the Sabbath, enacted during the kingdom's Protestant period,
were revoked, and the royal monopoly on turtle meat was abolished. Under French rule, Teuruarii was initially allowed to serve as the village
chief of Moerai, the main village and former capital in the northeast corner of the island. On June 27, 1934, the French named him honorary
chief of Rurutu and his son Rooteatauira as chief of Moerai. In 1925, Scottish artist William Alister Macdonald (1861-1948) painted a portrait of
the former King in later life. According to most sources, Teuruarii IV died in 1933, although his appointment as honorary chief of Rurutu was
dated one year after. Teuruarii IV left behind several notable descendents. In 1923, one of his sons, Rooteatauira a Teuruarii, was involved in a
controversial embezzlement case that called into question the jurisdiction of French law over native inhabitants of its territories. Rooteatauira,
along with his accomplice Tinorrua a Hurahtia, had embezzled various goods to the detriment of Sum-You, a Chinese merchant. In the case,
Rooteatauira argued that he should be prosecuted by native law rather than French law and that the annexation was illegal since it was done
without the sanctioned of the King of Rurutu or the approval of the French Parliament. However, the French colonial court ruled that the
annexation was valid and that he would be prosecuted by French law since the offense was committed against a non-native. Rooteatauira was
sentenced to two years in prison and fined fifty francs. In 1934, Rooteatauira was appointed chief of Moerai and given an annual pension of
seven hundred and twenty francs. Rooteatauira was the father of Toromona (Solomon) Teuruarii, who served as mayor of Rurutu in the 1970s.
On October 14, 1964, Toromona ran unsuccessfully for a position in the French Territorial Assembly with Tetuamanuhiri Tetaumatani as his
running mate, although he did manage to win a significant number of votes. Toromona's son Maeua, born in 1941, bears the title Teuruarii VII.
Another descendant, Atitoa a Teuruarii, was the district chief of the southern portion of the island before World War II. His sons, Amaiterai and
Tairi a Teuruarii, owned much of the land in the northwestern districts of Teautamatea and Vitaria, the ancestral lands of the Teuruarii royal
line, where the remains of the island's ancient temple (Marae Tararoa) still stand. Many of Teuruarii's living descendants still reside in the
villages of Moerai and Avera and play major roles in island's affairs.
Taarouru a Mootuawas the regent of Rurutu, an island within the larger Austral Islands archipelago during late 1880s and in early 1890s.
She was mother of Teuruarii IV, born Epatiana a Teuruarii, the last King of Rurutu who upon his father's abdication while still a child and she
ruled as regent. She was second wife of Teuruarii III, King of Rurutu. During the regency, she and his son abolished the Va'a Tai 'Aru, the law,
enacted by his father, which had made crimes such as murder, treason and adultery punishable by death. Instead, criminals were exiled to small
island of Îles Maria. Teuruarii and his mother also presided over the opening of the Protestant church of Moerai. The construction of the church
had been begun by his father and the work was completed by a foreign carpenter named Quittaine Chapman.
Taiohae
Taiohae is the main town on Nuku Hiva island. The town is located on a former volcanic crater, which has partly collapsed into the ocean,
creating a bay. Nuku Hiva (sometimes erroneously spelled "Nukahiva") is the largest of the Marquesas Islands in French Polynesia, an overseas
territory of France in the Pacific Ocean. It was formerly also known as Île Marchand and Madison Island. Herman Melville wrote his book Typee
based on his experiences in the Taipivai valley in the eastern part of Nuku Hiva. Robert Louis Stevenson's first landfall on his voyage on the
Casco, was at Hatihe'u, on the north side of Nuku Hiva, in 1888.
Ruler of Taiohae
Vaekehu I was a ruler of Taiohae, main town on Nuku Hiva island in 19th century.

Etuta was an Illyrian queen of the Ardiaean Kingdom from 169 BC until 168 BC. Etuta was a Dardanian princess of the Dardanian State and
daughter of Monunius II of Dardania. Etuta married Gentius in 169 BC. Etuta was earlier engaged to Gentius' brother, Plator, whom Gentius
treacherously killed. The intentions of Gentius was to secure the inheritance of the Ardiaean throne, but also because Gentius envied his brother
because he was going to take Etuta. However, the marriage does not seem to have secured an Ardiaean–Dardanian alliance and as a result
Gentius allied himself with Perseus the enemy of his father-in-law. After the defeat of Gentius in 168 BC, Etuta along with other important
Illyrians were taken to Italy. Etuta and the royal family were sent to Spoletum, to be kept under observation. The inhabitants of Spoletum
refused to keep the royal family under watch, so they were transferred to Iguvium. Etuta remained there until she died. Etuta is also known as
Etleuta and Etleva.
Leonor Telles de Meneses (or Teles de Meneses) (1350 - April 27, 1386) was a queen consort of Portugal and regent of
Portugal from 1383 until 1385. She was the wife of a Portuguese nobleman from whom she was forcibly divorced by King
Ferdinand I, who afterward married her. She is called the Treacherous (Portuguese: a Aleivosa) by the Portuguese, who
execrate her on account of her adultery and treason to her native country; she is considered "a sort of Portuguese Lucrezia
Borgia". A redheaded beauty, Dona Leonor Telles (or Teles) was the daughter of Martim Afonso Telo de Meneses, a
nobleman in the Trás-os-Montes. She was great-great-great granddaughter of Teresa Sanches, the illegitimate daughter of
King Sancho I of Portugal by his mistress Maria Pais Ribeira. At a young age she married Dom João Lourenço da Cunha,
2nd Lord of Pombeiro, with whom she had a son, Dom Álvaro da Cunha, 3rd Lord of Pombeiro, and a stillborn child. Leonor's sister, Maria Telles
de Meneses, was a lady-in-waiting to the Infanta Beatrice, daughter of Peter I of Portugal and Inês de Castro. While visiting her sister Maria at
court, Leonor had the privilege of attending Beatrice's marriage to Sancho, Count of Alburquerque. There, Leonor met Beatrice's elder half-
brother, the Infante Ferdinand, heir to the Portuguese throne, who fell passionately in love with her and proceeded to seduce her, in spite of his
promise to marry Eleanor, daughter of Henry II of Castile. Leonor did nothing to resist Ferdinand's advances and lashed out at her sister Maria
for her attempts to prevent the affair from developing. King Ferdinand managed to annul Leonor's first marriage to João Lourenço da Cunha on
grounds of consanguinity and on May 5, 1372 they were secretly married. Upon the death of Ferdinand (1383), Leonor was nominated regent in
the name of her daughter Beatrice. From 1383 onwards, Leonor ruled with her lover, João Fernandes de Andeiro, 2nd Count of Ourém, also
called "Conde Andeiro", which angered the nobility and the lower classes. Beatrice's marriage to the Castilian king John I led to the expulsion of
both mother and daughter. The loss of independence had been unthinkable for the majority of Portuguese nobles. A rebellion led by the Master
of the Order of Aviz, future John I of Portugal, started in that year, leading to the 1383–1385 Crisis. Leonor died in exile at a monastery at
Tordesillas.
Amage was queen of Sarmatian people and wife of the Sarmatian king Medosaccus in the end of the second century BC. They were from the
coast of the Euxine Sea. Having observed that her husband was "totally given up to luxury", she took over the government, acting as a judge of
causes, stationing garrisons, repulsing enemy invasions, and was such a successful leader that she became famous through all Scythia. As a
result of this fame, the people of the Tauric Chersonesus, having been harassed by a neighboring Scythian king, requested a treaty with her. As a
result of the formation of this treaty, she wrote to the Scythian prince, requesting that he cease harassing the people. When he replied
contemptuously, she marched against him with 120 strong and seasoned warriors, and gave each warrior three horses. In one night and one day,
she covered a distance of of 100 stades (roughly 184.81 kilometers), and arrived at the palace, surprising the inhabitants and killing all the
guards. As the prince was taken off guard, and conceived her force to be larger than it really was, she was able to charged and personally kill
him, as well as his friends and relatives. Thus she enabled the people of Chersonesus to regain free possession of their land. She allowed the
prince's son to live and rule the kingdom on the condition that he not invade nearby kingdoms. This took place towards the end of the second
century BC.
Alliquippa (died December 23, 1754) was a leader of the Seneca tribe of American Indians during the early part of the 18th century. Very
little is known about Alliquippa's early life. Her date of birth has been estimated anywhere from the early 1670s to the early 18th century. By the
1740s, she was the leader of a band of Mingo Seneca living along the three rivers (the Ohio River, the Allegheny River, and the Monongahela
River) near what is now Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. By 1753, she and her band were living at the J.B.junction of the Monongahela and
Youghiogheny Rivers near the present site of McKeesport, Pennsylvania. George Washington wrote of his visit to Alliquippa in December 1753
stating: "As we intended to take horse here (at Frazer's Cabin on the mouth of Turtle Creek) and it required some time to find them, I went up
about three miles to the mouth of the Youghiogheny to visit Queen Alliquippa, who had expressed great concern that we passed her in going to
(Fort Le Boeuf). I made her a present of a match-coat and a bottle of rum, which latter was thought much the better present of the two." Queen
Alliquippa was a key ally of the British leading up to the French and Indian War. Alliquippa, her son Kanuksusy, and warriors from her band of
Mingo Seneca traveled to Fort Necessity to assist George Washington but did not take an active part in the Battle of the Great Meadows on July 3
– 4, 1754. After the British defeat at the Battle of the Great Meadows and the evacuation of Fort Necessity, Alliquippa moved her band to the
Aughwick Valley of Huntingdon County, Pennsylvania for safety. She died there on December 23, 1754. The city of Aliquippa, Pennsylvania was
named in her honor by the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad. However, she herself had no connection to the land upon which the city was built.
In 1752, Conrad Weiser reported visiting Queen Aliquippa, at “Aliquippa's Town” located on the Ohio at the mouth of Chartiers Creek, a
tributary of the Ohio River near McKees Rocks and Pittsburgh. In January, 1754, George Washington, was sent by Virginia’s Lt. Governor
Dinwiddie to ask the French to leave the Ohio region, and he met with Iroquois leaders at Logstown, whilst there Washington failed to pay his
respects to Queen Aliquippa. Washington arrived at the Great Meadows (Fort Necessity) May 24, 1754 A Virginia regiment arrived at the Great
Meadows with the Half King on June 9, 1754. Battle of Fort Necessity occurred July 3, 1754. On the 4th of July, Washington surrendered to the

French and accepted defeat. The British troops left Fort Necessity for Wills Creek on the morning of July 4, from there they marched back to
Virginia. To understand the events of the day, a hearing conducted by Virginia's Lt. Governor Dinwiddie was held. On August 27, 1754, a
deposition was filed by a Captain John B. W. Shaw that stated the Native Americans, including Queen Alquippa, loyal to the British were going to
"Jemmy Arther" for protection. "Jemmy Arther" was Aughwick or George Croghan's settlement. In a letter dated August 16, 1754, Croghan wrote
to the governor of the province of Pennsylvania that the Half King and his fellow Mingo Seneca people had been staying with him at Aughwick
since Washington’s defeat (Hazard 1897, 140-141). Conrad Weiser visited Croghan’s homestead at Aughwick on September 3, 1754 to investigate
the situation and reported to Governor Hamilton. In Wiser's report to the Governor he reported to the Governor that; “ ... he had encountered
about twenty cabins about Croghan’s house, and in them at least 200 Indians, men, women and children ...” (Hazard 1878, 149). On December 23,
1754, Queen Alquippa died at Aughwick (Fort Shirley). Croghan's blunt journal entry records her death, "Alequeapy, ye old quine is dead."
Sesshō (Regent) and Kampaku (Chief Advisor for Emperor) of Japan
In Japan, Sesshō (摂政?
) was a title given to a regent who was named to assist either a child emperor before hiscoming of age, or an empress.
The Kampaku (関白?
) was theoretically a sort of chief advisor for the emperor, but was the title of both first secretary and regent who assists an
adult emperor. During the Heian era, they were the effective rulers of Japan. There was little, if any, effective difference between the two titles,
and several individuals merely changed titles as child emperors grew to adulthood, or adult emperors retired or died and were replaced by child
emperors. The two titles were collectively known as Sekkan (摂関?
), and the families that exclusively held the titles were called Sekkan-ke or
Sekkan family. After the Heian era, shogunates took over the power. A retired kampaku is called Taikō (太閤?
), which came to commonly refer
to Toyotomi Hideyoshi. In earlier times, only members of the Imperial Family could be appointed sesshō. Kojiki reported that Emperor Ōjin was
assisted by his mother, Empress Jingū, but it is doubtful if it is a historical fact. The first historical sesshō was Prince Shōtoku who
assisted Empress Suiko. The Fujiwara clan was the primary holders of the kampaku and sesshō titles. More precisely those titles were held by
the Fujiwara Hokke (Fujiwara north family) and its descendants, to which Fujiwara no Yoshifusa belonged. In 858 Fujiwara no Yoshifusa
became sesshō. He was the first not to belong to the Imperial house. In 876 Fujiwara no Mototsune, the nephew and adopted son of Yoshifusa,
was appointed to the newly created office of kampaku. After Fujiwara no Michinaga and Fujiwara no Yorimichi, their descendants held those two
office exclusively. In the 12th century, there were five families among the descendants of Yorimichi called Sekke: Konoe family, Kujō
family, Ichijō family, Takatsukasa family and Nijō family. Both the Konoe and Kujō family were descendants of Yorimichi, through Fujiwara no
Tadamichi. The other three families were derived from either the Konoe or Kujō families. Until the Meiji Restoration of 1868, those five families
held those title exclusively with the two exceptions of Toyotomi Hideyoshi and his nephew Toyotomi Hidetsugu. The office and title
of kampaku fell out of use by convention with the appointment of the first Prime Minister of Japan during the Meiji Restoration. Emperor
Meijiabolished the office in 1872. Today, under the Imperial Household Law, the office of sesshō is restricted to the Imperial Family. Crown
Prince Hirohito, before becoming Emperor Shōwa, was sesshō from 1921 to 1926 for the mentally disabled Emperor Taishō. He was
called sesshō-no-miya.
List of Sesshō (Regents) and Kampaku (Chief Advisor for Emperor) of Japan
Prince Shōtoku (聖徳太子 Shōtoku Taishi?, February 7, 572 - April 8, 622), also known as Prince Umayado (厩戸皇子
Umayado no ōji?) or Prince Kamitsumiya (上宮皇子 Kamitsumiya no ōji?), was a semi-legendary Regent (Sesshō) and a
politician of the Asuka period in Japan who served under Empress Suiko from 593 until his death on April 8, 622. He was a
son of Emperor Yōmei and his younger half-sister Princess Anahobe no Hashihito. His parents were relatives of the ruling
Soga clan, and was involved in the defeat of the rival Mononobe Clan. The primary source of the life and accomplishmentsof
Prince Shōtoku comes from the Nihon Shoki. Over successive generations, a devotional cult arose around the figure of Prince
Shōtoku for the protection of Japan, the Imperial Family, and for Buddhism. Key religious figures such as Saichō, Shinran
and others claimed inspiration or visions attributed to Prince Shōtoku. Shōtoku was appointed as regent (Sesshō) in 593 by
Empress Suiko, his aunt.[citation needed] Shōtoku, inspired by Buddha's teachings, succeeded in establishing a centralized
government during his reign. In 603, he established the Twelve Level Cap and Rank System at the court. He is credited with promulgating a
Seventeen-article constitution. The Prince was an ardent Buddhist and composed commentaries on the Lotus Sutra, the Vimalakirti Sutra, and
the Sutra of Queen Srimala. He commissioned the Shitennō-ji (temple) in Settsu province (present-day Osaka). Shōtoku's name has been linked
with Hōryū-ji, a temple in Yamato province. Documentation at Hōryū-ji claims that Suiko and Shōtoku founded the temple in the year 607.
Archaeological excavations in 1939 have confirmed that Prince Shōtoku's palace, the Ikaruga-no-miya (斑鳩宮), stood in the eastern part of the
current temple complex, where the Tō-in (東院) sits today. However, it is also said that the Prince respected Shintoism and never visited
Buddhism temples without visiting Shinto shrines. In his correspondence with the Chinese Sui Emperor, Yangdi, the Prince's letter contains the
earliest written instance in which the Japanese archipelago is named Nihon. The Sui Emperor dispatched a message in 605 that said, "the
sovereign of Sui respectfully inquires about the sovereign of Wa." Shōtoku responded by sponsoring a mission led by Ono no Imoko in 607:
"From the sovereign of the land of the rising sun (nihon/hi izuru) to the sovereign of the land of the setting sun." He is said to be buried at
Shinaga, in the former Kawachi province (today Osaka prefecture). A number of institutes are named after him, such as Shotoku Gakuen
University and its associated junior college (both in Gifu). The first syllable of his name (聖), can be read shō in Go'on and can also be read sei in
Kan’on. The later reading is found in Seitoku University and its associated junior college (both in Matsudo, Chiba) as well as Tokyo's defunct
Seitoku Junior College of Nutrition (and indirectly its replacement Seiei College). Shōtoku is known by several titles, although his real name is
Prince Umayado (厩戸皇子 Umayado no ōji?, literally ‘the prince of the stable door’) since he was born in front of a stable. He is also known as
Toyotomimi (豊聡耳?) or Kamitsumiyaō (上宮王?). In the Kojiki, his name appears as Kamitsumiya no Umayado no Toyotomimi no Mikoto
(上宮之厩戸豊聡耳命?). In the Nihon Shoki, in addition to Umayado no ōji, he is referred to as Toyomimito Shōtoku (豊耳聡聖徳), Toyotomimi
no Nori no Ōkami (豊聡耳法大王), and simply Nori no Ushi no Ōkami (法主王). The name by which he is best known today, Prince Shōtoku, first
appeared in Kaifūsō, written more than 100 years after his death in 751.
Fujiwara no Yoshifusa (藤原良房?, 804 – October 7, 872), also known as Somedono no Daijin or Shirakawa-
dono, was a Japanese statesman, courtier and politician during the Heian period. When Yoshifusa's grandson was
enthroned as Emperor Seiwa, Yoshifusa was assumed the role of Regent (sesshō) for the young monarch Seiwa
from 858 until his death on October 7, 872. He was the first sesshō in Japanese history who was not himself of
imperial rank; and he was the first of a series of regents (Sesshō) from the Fujiwara clan. He was a minister

during the reigns of Emperor Ninmyō, Emperor Montoku and Emperor Seiwa. In 834 (Jōwa 1, 9th day of the 7th month) he was become Sangi,
in 835 (Jōwa 2) he was become Gon-no-Chūnagon, in 840 (Jōwa 7) he was become Chūnagon, in 842 (Jōwa 9): he was become Dainagon, in 848
(Saikō 1, 1st month) he was become Udaijin, in 857 (Saikō 4, 19th day of the 2nd month) he was become Daijō Daijin, in 858 (Ten'an 2, 7th day
of the 11th month) he was become Sesshō for Emperor Seiwa. On October 7, 872 (Jōgan 14, 2nd day of the 9th month) Yoshifusa died at the age
of 69. Yoshifusa conceived the programme of boy-sovereigns with Fujiwara regents; and his adopted son, Mototsune, carried out the plans. This
member of the Fujiwara clan was the son of Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu. Yoshifusa's brothers were Fujiwara no Nagayoshi, Fujiwara no Yoshisuke
and Fujiwara no Yoshikado. He was married to Minamoto no Kiyohime (源潔姫), daughter of Emperor Saga. They had only one daughter
Akirakeiko/Meishi (明子) (829-899), consort of Emperor Montoku. He adopted his brother Nagara's third son Mototsune (基経) (836-891) - Daijō
Daijin and Kampaku. Yoshifusa is referred to as Chūjin Kō (忠仁公) (posthumous title was Daijō Daijin).
Fujiwara no Mototsune (藤原基経?, 836 - February 25, 891), also known as Horikawa Daijin (堀川大臣?),
was a Japanese statesman, courtier and politician of the early Heian period. He was the Regent (Sesshō) for
Emperpr Seiwa and Emperor Yōze from 872 until 880 and Kampaku (Chief Advisor for Emperor) from 880 until
890 (for Emperor Yōzei, Emperor Kōkō and Emperor Uda). He was born the third son of Fujiwara no Nagara, but
was adopted by his powerful uncle Fujiwara no Yoshifusa, who had no sons. Mototsune followed in Yoshifusa's
footsteps, holding power in the court in the position of regent for four successive emperors. Mototsune invented
the position of kampaku regent for himself in order to remain in power even after an emperor reached maturity.
This innovation allowed the Fujiwara clan to tighten its grip on power right throughout an emperor's reign.
Mototsune is referred to as Shōsen Kō (昭宣公) (posthumous name as Daijō Daijin). In 864 (Jōgan 6) Mototsune
was named Sangi, in 866 (Jōgan 8) was named Chūnagon, in 870 (Jōgan 12, 1st month) he became Dainagon, in
872 (Jōgan 14) he was named Udaijin, In 876 (Jōgan 18) he was named Sesshō, in 880 (Gangyō 4) he was named Daijō Daijin, in 884 (Gangyō 8)
Mototsune was the first to receive the title Kampaku. In 890 (Kanpyō 2, 14th day of the 12th month): retire from Kampaku. On February 25, 891
(Kampyō 3, 13th day of the 1st month): Mototsune died at the age of 56. This member of the Fujiwara clan was the son of Fujiwara no Nagara,
who was one of the brothers of Fujiwara no Yoshifusa. Mototsune was adopted as son and heir of Yoshifusa. In other words, Yoshifusa was
Mototsune's uncle, and father through adoption. He was married to Princess Sōshi (操子女王), daughter of Imperial Prince Saneyasu (son of
Emperor Nimmyo). Their children were: Tokihira (時平) (871–909) - Sadaijin, Nakahira (仲平) (875–945) - Sadaijin, Tadahira (忠平) (880–949) -
Daijō Daijin, Sesshō and Kampaku, Yoriko (頼子) (?–936), consort of Emperor Seiwa, Kazuko (佳珠子) (?–?), consort of Emperor Seiwa, Onshi
(温子) (872–907), consort of Emperor Uda, Onshi (穏子) (885–954), consort of Emperor Daigo, and mother of Emperor Suzaku and Emperor
Murakami. He was also married to a daughter of Imperial Prince Tadara (son of Emperor Saga). They had a son Kanehira (兼平) (875–935) -
Kunai-Kyō (宮内卿). The other children were Kamiko (佳美子) (?–898), consort of Emperor Kōkō, Yoshihira (良平), Shigeko (滋子), married to
Minamoto no Yoshiari (son of Emperor Montoku), daughter, married to Imperial Prince Sadamoto (son of Emperor Seiwa), and mother of
Minamoto no Kanetada (源兼忠).
Fujiwara no Tokihira (藤原時平?, 871 – April 26, 909) was a Japanese statesman, courtier and politician during the Heian period. Tokihira
was a minister and Regent (Sesshō) under Emperor Daigo in 909. In 891 (Kanpyō 3, 3rd month) Tokihira was given a rank which was the
equivalent of sangi. In 897 (Kanpyō 9, 6th month) Tokihira was made Dainagon with a rank equal to that of a General of the Left. In 899 (Shōtai
2) Tokihira was named Sadaijin. In 900 (Shōtai 3) Tokihira accused Sugawara no Michizane of plotting against the emperor. This led to
Michizane's exile to the Dazaifu in Kyūshū, In 909 (Engi 9, 4th month) Tokihira died at age 39. He was honored with posthumous rank and titles.
This member of the Fujiwara clan was the son of Fujiwara no Mototsune. Tokihira had two brothers: Fujiwara no Tadahira and Fujiwara no
Nakahira. In a statistical overview derived from writings by and about Fujiwara no Tokahiro, OCLC/WorldCat encompasses roughly 35 works in
69 publications in 1 language and 122 library holdings.
Fujiwara no Tadahira (藤原忠平?, 880 – September 14, 949) was a Japanese statesman, courtier and politician
during the Heian period. He was the Regent (Sesshō) for Emperor Suzaku from 930 until 841 and Kampaku (Chief
Advisor for Emperor) from 941 until his death on September 14, 949 (for Emperor Suzaku until 943 and for
Emperor Murakami from 943 until 949). He is also known as Teishin-Kō (貞信公) or Ko-ichijō Dono (小一条殿) or
Ko-ichijō daijō-daijin. Tadahira was a kuge (Japanese noble) who is credited with writing and publishing Engishiki.
He one of the principle editors responsible for the development of the Japanese legal code known as Sandai-kyaku-
shiki, sometimes referred to as the Rules and Regulations of the Three Generations. Tadahira served as regent
under Emperor Suzaku who ruled from 930 to 946. In 914 (Engi 14, 7th month) Dainagon Tadahira was named
udaijin. In 931 (Enchō 9) Tadahira was appointed sessho. In 936 (Jōhei 6, 8th month) he was assumed the role of
daijō-daijin. In 937 (Jōhei 7, 1st month) he presided over the coming of age ceremony of Emperor Suzaku. In
941(Tengyō 4) he became kampaku. This member of the Fujiwara clan was the son of Mototsune. Tadahira's
brothers were Fujiwara no Tokihira and Fujiwara no Nakahira. Emperor Murakami was the maternal nephew of
Tadahira. Tadahira took over the head of the Hokke branch of the Fujiwara clan in 909 when his elder brother
Tokihira died. He was married to Minamoto no Junshi (源順子), daughter of Emperor Kōkō. They had a son Fujiwara no Saneyori, also known as
Ononomiya Dono (小野宮殿) Kampaku for Emperor Reizei 967–969, and Sesshō for Emperor En'yū 969–970. He was also married to Monamoto
no Shōshi (源昭子), daughter of Minamoto no Yoshiari. They had several children: Morosuke - Udaijin 947–960, grandfather of Emperor Reizei
and Emperor En'yū, Moroyasu (師保) - priest, Morouji (師氏) (913–970) - Dainagon 969–970, Morotada (師尹) (920–969) - Sadaijin 969. Daughters'
mothers were unknown. (She might be Junshi or Shōshi.), Kishi (貴子) (904–962) - consort of Crown Prince Yasuakira, Kanshi (寛子) (906–945) -
consort of Imperial Prince Shigeakira. In a statistical overview derived from writings by and about Fujiwara no Tadahiro, OCLC/WorldCat
encompasses roughly 9 works in 13 publications in 2 languages and 201 library holdings.
Fujiwara no Saneyori (藤原実頼?, 900 - 970), also known as Onomiya-dono, was a Japanese statesman, courtier
and politician during the Heian period. He was Kampaku (Chief Advisor for Emperor) from 967 until 969 (for
Emperor Reizei) and Regent (Sesshō) under Emperor En'yu from 969 until his death in 970. In 944 (Tengyō 7, 4th
month) Saneyori was elevated to the position of udaijin in the Imperial court hierarchy. In 947 (Tenryaku 1, 4th
month) Saneyori is promoted to the positions of sadaijin and grand general of the left. In 949 (Tenryaku 3, 1st
month) Saneyori and his brother Morosuke shared the duties of daijo daijin during a period of Fujiwara no

Tadahira's ill-health. In 958 (Tentoku 2, 3rd month): Saneyori was granted special permission to travel in a wheeled vehicle. In 963 (Ōwa 3, 2nd
month): Saneyori presided at the coming of age ceremonies for Norihira-shinnō (憲平親王) who would later become Emperor Reizei. In 968
(Kōhō 5, 6th month): Saneyori began serving as kampaku when Emperor Reizei assumed the throne in 968. In 970 (Tenroku 1, 5th month):
Saneyori died at age 70; and he was posthumously elevated to the first class in rank. After his death, Saneyori's nephew Koretada assumed his
duties when he was named sesshō (regent) after his death. This member of the Fujiwara clan was the son of Fujiwara no Tadahira. Saneyori was
the eldest son. He had two brothers: Morosuke and Morotada.
Fujiwara no Koretada (藤原伊尹; 924 - 972), also known as Fujiwara no Koremasa or Kentokuko, Ichijō sesshō and Mikawa-kō, was a
Japanese statesman, courtier, politician and waka-poet during the Heian period. He was Regent (Sesshō) under Emperor En'yu from 970 until his
death in 972. His poems were published in "The Collected Poems of the First Ward Regent", Ichijo Sessho Gyoshu, and in Hyakunin Isshu (poem
No. 45). Emperor Murakami named Koretada conservator of Japanese poetry in 951. Koretada served as a minister during the reign of Emperor
En'yū. In 970 (Tenroku 1, 1st month) Koretada is named udaijin. In 970 (Tenroku 1, 5th month after the death of Fujiwara no Saneyori, Koretada
is named sesshō (regent). In 971 (Tenroku 2, 11th month) Koretada assumes the office of daijō daijin. In 972 (Tenroku 3, 5th day of the 1st
month) the enthronement of Emperor En'yu is supervised by Koretada. In 972 (Tenroku 3, 11th month) Koretada died at age 49; and he was
posthumously raised to first class rank. He was granted the posthumous title of Mikawa-kō. The immediate consequence of Koretada's death was
a period of intense rivalry between his brothers Kanemichi and Kaneie. This member of the Fujiwara clan was the son of Morosuke. He was the
oldest son; and became head of the Hokke branch of the clan after his uncle Saneyori died in 970. Koretada had four brothers: Kaneie,
Kanemichi, Kinsue, and Tamemitsu.
Fujiwara no Kanemichi (藤原兼通?, 925 – December 20, 977) was a Japanese statesman, courtier and politician during the Heian period.
Kanemichi served as a Kampaku (Chief Advisor for Emperor) for Emperor En'yū from 972 until his death on December 20, 977. His chief rival
was his younger brother, Kaneie, who was also raised to the position of regent during a different time frame. In 972 (Tenroku 3, 11th month)
Kanemichi is elevated to the concurrent offices of nadaijin and kampaku. In 974 (Ten'en 2, 2nd month) Kenemichi is named Daijō Daijin. On
December 20, 977 (Jōgen 2, 8th day of the 11th month) Kanemichi dies at the age of 51. This member of the Fujiwara clan was the son of
Morosuke. He was the second son. Kanemichi had four brothers: Kaneie, Kinsue, Koretada, and Tamemitsu.
Fujiwara no Yoritada (藤原頼忠; 924 – 989), the second son of Saneyori, was a kugyo (high-ranked Japanese noble) who served as
Kampaku (Chief Advisor for Emperor) for Emperor En'yū and Emperor Kazan from 977 until 986. His mother was a daughter of Fujiwara no
Tokihira. His elder brother from the same mother Atsutoshi died before their father's death. In 977 he became Sadaijin, and when his cousin, the
regent Fujiwara no Kanemichi was in a critical medical condition, he ceded the position of Kampaku (regent) to Yoritada, instead of his rival
brother Kaneie. Although Yoritada's two daughters were consorts of Emperor En'yū and Emperor Kazan, they did not have any sons. Yoritada
thus had only a tenable blood relationship with the Emperors. His cousin Kaneie was the grandfather of Crown Prince Yasuhito (Emperor
Ichijō), and he encouraged Emperor Kazan to abdicate a throne. By the accession of Emperor Ichijō, Yoritada retired from his post as Kampaku,
and Kaneie became Sessho (regent) for his grandson Emperor Ichijō. Yoritada was Daijō Daijin from 978, and he is referred to as Rengi-kō
(廉義公) (posthumous name of Daijō Daijin). His poet son Fujiwara no Kintō compiled the Shūi Wakashū, and also a collection of Chinese verse
and prose (~600 selections) and 25 Japanese poems in his Wakan Rōeishū (和漢朗詠集), a widely-admired collection that helped spread the
influence of Chinese culture (and especially the poetry of Bai Juyi) in the Japanese Imperial court. Kintō's collection would be imitated by a
successor, Fujiwara no Mototoshi's Shinsen Rōeishū (新撰朗詠集). Kintō also wrote an influential critical guide to incorporating Bai Juyi's poetic
techniques (and more generally, T'ang dynasty poetry) into Japanese poetry called Shinsen Zuinō (新撰髄脳) ("The Essence of Poetry Newly
Selected").
Fujiwara no Kaneie (藤原兼家?, 929 – July 26, 990) was a Japanese statesman, courtier and politician
during the Heian period. He was Regent (Sesshō) for Emperor Go-Ichijō from 886 until 890 and Kampaku
(Chief Advisor for Emperor) for Emperor Go-Ichijō from May 5 until May 8, 990. Kaneie served as minster
during the reigns of Emperor En'yū, Emperor Kazan and Emperor Go-Ichijō. After his rival brother Kanemichi's
death in 977 he was appointed to Udaijin by his cousin Yoritada who became Kampaku after Kanemichi's death.
He and his son Michikane encouraged Emperor Kazan to abdicate to accelerate Kaneie's accession to regent,
and by the succession of Emperor Ichijō, he became Sesshō of Emperor Ichijō. In 969 (Anna 1) he is named Ju
Sammi (従三位), in 970 (Anna 2) he named Chūnagon, in 972 (Tenroku 3, 11th month) Kaneie was promoted
from the office of Chūnagon to Dainagon, in 978 (Jōgen 3, 10th month) Kaneie was named Udaijin, in 986
(Kanna 2, 24th day of the 6th month) he become Regent (Sesshō) for Emperor Ichijō, in 986 (Kanna 2, 20th day
of the 7th month) he was retire from Udaijin, in 989 (Eiso 1, 12th month) Kaneie is named daijō daijin. In 990
(Shōryaku 1, 5th month): Kaneie fell seriously ill; and he abandoned his offices to become a Buddhist monk. On
July 26, 990 (Shōryaku 1, 2nd day of the 7th month): Kaneie died at the age of 62. This member of the Fujiwara clan was a son of Morosuke. His
mother was Fujiwara no Moriko (藤原盛子), daughter of Fujiwara no Tsunekuni. Kaneie had four brothers: Kanemichi,Kinsue, Koretada, and
Tamemitsu. His daughters were mothers of Ichijō and Sanjō. He was married to Fujiwara no Tokihime (藤原時姫), daughter of Fujiwara no
Nakamasa. They had five children: Michitaka (道隆) (953–995) - Sesshō and Kampaku of Emperor Ichijō 990–995, Chōshi (超子) (died 982),
consort of Emperor Reizei and mother of Emperor Sanjō, Michikane (道兼) (961–995) - Kampaku of Emperor Ichijō 995, Senshi (詮子) (962–
1002), consort of Emperor En'yū and mother of Emperor Ichijō and Michinaga (道長) (966–1028) - Kampaku of Emperor Go-Ichijō 1016–1017.
He was also married to a daughter of Fujiwara no Tomoyasu (藤原倫寧の娘), called Udaisyō Michitsuna no Haha (Mother of Udaishō
Michitsuna) (右大将道綱母). She wrote Kagerō Nikki (蜻蛉日記). They had a son. Michitsuna (道綱) (955–1020) - Dainagon. The other children
were Michiyoshi (道義) (mother: a daughter of Fujiwara no Tadamoto) and Suishi/Yasuko (綏子) (974–1004) (mother: a daughter of Fujiwara no
Kuniaki), consort of Emperor Sanjō.
Fujiwara no Michitaka (藤原道隆?, 953 – May 16, 995) was a Kugyō (Japanese noble) of the Heian period. He was Regent (Sesshō) for
Emperor Go-Ichijō from 990 until 993 and Kampaku (Chief Advisor for Emperor) for Emperor Go-Ichijō from May 8 until May 26, 990 and from
993 until 995. He was the first son of Fujiwara no Kaneie, Regent (Sesshō) and Kampaku (Chief Advisor for Emperor) for Emperor Go-Ichijō.
Ichijō married Michitaka's daughter Teishi (Sadako), thus continuing the close ties between the Imperial family and the Fujiwara. Michitaka is

sometimes referred to as Nijō Kampaku (二条関白) or Naka-no-Kampaku (中関白). In 986 (Kanna 2) he is named Chūnagon (中納言), in 986
(Kanna 2) he is named Gon-no-Dainagon (権大納言), in Eien 3, on the 23rd day of the 2nd month (989) he is named Naidaijin (内大臣), in
Shōryaku 1, on the 8th day of the 5th month (990) he is named Kampaku (関白) for Emperor Ichijō, in Shōryaku 1, on the 26th day of the 5th
month (990) he is named Sesshō (摂政) for Emperor Ichijō, in Shōryaku 2, on the 23rd day of the 7th month (991) he was retire from Naidaijin,
in Shōryaku 4, on the 22nd day of the 4th month (993) he become Kampaku for the Emperor Ichijō, in Chōtoku 1, on the 3rd day of the 4th
month (995) he was retire from Kampaku, in Chōtoku 1, in the 10th day of the 4th month (May 16, 995) Michitaka died at the age of 43. He was
married to Takashina no Takako (高階貴子) (called Kō-no-Naishi 高内侍 or Gidō-sanshi no Haha 儀同三司母), daughter of Takashina no
Naritada (高階成忠).Their children were: Korechika, Teishi, wife of Emperor Ichijō, Takaie, Ryūen (隆円) (KomatsuSōzu, 小松僧都) (980-1015),
priest, Genshi (原子) (ca.980-1002), consort of Emperor Sanjō, Daughter (?-?), married to Imperial Prince Atsumichi (son of Emperor Reizei),
Daughter (?-1002), Mikushige-dono-no-bettō (御匣殿別当) (concubine of Emperor Ichijō). His other children were: Michiyori (道頼) (971-995) -
Gon-no-Dainagon, Yorichika (頼親), Chikayori (周頼), Chikaie (周家) and Daughter, lady-in-waiting for Fujiwara no Kenshi, wife of Emperor
Sanjō.
Fujiwara no Michikane (藤原道兼; 961 – June 13, 995) was the Kampaku (Chief Advisor for Emperor) from April 28 until May 8, 995. He
was the son of Fujiwara no Kaneie, Regent (Sesshō) and Kampaku (Chief Advisor for Emperor) for Emperor Go-Ichijō. He was a kugyo (Japanese
noble) and bonze (monk) of the Heian period. When his nephew took the throne as Emperor Ichijō in 994, he returned from monastic life and
took the government position of Udaijin (Minister of the Right). The following year, he succeeded his brother Michitaka as imperial regent
(Kampaku). Michikane died a week after becoming kampaku, and is thus sometimes referred to as Nanoka no Kampaku (七日の関白), or "the
seven-days regent." He was then replaced by his brother Michinaga. The Rusu clan claimed descent from Michikane.
Fujiwara no Michinaga (藤原道長?, 966 – January 3, 1028) was the Regent (Sesshō) for Emperor Go-Ichijō from
1016 until 1017. He was represents the highpoint of the Fujiwara clan's control over the government of Japan. He was the
fourth or fifth son of Fujiwara no Kaneie by his wife Tokihime, daughter of Fujiwara no Nakamasa. There were two
regents and two imperial consorts among his brothers and sisters by the same mother. As the youngest son of his father,
he was not remarkable in the court until his two brothers died. He started his career in the court when he was 15 years
old. In 986 (Kanna 2) he is named Sakyō no Daibu (左京大夫), in 986 (Eien 2, 29th day of the 1st month) he is named
Gon-no-Chūnagon (権中納言), in 991 (Shōryaku 2, 7th day of the 9th month) he is named Gon-no-Dainagon (権大納言).
In 995 during the reign of Emperor Ichijō, his two elder brothers Michitaka and Michikane died of disease. He struggled
with Fujiwara no Korechika, the elder son of Michitaka, for political power. With support of Senshi, his sister and mother
of Ichijō, Michinaga succeeded in gaining power as well the support of majority of the court. He was appointed Nairan,
the secretary of the emperor and the reviewer of all the documents sent to the emperor before the emperor himself read
them. In 995 (Chōtoku 1, 11th day of the 5th month): Nairan (内覧). Michinaga exerted de facto reign over Japan in the early 11th century. This
can be seen from the fact that he was father to four (non-reigning) empresses, uncle to two emperors and grandfather to another three. In 995
(Chōtoku 1, 19th day of the 6th month) he is named Udaijin (右大臣), in 996 (Chōtoku 2, 20th day of the 7th month) he is named Sadaijin
(左大臣). Though Ichijō already had an empress, a daughter of Michitaka, he claimed there were two types of empresshood and therefore it was
legal for an emperor to have two empresses at the same time. Michinaga's ambitions led him to make his own daughter, Shōshi, a second
empress of Ichijō. In 1000 Shōshi was announced as a Chūgū empress and the existing empress Teishi was given the title of Kōgō empress. It was
the first time an emperor had two empresses. A power struggle between Korechika and Michinaga continued until Teishi's unexpected death in
1001, which sealed Michinaga's power since Shōshi became the only empress after Teishi's death. In 1006, Michinaga invited Murasaki Shikibu to
become Empress Shōshi’s companion and tutor.) Shōshi was the mother of two princes who became emperors: Emperor Go-Ichijō and Emperor
Go-Suzaku. Michinaga's other daughters, Kenshi and Ishi, followed similar fates to Shōshi and further ensured Michinaga's power over the court.
In 1011 (Kankō 8, 13th day of the 6th month): In the 25th year of Emperor Ichijō's reign (一条天皇25年), the emperor abdicated; and the
succession (‘‘senso’’) was received by his cousin. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Sanjō is said to have acceded to the throne (‘‘sokui’’). After Ichijō
retired because of illness, Emperor Sanjō ascended the throne. Though Sanjō was a nephew of Michinaga (the mother of Sanjō was another sister
of Michinaga; she had died already in Sanjō's childhood and he was relatively less influenced by his maternal line). In 1011 (Kankō 8) Michinaga
become Sesshō In 1011 (Kankō 8, 23rd day of the 8th month): Fujiwara Michinaga is granted the extraordinary privilege of travelling to and
from the court by ox-drawn cart. Michinaga and Sanjō's opinions often varied. Michinaga pressured Sanjō to retire and finally Sanjō did so in
1016 under a condition made upon Sanjō's succession. Sanjō's elder son was appointed as Go-Ichijō's successor. In 1011 (Kankō 8): Prince
Atsunari, the second son of former-Emperor Ichijo, is proclaimed Crown Prince. Sanjō's eldest son, Prince Atsuakira, had been the officially
designated heir, but pressure from Michinaga forced the young prince to abandon his position. Michinaga's political power and influence led to
the crown prince's resignation by his will. Michinaga was pleased by this decision and gave his daughter (either Kenshi or Ishi) to this prince as a
wife, ensuring that the prince would not be an obstacle in the future. In 1012 (Chōwa 1, 8th month) Emperor Sanjō marries a daughter of Sesshō
and later Kampaku Fujiwara no Michinaga. During the initial years of Go-Ichijō's reign, Fujiwara no Michinaga actually ruled from his position
as sesshō (regent). Although Michinaga never formally took on the title of kampaku regent, he exercised great power and influence. In 1013
(Chōwa 2, 9th month) Sanjō visits the home of Michinaga. In 1013 (Chōwa 3, 5th month): Sanjō visited the home of Michinaga where he enjoyed
himself with horse riding and archery. In 1015 (Chōwa 4, 10th month): Michinaga's 50th birthday is celebrated. In 1016 (Chōwa 5, 29th day of the
1st month): Michinaga is Sesshō for Emperor Go-Ichijō, in 1017 (Chōwa 6, 16th day of the 3rd month): retired from Sesshō, in 1017 (Kannin 1,
8th month): Prince Atsuakira, the eldest son of Emperor Sanjo, had been named Crown Prince, but after he is struck by a skin disease and under
intense pressure from Michinaga; he withdraws from this role and his younger brother, Prince Atsunaga, is named Crown Prince in his place. In
1017 (Kannin 1, 9th month): Michinaga made a pilgrimage to the Iwashimizu Shrine accompanied by many courtiers. The travelers divided
themselves amongst 15 boats for a floating trip down the Yotogawa River. One of the vessels overturned, and more than 30 people lost their
lives. In 1017 (Kannin 1, 4th day of the 12th month): Michinaga was elevated to the office of Daijō Daijin. In 1018 (Kannin 2, 9th day of the 2nd
month): retires from Daijō Daijin. In 1019 (Kannin 3, 21st day of the 3rd month): Becomes a priest. Michinaga exercised such powers even after
he formally retired from public life in 1019. He continued to direct the affairs of his son and successor, Fujiwara no Yorimichi. Michinaga is
popularly known as the Mido Kampaku, implying that he had usurped the full power of a kampaku without necessarily calling himself that,
though he retained the title sesshō regent in a short term from 1016 till 1017. In 1017, he gave this office to his heir Yorimichi. Soon afterwards,
a series of emperors started to retire to a monastery early in life, and put their young sons on the throne to run the country from behind the
scenes. As it turned out, this tactic briefly allowed the emperors to wrestle power back from the Fujiwara clan, only to see it fall to the Taira
warrior clan instead. On January 3, 1028 (Manju 4, 4th day of the 12th month): Michinaga died at the age of 62. Segment of Michinaga's personal
diary in his own handwriting — text shown is from volume covering the years from 998 to 1021, designated as National Treasure of Japan in the
category ancient documents. Michinaga left a diary, Mido Kanpakuki (御堂関白記), that is one of our prime sources of information about Heian-

era court life at its height. This poem is known as Mochizuki no Uta (望月の歌) (Full Moon Poem). In 1018, his daughter Ishi became Empress
(Chūgū) of Emperor Go-Ichijō, Kenshi became Empress Dowager (Kōtaigō), and Shōshi was Grand Empress Dowager (Tai-Kōtaigō). Three of his
daughters became Empresses. Furthermore both Emperor Go-Ichijō and Crown Prince Atsunaga were his grandsons. This poem was composed
at the party to celebrate his daughter's accession. He expressed his delight to win power in this poem. He was married to Minamoto no
Rinshi/Michiko (源倫子), daughter of Sadaijin Minamoto no Masanobu. They had six children: Shōshi (彰子) (Jōtōmon-in, 上東門院) (988-1074) -
consort of Emperor Ichijō, Yorimichi (頼通) (992-1074) - regent for Emperor Go-Ichijō, Emperor Go-Suzaku, and Emperor Go-Reizei, Kenshi
(妍子) (994-1027) - consort of Emperor Sanjō, Norimichi (教通) (996-1075) - regent for Emperor Go-Sanjō and Emperor Shirakawa, Ishi (威子)
(999-1036) - consort of Emperor Go-Ichijō and Kishi (嬉子) (1007-1025) - consort of Crown Prince Atsunaga (later Emperor Go-Suzaku). He was
also married to Minamoto no Meishi (源明子), daughter of Sadaijin Minamoto no Takaakira. They had six children: Yorimune (頼宗) (993-1065) -
Udaijin, Akinobu (顕信) (994-1027) - He became a priest at the age of 19., Yoshinobu (能信) (995-1065) - Gon-no-Dainagon, Kanshi (寛子) (999-
1025) - consort of Imperial Prince Atsuakira (Ko-Ichijō-in), Sonshi (尊子) (1003?-1087?) - married to Minamoto no Morofusa, Nagaie (長家) (1005-
1064) - Gon-no-Dainagon and Michinaga had one daughter from unknown woman Seishi (盛子) (?-?) - married to Emperor Sanjō.
Fujiwara no Yorimichi (藤原頼通?) (992–1074) was the Regent (Sesshō) for Emperor Go-Ichijō from 1017
until 1019 and Kampaku (Chief Advisor for Emperor) for Emperor Go-Ichijō, Emperor Go-Suzaku and Emperor
Go-Reizei from 1020 until 1068. He was son of Michinaga, was a Japanese Court noble. He succeeded his father to
the position of Sesshō in 1017, and then went on to become Kampaku from 1020 until 1068. In both these positions,
he acted as Regent to the Emperor, as many of his ancestors and descendants did; the Fujiwara clan had nearly
exclusive control over the regency positions for over 200 years. Prior to succeeding to the position of Regent,
Yorimichi had held the title of Nidaijin, the lowest level of state ministers. By edict, he was raised above his
colleagues, to the title of Ichi no Hito, or First Subject. In addition to the reason of direct succession from his
father, this edict was presumably necessary to allow Yorimichi to become Sesshō. He is also known as the founder
of Byodoin phoenix hall, located in Uji. He was married Princess Takahime, daughter of Imperial Prince Tomohira (son of Emperor Murakami)
and Princess Nakahime; married 1009; no children, but they adopted 2 daughters: Princess Genshi (Motoko), (1016–1039), daughter of Imperial
prince Atsuyasu (eldest son of Emperor Ichijo) and Princess Naka no Kimi (Takahime's younger sister); Empress of Emperor Go-Suzaku. He was
second time married Fujiwara no Kanshi (Hiroko), (1036–1121), he also married also daughter of Yorimichi by Fujiwara no Gishi, daughter of
Minamoto no Norisada (a grandson of Emperor Murakami), Fujiwara no Michifusa (1024–1044), Fujiwara no Gishi (Masako), (died 1053)
daughter of Fujiwara no Yorinari (a son of Imperial Prince Tomohira and Princess Nakahime, adopted by Fujiwara no Koresuke) and a daughter
of Fujiwara no Korenori; she was then a niece of Princess Takahime: Priest Kakuen (1031–1098), Fujiwara no Kanshi (Hiroko), (1036–1121);
adopted by Princess Takahime, Empress of Emperor Go-Reizei, Fujiwara no Morozane (1042–1101) and Fujiwara no Tadatsuna (died 1084).
Fujiwara no Norimichi (藤原教通?, July 29, 996 – November 6, 1075) was the Kampaku (Chief Advisor for Emperor) for Emperor Go-
Sanjō, Emperor Shirakawa from 1068 until his death on November 6, 1075. He was the fifth son of Michinaga, was a kugyo of the Heian period.
His mother was Minamoto no Rinshi (源倫子), daughter of Minamoto no Masanobu. Regent Yorimichi, Empress Shōshi (consort of Emperor
Ichijō), Empress Kenshi (consort of Emperor Sanjō) were his brother and sisters from the same mother. In 1068, the year when his daughter
married Emperor Go-Reizei, he took the position of Kampaku, regent. He, however, lost the power when Emperor Go-Sanjo, who was not a
relative of the Fujiwara clan, assumed the throne. This contributed to the later decline of the Fujiwara clan. In 1012, he was married to a
daughter of Fujiwara no Kinto by a daughter of Prince Akihira (son of Emperor Murakami), (1000–1024) and had following children: Seishi (or
Nariko) (生子) (1014–1068), - married to Emperor Go-Suzaku in 1039, Shinshi (or Saneko) (真子) (1016–1087) - Naishi-no-kami 1042–1087,
Nobuie (信家) (1018–1061) - adopted by his uncle Yorimichi, Michimoto (通基) (1021–1041), Kanshi (or Yoshiko) (歓子) (1021–1102) - Empress of
Emperor Go-Reizei, Nobunaga (信長) (1022–1094) - Daijō Daijin, Jōkaku (静覚) (1025–1083) - provisional Major Bishop, Head priest of Gedatsu-ji
(temple). In 1026, he was married to Imperial Princess Shishi (禔子内親王) (1003–1048), daughter of Emperor Sanjō by Fujiwara no Seishi. From
this marriage he had no children. In 1051, he was married to Princess Senshi (嫥子女王) (1005–1074), the third daughter of Imperial Prince
Tomohira (son of Emperor Murakami). From this marriage he had no children. He was familiar with Koshikibu no Naishi (小式部内侍) (real
name is unknown) (died 1025), daughter of Tachibana no Michisada and Lady Izumi Shikibu and Jōen (静円) (1016–1074) - provisional
Archbishop.
Fujiwara no Morozane (Japanese language: 藤原師実ふじわらのもろざね) (1042 – March 14, 1101) was a regent of Japan and a chief of
the Fujiwara clan during the late Heian period. He was known as Kyōgoku dono (Lord Kyōgoku) or Go-Uji dono (the Later Lord Uji, 後宇治殿).
He held the positions of sessho or kampaku for a twenty-year period, Regent (Sesshō) from 1075 to 1086 during the reign of Emperor Shirakawa
and from 1094 to 1099 during the reign of Emperor Horikawa, and Kampaku (Chief Advisor for Emperor) from 1086 to 1094 during the reign of
Emperor Horikawa. He was the son of Fujiwara no Yorimichi and Fujiwara no Gishi (藤原祇子, her real name is unknown today), a daughter of
Fujiwara no Tanenari (藤原種成), hence the grandson of Fujiwara no Michinaga. A contemporary document suggested he was the third born
son, but this is uncertain. He was appointed to the positions of sadaijin, sessho and kampaku. He made his adopted daughter Kenshi (賢子) a
consort of Emperor Shirakawa. Kenshi died when she was very young, but she left a son who would later ascend to the throne as Emperor
Horikawa. Emperor Shirakawa seized political power and Morozane was unable to enjoy the monopolic power that his father and grandfather
had enjoyed. Even after Emperor Horikawa reached adulthood, the cloistered Emperor Shirakawa seized power. Morozane married Fujiwara no
Reishi, who was a daughter of Minamoto no Morofusa, a grandson of Emperor Murakami, and later adopted by Fujiwara no Nobuie. Morozane
had many sons and daughters, including Fujiwara no Moromichi and Fujiwara no Ietada. From Morozane, two kuge families derive, the Kazanin
family and the Oimikado (Oinomikado) family. Morozane is also known the author of the waka collection Kyōgoku Kanpakushū (Anthology of
Kyōgoku Kanpaku) and the diary Kyōgoku Kanpaku-ki (Diary of Kyōgoku Kanpaku).
Fujiwara no Moromichi (藤原師通?, 1062 – July 18, 1099) was the Kampaku (Chief Advisor for Emperor) from 1094 until his death on
July 18, 1099 during the reign of Emperor Horikawa. He was the son of Morozane, and was a kugyo (high-ranked Japanese noble) during the late
Heian period. He was a head of the Fujiwara clan and served as kampaku and udaijin. He was also known as Go-nijyo dono (後二条殿) or Nijyo-
kampaku (二条関白). Though he assisted Emperor Horikawa against the cloistered rule of the then-retired Emperor Shirakawa, he died young at
age of 38, which led Shirakawa to consolidate his power.
Fujiwara no Tadazane (藤原忠実?, 1078 – July 31, 1162) was the Regent (Sesshō) from 1107 until 1113 during the reign of Emperor Toba
and Kampaku (Chief Advisor for Emperor) from 1105 until 1107 during the reign of Emperor Horikawa and from 1113 until 1121 during the

reign Emperor Toba. He was a Japanese noble and the grandson of Fujiwara no Morozane. He built a villa, Fukedono, north of the Byōdō-in
Temple in 1114. He was the father of Fujiwara no Tadamichi.
Fujiwara no Tadamichi(藤原忠通?, March 15, 1097 – March 13, 1164) was the Regent (Sesshō) from 1123 until
1129 during the reign of Emperor Sutoku and from 1141 until 1150 during the reign of Emperor Konoe and Kampaku
(Chief Advisor for Emperor) from 1121 until 1123 during the reign of Emperor Horikawa, from 1129 until 1141 during
the reign Emperor Sutoku and from 1150 until 1158 during the reign of Emperor Konoe and Emperor Go-Shirakawa.
He was the eldest son of the Japanese regent (Kampaku) Fujiwara no Tadazane and a member of the politically
powerful Fujiwara clan. He was the father of Fujiwara no Kanefusa and Jien. In the Hōgen Rebellion of 1156,
Tadamichi sided with the Emperor Go-Shirakawa.
Konoe Motozane (近衛基実?, 1143 – August 23, 1166) was the Kampaku (Chief Advisor for Emperor) from 1158 until 1165 during the reign
of Emperor Nijō and Regent (Sesshō) from 1165 until his death on August 23, 1166 during the reign pf Emperor Rokujō. He was son of Fujiwara
no Tadamichi, was a Kugyō (high-ranking Japanese noble) during the late Heian period. His sons include Motomichi and wives include a
daughter of Fujiwara no Tadataka and that of Taira no Kiyomori. At age of 16 he assumed the position of kampaku, regent, to Emperor Nijō,
becoming a head of Fujiwara family. He died at the age of 24, a year after he took the position of sesshō, or regent, to Emperor Rokujō. His
ancestry later came to be known as Konoe family, one of the Five sessho families.
Fujiwara no Motofusa (藤原基房?, 1144 – February 1, 1230) was the Regent (Sesshō) from 1166 until 1168
during the reign of Emperor Rokujō and from 1168 until 1172 during the reign of Emperor Takakura. He was also
Kampaku (Chief Advis

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