A Critical Genre Based Approach To Teaching Academic Writing In A Tertiary EFL Context In Indonesia

A CRITICAL GENRE-BASED APPROACH TO TEACHING
ACADEMIC WRITING IN A TERTIARY EFL CONTEXT
IN INDONESIA
VOLUME 1
EMI EMILIA
Dra (Bandung, Indonesia), Grad. Dip. Arts (Deakin University,
Melbourne), M.Ed (Deakin University, Melbourne)
Submitted in Total Fulfilment of the Requirements
of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
May, 2005
Department of Language, Literacy and Arts Education
Faculty of Education
The University of Melbourne

DECLARATION
Except where due acknowledgement has been made in the text to other materials, this thesis
comprises only original work by this writer.
The length of the thesis, exclusive of tables, figures, bibliographies, appendices and
footnotes, is less than 100,000 words.
Signed ………………………
Emi Emilia, May, 2005.
ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many people have helped me throughout this study. My first and foremost thanks go to my
supervisors, Prof Frances Christie and Dr. Kristina Love. Prof. Frances Christie has been a
constant source of knowledge, strong encouragement and sustained critical support for the
whole course of the study. Dr. Kristina Love has been the main supervisor and also a
constant source of knowledge, strong encouragement as well as critical support after Prof.
Frances Christie’s resignation from the University of Melbourne. Without Dr. Kristina’s
guidance and supervision, I can hardly imagine the completion of the research project. It has
indeed been a great privilege and joy to work under the guidance and scaffolding of both the
supervisors, which made every step on the road to the completion of the research project as
easy as possible.
My special thanks are also due to the students, who have given me an opportunity to learn
together. Some colleagues in the research site also deserve a special mention, especially Pak
Bukhori and Ibu Safrina, for help so generously given to me and Dr. Bachrudin Musthafa,
who acted as an external supervisor under the University of Melbourne Post Graduate
Overseas Research Experience Scheme (PORES) grant, for his guidance during the data
collections.
I also thank many lecturers and students in the Department of Language, Literacy and Arts
Education, the University of Melbourne, for their share and support as well as feedback to
my study in various department presentations.
My heartfelt thanks go to my parents, sisters, in laws who in different, but equal ways, have
contributed to my study immeasurably, for their sincere love and prayers
Finally, I want to acknowledge a special debt of gratitude to my family: to my husband,
Akhmad Tizani, and to my children, Mizan and Najmi, for their support to a wife and a
mother whose mind was not always free to give the attention they needed. It is with pleasure
that to them all I dedicate this thesis.
iii

ABSTRACT
This thesis reports on the effectiveness of using a critical genre-based approach (GBA) in
teaching academic English writing to student teachers who were learning English as a
foreign language in a state university, West Java, Indonesia. The model of the GBA (as
adapted from Rothery, 1996 and others relevant to the study) was distinctive in that it sought
to synthesise principles from other theories, to do with critical thinking (e.g. Paul, 1992,
1993), critical pedagogy (e.g. Freire, 1971, 1993, 1997) and critical literacy (e.g. Wallace,
1992a, b, 2001). The approach was also distinctive in that it sought to use a genre-based
pedagogy with a community of English as a foreign language (EFL) students, whereas
hitherto most uses of this pedagogy have been with native speakers or English as a second
language (ESL) students.
The study employed a qualitative research design, embracing characteristics of a case study
and to some extent a program evaluation. The data were obtained from several sources,
including a questionnaire prior to an 11 week teaching program; classroom observations by
the researcher and her colleague, collection of samples of students’ texts in various stages of
the teaching program, which were then analysed using systemic functional grammar (SFG)
as developed by Halliday (1985b, 1994a); Halliday and Mathiessen (2004); students’
journals written after each teaching session; and two stages of interviews with the student
participants, immediately after the program and eight months after the program.
The findings revealed that despite some limitations, the teaching program was successful in
many ways in the Indonesian EFL tertiary teaching context. Most significantly, the students’
argumentative writing skills in English improved in that they achieved enhanced control of
the target argumentative genre, at greater length, with clear schematic structure and
improved use of evidence and information in support of their arguments, using various
linguistic resources, which also indicates their development in critical thinking and critical
literacy. Moreover, data from classroom observations, students’ journals and interviews
showed that the students were aware of having made progress in terms of metalanguage for
discussing critical reading and writing; a good grasp of those critical thinking dispositions,
iv

abilities and skills taught in the program; and enhanced awareness of the values of class
dialogue, a democratic atmosphere, and the different roles of the teacher which allowed
them to actively participate in their learning.
Based on these findings, it is recommended that a critical GBA be gradually adopted in
Indonesia, as part of the centralized curriculum to enhance the teaching of English in
Indonesia, of English writing in particular. The Indonesian government’s implementation of
the 2004 curriculum, and the GBA in particular, should be conducted more intensively to
provide English teachers with a sound understanding of the background to and practical
guidance on the application of the approach in their classes. Teacher education should also
provide student teachers with sound knowledge about English language and literacy and
pedagogical principles for their teaching. In addition, given the urgency of the need for
critical thinking and the calls for the implementation of interactive curriculum, it is now the
right time to infuse critical thinking and critical pedagogy across the subjects of the school
curriculum.
v

TABLE OF CONTENT
DECLARATION...............................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..............................................................................................iii
ABSTRACT......................................................................................................................iv
TABLE OF CONTENT....................................................................................................vi
LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................. x
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................xiii
CHAPTER ONE: ENGLISH EDUCATION IN CONTEMPORARY INDONESIA ..... 1
1.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 English in Official Policies........................................................................................ 2
1.3 English in the National School and University Curricula......................................... 4
1.3.1 English in the National School Curriculum: Primary and Secondary Education5
1.3.2 English in Tertiary Education............................................................................. 8
1.3.3 Official Policies on English Curriculum for Secondary Education from
Indonesian Independence to the Present............................................................. 9
1.4 Research and Cases Portraying Performance and the Teaching of English in
Indonesia................................................................................................................. 11
1.5 The Teaching of English in the Reform Era (since Soeharto’s Resignation) .......... 13
1.6 The Teaching of English Writing in the Research Site ............................................ 15
1.7 The Significance of the Study................................................................................... 17
1.8 Outline of the Thesis ................................................................................................ 18
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................. 19
2.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 19
2.2.Critical Thinking (CT) ............................................................................................. 20
2.2.1 The Concept of CT............................................................................................ 21
2.2.2 Essential Components of CT ............................................................................ 24
2.2.3 The Teaching and Assessment of CT ............................................................... 27
2.2.4 The Relationship between CT and Literacy (Reading and Writing) ................ 29
2.2.5. Criticisms of the CT Movement ...................................................................... 30
2.2.6 Summary of Discussion of CT.......................................................................... 31
2.3. Critical Pedagogy (CP) .......................................................................................... 32
2.3.1 Reading the Word and the World ..................................................................... 34
2.3.2 Dialogic Education............................................................................................ 35
2.3.3 The Classroom as a Democratic Public Sphere................................................ 37
2.3.4 Criticisms of CP................................................................................................ 38
2.3.5 Summary of the Discussion of CP.................................................................... 39
2.4 Critical Literacy (CL) .............................................................................................. 40
2.4.1 A Critical Social Literacy: Literacy as a Social Practice.................................. 41
2.4.2 Summary of the Discussion of CL.................................................................... 45
2.5 Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL).................................................................... 46
2.5.1 Basic Principles in SF Theory .............................................................................. 47
2.5.2 Text and Context............................................................................................... 49
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2.5.3 Intertextuality.................................................................................................... 53
2.5.4 Metafunctions ................................................................................................... 54
2.5.5 The SFL Genre Theory and Approach ............................................................. 56
2.5.5.1 The Concept of Genre................................................................................ 57
2.5.5.2 Argumentative Genres............................................................................... 59
2.5.5.3 Major Goals and Principles in the SF Genre Traditions............................ 61
2.5.5.4 Models of Teaching under the SFL GBA.................................................. 67
2.5.5.5 Criticisms of the SFL GBA ....................................................................... 68
2.5.6 Summary of the discussion of SFL................................................................... 71
2.6 Conclusion............................................................................................................... 72
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY....................................................................... 73
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 73
3.2 Methodology ............................................................................................................ 73
3.2.1 Purpose of the Study and Research Question................................................... 73
3.2.2 Research Design ............................................................................................... 74
3.2.3 Setting............................................................................................................... 75
3.2.4 Participants ....................................................................................................... 76
3.2.5 Data Collection................................................................................................. 78
3.2.5.1 A Phase of Teaching EFL Writing Classes ............................................... 78
3.2.5.2 The Collection of Students’ Written Texts................................................ 79
3.2.5.3 The Use of Interviews................................................................................ 80
3.2.6 Data Analysis.................................................................................................... 84
3.2.7 Summary of Methodology of the Study ........................................................... 86
3.3 Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG)..................................................................... 87
3.3.1 The Theme System ........................................................................................... 88
3.3.1.1 The Boundary of Theme............................................................................ 88
3.3.1.2 Longer Unit Themes.................................................................................. 90
3.3.1.3 Thematic Progression ................................................................................ 91
3.3.1.4 Higher Level Themes: Macro- and Hyper-Themes................................... 92
3.3.2 The Transitivity System.................................................................................... 94
3.3.2.1 Process Types and Their Participants........................................................ 95
3.3.2.1.1 Material Processes: Processes of Doing ............................................. 95
3.3.2.1.2 Mental Processes: Processes of Sensing............................................ 96
3.3.2.1.3 Verbal Processes: Processes of Saying............................................... 96
3.3.2.1.4 Relational Processes: Processes of Being.......................................... 97
3.3.2.1.5 Behavioural Processes ........................................................................ 99
3.3.2.1.6 Existential Processes........................................................................... 99
3.3.2.2 Circumstances.......................................................................................... 100
3.3.3 The Conjunction System................................................................................. 101
3.3.4 Modality.......................................................................................................... 102
3.3.5 Grammatical Metaphor................................................................................... 104
3.3.5.1 Ideational metaphor ................................................................................. 105
3.3.5.2 Interpersonal Metaphor............................................................................ 106
3.3.6 Summary of the Discussion of SFG ............................................................... 106
3.4 Conclusion............................................................................................................. 107
vii

CHAPTER FOUR: THE TEACHING PROGRAM: AN OVERVIEW ...................... 108
4.1 Introduction............................................................................................................ 108
4.2 Preliminary Phase of the Teaching Program........................................................ 109
4.2.1 Activity 1: Inducting the Students with the Teaching Program...................... 109
4.2.2 Activity 2: Joint Decision on the Topics for Writing ..................................... 110
4.2.3 Activity 3: Searching for Texts and Reading Materials.................................. 111
4.2.4 Activity 4: Distribution of Questionnaires and Diagnostic Writing............... 113
4.2.5 Summary of the Preliminary Phase of the Teaching Program........................ 114
4.3 The Teaching Program .......................................................................................... 115
4.3.1. The Teaching of CT and Introduction to CL ................................................. 117
4.3.1.1 Step 1: Explicit Teaching on CT-Related Features.................................. 118
4.3.1.2 Step 2: Application of CT in Social Context ............................................... 120
4.3.1.3 Step 3: Dealing with Texts on Arguments – Introduction to CL............. 122
4.3.1.4 Step 4: Comparing Different Texts on the Same Topic........................... 126
4.3.1.5 Summary of the Teaching of CT – Introduction to CL ........................... 128
4.3.2 Teaching the Discussion Genre – Implementation of the GBA and
Consolidation of Critical Capacities............................................................... 128
4.3.2.1 Introduction to the GBA and Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) .... 129
4.3.2.2 Implementation of the Teaching Cycle.................................................... 132
4.3.2.2.1 Teaching Cycle 1 .............................................................................. 134
4.3.2.2.1.1 Stage 1: Building Knowledge of the Field – the Teaching of CL
...................................................................................................................... 135
4.3.2.2.1.2 Stage 2: Modelling (Deconstruction)......................................... 140
4.3.2.2.1.3 Stage 3: Joint Construction........................................................ 144
4.3.2.2.1.4 Stage 4: Independent Construction of the Text.......................... 152
4.3.2.2.2 Teaching Cycle 2 .............................................................................. 155
...................................................................................................................... 156
4.3.2.2.2.2 Stage 2: Independent Construction............................................ 158
4.3.2.3 Summary of the Teaching of the Discussion Genre – Implementation of the
GBA and Consolidation of Critical Capacities......................................... 158
4.4. Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 159
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF ANALYSES OF TEXTS PRODUCED IN THE
TEACHING PROGRAM ............................................................... 161
5. 1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 161
5.2. Analysis of Diagnostic Texts (Texts 5.1. and 5.3)............................................... 163
5.2.1 Analysis of Text 5.1........................................................................................ 163
5.2.1.1 The Schematic Structure, Organization and Purpose of Text 5.1............ 163
5.2.1.2 Grammatical Analyses of Elements in Text 5.1 ...................................... 166
5.2.1.2.1 Thesis Element.................................................................................. 166
5.2.1.2.2 Argument Element............................................................................ 167
5.2.1.2.3 Restatement of Thesis Element......................................................... 168
5.2.2 Analysis of Text 5.3........................................................................................ 170
5.2.2.1 The Schematic Structure, Organisation and Purpose of Text 5.3............ 171
5.2.2.2 Grammatical Analyses of Elements in Text 5.3 ...................................... 173
viii

5.2.2.2.1 Preview of Issue Element ................................................................. 173
5.2.2.2.2 Arguments in favour Element........................................................... 175
5.2.2.2.3 Arguments against Element.............................................................. 177
5.2.2.2.4 Recommendation Element............................................................... 178
5.2.3 Summary of Analysis of Texts 5.1 and 5.3 .................................................... 182
5.3 Analysis of the Jointly-Constructed Text (Text 5.4)............................................... 183
5.3.1 The Schematic Structure, Organisation and Purpose of Text 5.4................... 186
5.3.2 Grammatical Analyses of Elements in Text 5.4 ............................................ 189
5.3.2.1 Preview of Issue Element ........................................................................ 189
5.3.2.2 Arguments in favour Element.................................................................. 191
5.3.2.3 Arguments against Element..................................................................... 197
5.3.2.4 Recommendation Element....................................................................... 203
5.3.3 Summary of Analysis of Text 5.4................................................................... 208
5.4. Analysis of Independently-Constructed Texts (Texts 5.5 and 5.7)........................ 209
5.4.1 The Schematic Structure, Organisation and Purpose of Texts 5.5 and 5.7 .... 215
5.4.2 Grammatical Analysis of Elements of Texts 5.5 and 5.7 ............................... 218
5.4.2.1 Preview of Issue....................................................................................... 218
5.4.2.2 Arguments in favour Element.................................................................. 221
5.4.2.3 Arguments against Element..................................................................... 229
5.4.2.4 Recommendation Element....................................................................... 237
5.4.3. Summary of Discussion of Texts 5.5 and 5.7................................................ 241
5.5 Conclusion............................................................................................................. 242
CHAPTER SIX: DISCUSSION OF INTERVIEW DATA.......................................... 244
6.1.Introduction ........................................................................................................... 244
6.2 Discussion of Data from the First Stage Interviews: How the Program Helped
Students as Learners............................................................................................. 246
6.2.1 Discussions of Data from Individual Interviews ............................................ 246
6.2.1.1 Students’ Perceptions of the Teaching Program...................................... 246
6.2.1.2 Students’ Suggestions about Improvements to the Teaching Program ... 262
6.2.2 Discussion of Data from the Focus Group Interview.................................... 265
6.2.3. Summary of Discussion of Data from the First Stage Interview................... 270
6.3. Discussion of Data from the Second Stage Interview........................................... 271
6.3.1. Summary of Discussion of Data from the Second Stage Interview .............. 276
6.4. Conclusion............................................................................................................ 276
CHAPTER SEVEN: CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES ................... 279
7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 279
7.2 Conclusions............................................................................................................ 279
7.3 Limitations of the Study ......................................................................................... 283
7.4 Recommendations for Further Studies .................................................................. 285
BIBLIOGRAPHY......................................................................................................... 289
APPENDICES………………………………………………………………..(Volume 2)
ix

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. 1 The Teaching Program in the Curriculum for Primary Education ......................... 6
Table 1. 2 The Teaching Program in the Curriculum.............................................................. 7
Table 1. 3 The Teaching Program in the Curriculum.............................................................. 7
Table 1. 4 Journey of f English Curriculum Development for Indonesian Junior and Senior
High School from Independence to the Present (Based on Kasihani, 2000)....... 10
Table 3. 1 Overview of Interviews ........................................................................................ 81
Table 3. 2 Examples of Topical Theme................................................................................. 89
Table 3. 3 Examples of Interpersonal Theme ........................................................................ 89
Table 3. 4 Examples of Textual Theme................................................................................. 90
Table 3. 5 Examples of Longer Unit Themes........................................................................ 90
Table 3. 6 Examples of Longer Unit Marked Theme............................................................ 91
Table 3. 7 Types and Examples of Circumstances .............................................................. 100
Table 3. 8 Types of Conjunctions and Examples of Clauses Used in Enhancement........... 102
Table 3. 9 Modality: Types, Orientation, Value and Polarity.............................................. 104
Table 4. 1 Examples of Clause Analysis in Traditional Grammar and SFG....................... 130
Table 4. 2 Schematic Structure of a Discussion Genre........................................................ 141
Table 4. 3 An Example of Schematic Structure and Linguistic Features of a Discussion
Genre.................................................................................................................. 142
Table 4. 4 Summary of the Teaching Program.................................................................... 160
Table 5.1 Diagnostic Text (Text 5.1).................................................................................. 163
Table 5.2 Process Types Employed in the Thesis Element of Text 5.1.............................. 166
Table 5.3 Process Types Employed in the Argument Element of Text 5.1........................ 168
Table 5.4 Process Types Employed in the Restatement of Thesis Element of Text 5.1 .... 169
Table 5.5 Diagnostic Text (Text 5.3).................................................................................. 170
Table 5.6 Process Types Employed in the Preview of Issue of Text 5.3............................ 173
Table 5.7 Process Types Employed in the Arguments in favour Element of Text 5.3....... 175
Table 5.8 Process Types Employed in the Arguments against Element of Text 5.3.......... 177
Table 5.9 Process Types Employed in the Recommendation Element of Text 5.3............ 179
Table 5.10 The Joint Construction Text (Text 5.4 ) ........................................................... 183
Table 5.11 Process Types Employed in the Preview of Issue Element of Text 5.4 ........... 190
Table 5.12 Process Types Employed in the Arguments in favour Element of Text 5.4..... 193
Table 5.13 Process Types Employed in the Arguments Against Element of Text 5.4....... 199
Table 5.14 Process Types Employed in the Recommendation Element of Text 5.4.......... 206
Table 5.15 Independent Construction Text (Text 5.5)........................................................ 209
Table 5.16 Independent Construction Text (Text 5.7)........................................................ 212
Table 5.17 Process Types Employed in the Preview of Issue Element of Texts 5.5 and 5.7
.............................................................................................................................................. 219
Table 5.18 Processes Employed in the Arguments in favour Element of Texts 5.5 and 5.7
.............................................................................................................................................. 225
Table 5.19 Process Types Employed in the Arguments Against Element of Texts 5.5 and
5.7.................................................................................................................... 232
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Table 5.20 Process Types Employed in the Recommendation Element of Texts 5.5 and 5.7
............................................................................................................................................. 238
xi

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2. 1 Genre and register in relation to language (cited from Eggins, 1994, p. 34). ..... 52
Figure 3. 1 Solidarity across levels of Theme (cited from Martin, 1992, p. 443). ................ 94
Figure 4. 1 The Teaching Cycle (cited from Rothery, 1996, p. 102)................................... 133
xii

CHAPTER ONE: ENGLISH EDUCATION IN
CONTEMPORARY INDONESIA
1.1 Introduction
This study is concerned with investigating effective ways to help students develop critical
capacities in learning to write academic English at the tertiary level in Indonesia.
Indonesia has had a long commitment to teaching English at all levels of education and there
are many reasons why Indonesia needs to develop effective programs for the teaching of
English. Some of these reasons are to do with the status of English in the modern world and
its significance for trade and commerce, economic development, tourism and
intergovernmental communications of many kinds, and the role of English in a great deal of
scholarship and research in areas as broad as science and technology. Apart from these
matters, as will be discussed in Section 1.5, since the commencement of the Reform era,
which started with the retirement of President Soeharto on May 21st
, 1998, increasing the
general levels of performance in English is now seen as an important part of building a
much more critical and independent community of people in Indonesia. The development of
a critical capacity in the workforce at all levels is now seen as of great national importance,
and the teaching of writing in both English and Indonesian assumes a new significance as a
means by which critical capacities can be promoted.
In Section 1.2, this chapter will firstly introduce some discussion of government policies
about education, including the teaching of English, and the role of English in the Indonesian
national school and the university curricula. In Section 1.3 the history of the development of
the English curriculum for junior (grades 7-9) and senior (grades 10-12) high schools in
Indonesia will then be provided. Here, it will be shown that different approaches to the
teaching of English have been advocated over some years now. However, as the discussion
in Section 1.4 will reveal, the evidence suggests that despite attempts at reform, most
teaching of English remains focused on traditional grammar teaching. The teachers seem to
have little interest in broader questions to do with meaning in language, for example, in the
1

teaching of discourse patterns in which critical capacities might be developed, as Hunter
(2002) suggests. The teaching of English writing in particular has been neglected, and this
finding confirms the general disappointing conclusion that students are poorly prepared and
reluctant to undertake sustained writing tasks.
Then the discussion in Section 1.5 will turn to some consideration of the calls for the
development of greater critical capacities, as well as the urgency of the change in the
centralized curriculum and application of critical pedagogy in the classroom. Interest in
critical pedagogy has been mushrooming since the commencement of the Reform era. The
mastery of English and the teaching of English have been considered as one effective way to
promote critical capacity and cognitive development of Indonesian students. It will be
suggested that the teaching of English should be made relevant to the current situation in
Indonesia, leading to the development not only of language skills but also of critical thinking
and critical literacy, and a higher awareness of the diversity of ways of thinking and valuing
(Alwasilah, 1998, 2001; Bundhowi, 2000).
In Section 1.6, an account of the teaching of English writing and a close examination of
sample syllabi of writing courses offered in the research site will be presented. It will be
suggested that the teaching of English writing in the research site needs improvement for
three reasons, to do with insufficient time for the teaching of writing, lack of practice in
writing a complete coherent text in various genres and the fact that the teaching of writing
still follows the “traditional one-off writing task” (Gibbons, 2002, p. 67). Then, drawing
from the problems presented in the previous sections, Section 1.7 will focus on the
significance of the study as an attempt to address the problems. Section 1.8 will present an
outline of the thesis.
1.2 English in Official Policies
The importance and the need for English and the teaching of English in Indonesia have been
explicitly stated in several official documents released by the government, especially those
related to education. The first document is the Competence-Based English Curriculum,
2

released by the Department of National Education of Indonesia (Depdiknas, 2001a,b). In the
rationale of this curriculum, it is stated,1
As a language which is used by more than half of the world’s population, English is ready to carry out
the role as the global language. Apart from being the language for science, technology and arts, this
language can become a tool to achieve the goals of economy and trade, relationship among countries,
socio-cultural purposes, education and career development for people. The mastery of English can be
considered as a main requirement for the success of individuals, the society and the nation of Indonesia
in answering the challenges of the time in the global level. The mastery of English can be acquired
through various programs, but the program of English teaching at school seems to be the main facility
for Indonesian students (Depdiknas, 2001 alb, p. 1-2).
The curriculum further mentions the role of English in Indonesia as described below:
In Indonesia, English is a means to grasp and develop science, technology and arts and culture.
Furthermore, English has a tremendously significant role in founding the relationship between the
nation of Indonesia and others in various fields such as social economy, trade and politics. Therefore
English can be considered as a means to accelerate the developments of the Indonesian nation and
country (Depdiknas, 2001 alb, p. 2; see a similar statement from the Director General of
Secondary Education in Depdiknas 2001g,
http://www.pdk.go.id/publikasi/Masadepan/I_XVIII_2001/bahasa_inggris-1-thXVIII-2001).
Important and interesting evidence of the significance of English in Indonesia is the decision
of the Congress of Bahasa Indonesia VII in Jakarta in 1998 (summarised by Erdina, 2001).
Although the congress focused on Bahasa Indonesia as bahasa persatuan (language for
unity), the decision of the congress stresses the prominence of English as a foreign language,
and considers that the skills of English cannot be separated from the development of human
resources in facing the globalization era. The decision of the congress, under the section
Follow Up regarding English as a Foreign Language, states:
1. The improvement of English skills is an inseparable part of the development of human resources in
facing the globalization era. Therefore, the availability and the use of the facilities as well as
educational technology which can support the acquisition of the target language (English) need to
be accorded a special importance.
2. The facilities and human resources for the teaching of English in tertiary education need to be
developed to strengthen the position of the language as an effective tool in the international
constellation … (cited in Erdina, 2001, p. 2).
Moreover, the policy on the development of communicative competences in foreign
languages for vocational school graduates, made by the Directorate General for Vocational
Secondary Schools, the Department of National Education (SMUnet, April 5th
, 2002)
confirms the significance of English in Indonesia. The policy requires that all vocational
1
Here as with other references to official policies in Indonesia, this passage has been translated into
English.
3

students master English. To realize this, to enhance the quality of English teaching and to
help students to achieve a significantly better result of their English learning, a TOEIC
(Test Of English for International communication) program in a number of vocational
schools has been implemented. Launching the policy on the implementation of the TOEIC
program, the Director General of Secondary Education said,
Facing the free trade era, Indonesia has to prepare its people especially those at the age of the work
force to have a competitive capacity in the job market - international as well as domestic. One of the
key competences to get into the free global job market is the capability to communicate in foreign
languages, specifically English (SMUnet, April the 5th
, 2002).
Other authorities state a similar point on the need for English. The Indonesian Minister of
Research and Technology, in the regime of Abdurrahman Wahid, A.S. Hikam (2000), for
example, claims that English plays a very important role in the process of a technological
transfer. Without the mastery of that language, Hikam argues, we will not be able to
maximize the process (cited in http://japan.istecs.org/Workshop00). His claim has been
supported by Alwasilah, saying that foreign languages, specifically English, function as a
source language in the process of transferring technology from other countries and “the
more people who master English, the more textbooks and publications in bahasa Indonesia
will be” (2000, p. 15). Alwasilah also contends that English is important in empowering
someone in the society, by maintaining that those who master English tend to be more
respected than those who do not and that the latter groups of society do not get as many
economic privileges (Alwasilah, 2000, p. 8). The importance of English can also be seen in
the national school and the university curricula, which will be taken up below.
1.3 English in the National School and University Curricula
In Indonesia, there are three levels of education: primary, secondary and tertiary. Primary
education consists of nine grade levels, with grades one to six in primary school and the
other three grades in junior high school (see Table 1.1 below). Secondary education consists
of three grade levels, with students in grade one and two learning the same subjects (see
Table 1.2), and those in grade three grouped into three programs of specialization, namely:
language, science and social science programs (see Table 1.3).
4

In tertiary education, different programs are offered by different universities. Some
universities offer a Diploma program, with the duration of one to four years, and a
Bachelor’s degree which should be accomplished in four years. Some universities,
especially state universities, offer postgraduate programs, including Master’s and Doctoral
degrees. What follows is the description of the position of English in the three levels of
education in Indonesia.
1.3.1 English in the National School Curriculum: Primary and Secondary Education
The position of English in primary and secondary education can be depicted in the following
tables on the teaching program in primary and secondary education, released by the
Department of Education, based on the decree of the Minister of National Education
No:061/U/19932
(cited in Universitas Negeri Jakarta /Jakarta State University, 2002).
From Table 1.1, it can be seen that in primary education (grades one to six) English is not
explicitly mentioned as a subject. However, it has become one of the subjects for the local
content. Based on the decree of the Minister of Education No. 060/U/1993 and the policy
referring to the 1994 curriculum (cited in Kasihani, 2000), the teaching of English is
formally encouraged in primary schools as the subject for the local content. Kasihani’s
(2000) report indicates that several provinces or districts have decided to choose English as
a compulsory local subject. According to Kasihani, the research carried out in ten provinces
in the year 2000 indicated that 61.6% of junior high school students revealed that they had
been learning English since primary school. Provinces that have developed the curriculum of
English for primary schools, among others, are West Java, Special District Yogyakarta, and
East Java.
In high school, English has been a compulsory foreign language subject throughout
Indonesia. In junior high schools (grades 7-9), English is taught in four teaching periods a
week, occupying the second highest number of teaching periods after the main subjects such
2
The practice in Indonesia, when the government produces or releases new policies in all areas including
education, is to write the year of publication of the policy after the official number attached to it. Hence, here
and elsewhere in the thesis, dates for government will be shown following the practice.
5

Table 1. 1 The Teaching Program in the Curriculum for Primary Education
Subjects Primary School
(Grades 1-6)
Junior High School
(Grades 1-3)
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3
Number of teaching periods
Pancasila (Five Principles
of Indonesian way of life)
and Civic Education
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Religious education 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Bahasa Indonesia
(Indonesian language) 10 10 10 8 8 8 6 6 6
Mathematics 10 10 10 8 8 8 6 6 6
Science - - 3 6 6 6 6 6 6
Social Science - - 3 5 5 5 6 6 6
Handicrafts and arts 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Sports 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
English 4 4 4
Local Content* 2 2 4 5 7 7 5 5 5
Total number of teaching
periods
30 30 38 40 42 42 42 42 42
Notes: The length of every teaching period for grade one and two of primary school is 30 minutes,
for grade three to six 40 minutes and for high school 45 minutes.
*The local content consists of subjects, the kind and content of which are determined by the location
of each school. The term “local” can refer to the level of provinces, districts, subdistricts, or of the
school. Those who determine the subjects, are among others, the local government, education experts,
and leaders of the society. The determination is also influenced by the local environmental and socio-
cultural conditions.
as Mathematics, Bahasa Indonesia, Science and Social Science. If English also has been
chosen as a subject for the local content, this means that the number of teaching periods for
English is higher. If in the local content English is taught at least two teaching periods a
week, English will have the same time allocation as Bahasa Indonesia, Mathematics and
Science. This has proven the prominence of English in Indonesian education.
In addition, as Tables 1.2 and 1.3 show, English also has an important position in the senior
high school curriculum. This can be seen from the proportion of teaching periods for English
in secondary education which is high. English is taught four teaching periods a week in
grade one and two, one teaching period less than Physics and Bahasa Indonesia and two
teaching periods less than Mathematics. In grade three, English gets a higher proportion,
which is five teaching periods a week, especially for the language program, which is 11
teaching periods a week.
6

Table 1. 2 The Teaching Program in the Curriculum
for General Secondary Education (Grades 1 & 2)
Subjects Grade 1 Grade 2
Pancasila and Civic education 2 2
Religious education 2 2
Indonesian language and literature 5 5
National and general history 2 2
English 4 4
Sports 2 2
Mathematics 6 6
Science
a. Physics 5 5
b. Biology 4 4
c. Chemistry 3 3
Social Science
a. Economics 3 3
b. Sociology - 2
c. Geography 2 2
Arts education 2 -
Total number of teaching periods 42 42
Table 1. 3 The Teaching Program in the Curriculum
for General Secondary Education (Grade 3)
Subjects Program
Language Science Social
Pancasila and civic education 2 2 2
Religious education 2 2 2
Indonesian language and
literature
3 3 3
General history and national
history
2 2 2
English 5 5 5
Sports 2* 2* 2*
Special
Indonesian language and
literature
8 - -
Physics - 7 -
Economics - - 10
English 6 - -
Biology - 7 -
Sociology - - 6
Other foreign languages 9** - -
Chemistry - 6 -
System of Government - - 6
Cultural history 5 - -
Mathematics - 8 -
Anthropology - - 6
Total number of teaching periods 42 42 42
Notes: *) Conducted in the extra curricular activities and adapted to the chances available in the
environment of the schools; and **) The decision of other foreign languages is made by the
schools based on the condition and need of each school. Students choose other foreign languages
offered by the school.
7

1.3.2 English in Tertiary Education
The organisation of tertiary education is based on the decree of the Minister of National
Education No. 232/U/2000 about the guidelines of arrangement of tertiary education and
students’ learning assessment (Depdiknas, 2000). Chapter 4, article seven, paragraph one of
the document mentions that the curriculum for tertiary education which becomes the basis
for the organization of a study program consists of: a) A core curriculum; and b) An
institutional curriculum. In relation to the subjects of each department in a university, based
on the decree of the Minister of Education of the Republic of Indonesia No. 045/U/2002,
the subjects of each department should be developed by each university (Depdiknas, 2002).
Regarding English, article ten, paragraph two of the decree No 232/U/2000 states that
English can be one of the subjects included in the institutional curriculum. The paragraph
reads: “In the group of institutional subjects can be included Bahasa Indonesia, English,
Basic Social Science, Basic Cultural Science, Basic Science, Philosophy of Knowledge and
Sports” (Depdiknas, 2000, p. 6).
In addition to learning English as a subject, students in the university are also obliged to
master English in line with the National Education Law (Depdiknas, 2001c). Many
universities have made English one of the requirements of graduation, especially for their
postgraduate programs. In the University of Indonesia for example, the Mathematics
department requires that its undergraduate students take an English Proficiency Test to
identify their English capacity, and before they graduate, they should pass the test
(Universitas Indonesia, 2002, http://www.math.ui.ac.id/indo/siswa/sekilas.htm).
The university where this current study took place (a state university in Bandung, West Java,
2000), requires that all candidates, especially in its postgraduate program, have a TOEFL
score of at least 450, and those who have not achieved such a score should attend a 60-hour
English course in the language centre of the university. Other universities, such as Bandung
Institute of Technology (ITB, 2001) and Trisakti University (Universitas Trisakti, 2000)
apply a similar regulation. Other colleges which are not under the Department of Education,
such as the State College of Accountancy (STAN, 2001), a college under the Financial
8

Ministry, have enacted a policy which is aimed at creating highly educated and qualified
accountants who can compete globally. This college has established a special class in which
English is used as the medium for the teaching and learning activities and only those who
pass the selection can get into this class.
1.3.3 Official Policies on English Curriculum for Secondary Education from
Indonesian Independence to the Present
The teaching of English in Indonesia dates from independence. This can be seen from the
history of the development of the curriculum of English for Junior and Senior High School.
As presented by Kasihani (2000), the journey of English curriculum development for junior
and senior high school is described in Table 1.4 below.
Table 1.4 shows that the curriculum of English has experienced changes several times with
the aim to achieve better student results in learning English. Unfortunately, it appears that in
reality the changes in the curriculum have not been followed by the changes in the
classroom. To date, teacher practice remains the same as it was in the past when the first
English curriculum was created, that is they focus on grammar. This has happened because
the changes or the developments of the curriculum have not been followed by the
development of teachers’ understanding of the concepts that underlie the curriculum
(Kasihani, 2000; Sudjana, 2000). It is said that in practice, teachers often misunderstand the
concepts of the curriculum. Therefore, Sudjana further argues, curriculum development
should involve teachers as the agents of the curriculum and it should be based on their
critical analysis of their own teaching. “The changes in the curriculum will be accepted only
if the teachers act as the main agent in the changes of the curriculum through their critical
analysis and contemplation of their own performance to achieve the expected mastery of
English” (2000, p. 38). Sudjana goes on to maintain that to better the teaching of English in
secondary schools, what is needed is not only an amendment of the curriculum, but the more
important thing is the promotion of the teachers’ competence in order that they can teach
more creatively and innovatively, and can, for example, change a boring, but useful them,
into a useful and interesting one.
9

Table 1. 4 Journey of f English Curriculum Development for Indonesian Junior and Senior High School
from Independence to the Present (Based on Kasihani, 2000)
Year English curriculum used Features
1945-
1950
Formal education could not be carried
out smoothly due to political situation.
No significant features.
1954 Kurikulum Gaya Lama (An Old Style
Curriculum)
The instructional objective was not clear;
English was taught four hours a week; using the grammar
translation method.
1962 Kurikulum gaya baru (A New Style
curriculum)
Accompanied by the teaching materials called “The
Salatiga Materials” for junior high schools;
The materials used an audio-lingual approach, in line with
the popularity of the approach in the 1960s and the 1970s
in other parts of the world.
1968 The revised New Style Curriculum,
called Kurikulum gaya baru yang
disempurnakan (Perfected New Style
Curriculum).
Still advocating the audio lingual method;
Accompanied by the teaching materials for senior high
schools, called English for the SLTA (high schools).
1975 The 1975 curriculum, based on the
decree of the minister of education
No.008-E/U/1975
Better than previous ones, having clearer instructional
objectives;
Still advocating the audio-lingual method.
1984 The 1984 curriculum (based on the
amendment of the 1975 curriculum)
Emphasising students’ active learning;
Using a communicative approach, which was considered
the best approach to teaching English, as it is even up until
now?
1994 The 1994 curriculum (based on the
revised 1984 curriculum, referring to
the input and the results of a nation-
wide research on students’ learning
mastery)
Still advocating a communicative approach.
2001 The Competence-Based curriculum Developing English using target competences, though a
close reading shows it is similar to the one it replaced.
2004 The 2004 curriculum was released Involving SFL and the SFL genre-based approach.
With respect to the release of the 2004 curriculum, through which the genre-based approach
to teaching Engkish was introduced to Indonesian schools, the socialization of the
curriculum which has been carried out so far by the government, involving some teacher
education institutions should lead to the promotion of teachers’ competence in applying the
curriculum in the class. In doing so, the release of the new curriculum will also bring about
changes in the teaching practice of English in the classroom, unlike the cases of the previous
curricula.
10

1.4 Research and Cases Portraying Performance and the Teaching of English in
Indonesia
There are several research studies and cases regarding English performance and the teaching
of English in Indonesia. The first research on English performance that is worth a mention is
the one provided by Kasihani (2000) in her presentation in the National Convention on
Indonesian Education in Jakarta. Kasihani stated that the teaching of English in Indonesia is
still problematic, confirming the results of a nation wide study, conducted in 1989-1990,
which had shown that the students of junior high school had mastered only 44.1 % of the
total set of materials and in senior high school, only 31. 48%.
Moreover, a case reported by The Director General for Vocational Secondary Education,
Priowirjanto, (the Kompas, January the 12th
, 2001) indicated that the proficiency of English
teachers in Indonesia was still worrying. The results of a TOEIC carried out in 1999, which
involved 16 model schools, showed that the range of teachers’ and students’ scores was
almost the same that is 250-800 for teachers and 200-750 for students. This meant,
Priowirjanto said, that students in several schools had a better communicative competence
than their teachers did. Moreover, the result of another TOEIC, organised in the year 2000
also indicated a similar phenomenon. From 70 teachers sitting for the TOEIC, only 6
teachers could achieve a score of more than 600, with the score ranging from 175-825 (see
also the low level of the general English proficiency of academics of Teacher Training and
Education Institutions (LPTKs) in Indonesia, based on the study conducted by Saukah,
2000).
In relation to the teaching of English in Indonesia, the Minister of Research and Technology
in the regime of Abdurrahman Wahid, A.S. Hikam said, “in Indonesia, unfortunately, the
teaching of English focuses only on the grammar of English, and
has not yet achieved its uses” (see Japan Istecs, 2000, http://japan.istecs.org/Workshop00).
This view was supported by Arief Rahman, the chief of the Indonesian national committee
for the UNESCO, who gave a similar comment and emphasized the urgency for the
teaching of English which is functional (the Kompas, April 26 , 2002).
th
11

Moreover, the rationale of the Competence-Based Curriculum also explicitly states:
The results of observations have indicated that the teaching of English in Indonesia is still very much
far from the goal of the mastery of expected macro skills. The graduates of secondary schools are not
yet able to use this language to communicate. Students of tertiary education are not yet capable of
reading English textbooks. There are various factors which have caused this failure and there is a lot
to do to better this condition. One of the ways is to adapt the syllabus in order that it is in line with the
demands of the time (Depdiknas, 2001a,b, p. 2).
Regarding the teaching of writing, specifically English writing, Alwasilah (2001, p. 24)
observed that writing is the most neglected skill in Indonesian schools. Alwasilah explains:
Writing is not only less practised, but –if anything- is also taught unprofessionally. … Writing is the
most exalted language skill, yet it has been the most neglected one in our education. Our high school
and college students are subjected to unprofessional teachers and professors. Most of the teachers
and professors lack writing skills, informed understanding of the nature of writing and teaching
strategies (2001, p. 25-26).
Surveying 100 freshmen representing high schools in West Java, Alwasilah concluded that
(i) writing was considered most difficult to learn by the majority of the students; (ii)
students were barely exposed to the practice of writing; and (iii) teachers lacked information
and knowledge on what they should do regarding their students’ composition (2001, p. 24).
From his findings, Alwasilah further insisted that Indonesian university students’ writing
capacity cannot be expected to be good, for two reasons. Firstly, students who enter
university do not have solid English writing skills, given the lack of provision of such skills
in high school education. Secondly, colleges also fail to demonstrate a strong commitment to
the development of writing skills (2001, p. 24).
This coincided with the statement from the Director General of Higher Education, Satrio
Soemantri (the Kompas, January 18th
, 2002) and the rector of Atma Jaya Catholic
University, Kridalaksana (the Kompas January 16th
, 2002) that the writing capacity of
lecturers in Indonesian universities was still low. This, it was said, constituted one of the
main reasons for the low research output in Indonesian universities. Kridalaksana further
argued that this has also been one of the results of the system of education in Indonesia,
where from primary school, students are never taught to write whole texts both in English
and Bahasa Indonesia. Kridalaksana went on to suggest that “it is not surprising if university
students’ and even university graduates’ writing ability is categorised into low” (the Kompas
January 16th
, 2002)
12

However, the release of the 2004 English curriculum, which is underpinned by systemic
functional linguistics (SFL) and involves the genre-based approach (GBA), as indicated in
the previous section, indicates the government’s awareness of the necessity of the teaching
of English which is functional and which can lead to students’ ability in using the language
in context. The incorporation of the GBA in the curriculum and the higher proportion of
curriculum time for writing may also suggest that attempts to improve students’ writing
skills have been made.
1.5 The Teaching of English in the Reform Era (since Soeharto’s Resignation)
There have been many claims that reform in Indonesia should take place, not only in the
political sector, but also in other sectors, including education, particularly language
education. In this connection, Alwasilah (2001) maintains that May 1998, when Soeharto
resigned, marked a new era of reform for all walks of Indonesian life, including education.
This new era is one of openness and transparency, when almost all social ills and injustices
are subject to public discussions. Alwasilah argues:
As public debates on politics grow intensely, many critics point their fingers at education, which, in
their judgment, has failed to provide people with knowledge, skills and wisdom. If education had
fulfilled its duty, critics assert, social ills such as corruption, collusion and nepotism would not be so
rampant. This criticism should lead teachers of English as a foreign language (EFL) and language
teachers in general, to ask themselves “What relevance, if any, does teaching EFL have to the current
social and political development?” (2001, p. 42).
Alwasilah (2001; see also Bundhowi, 2000) argues that teaching English should lead to the
development of students’ critical thinking with an appropriate logical reasoning and the
teaching of English should not be perceived simply as a process of transferring the four
language skills to students. Language education, to Alwasilah, should expose students to as
much information and controversial issues as possible, and sensitive issues such as
corruption, collusion and nepotism, have a potential for use as topics to develop critical
thinking.
In Indonesian academic discourse, since Soeharto's resignation, critical thinking has also
become a new “buzz word”, and this has been reflected in the National Development
13

Program for the year 2000-2004 on education development. Section A of the program, about
General Problems, paragraph six, mentions that one of the problems in the national
education is that “the culture of critical thinking is not yet socialized… .” (Depdiknas,
2001f, WWW.DEPDIKNAS.GO.ID).
To acquaint students with critical thinking through the use of English, a Catholic university
in Jakarta, UNIKA Atma Jaya (1999) organized a debate competition whose participants
were students from all over Indonesia. One of the purposes of the activity was to create
appropriate English speakers and critical thinkers. The organizing committee said that the
lack of English mastery was one of the obstacles to the development of human resources of
a kind that would allow Indonesians to compete with other countries. The organizing
committee went on to argue that critical thinking was not strongly rooted in Indonesia.
Moreover, it was said that the education system, which relied on indoctrination even at the
level of tertiary education, had failed to bring about critical thinkers. In a debate, it was said,
debaters needed more than mastery of the relevant language, for they also needed strong
critical capacities.
Parallel to the calls for the inclusion of critical thinking in education, in EFL in particular,
the reform era has also necessitated the practice of democracy and the inclusion of critical
pedagogy in Indonesian education in various fields. Regarding the practice of democracy in
education, it is said that the wind of democracy has been blowing in Indonesian society and
therefore it is time now to practise democracy in the classroom through the implementation
of an interactive curriculum (Hermawan, 2003,
http://www.geocities.com/hermanjul/DikDemo.htm). In addition, critical pedagogy should
be applied across the subjects of the curriculum, including religious education, as suggested
by Qodri, the Director General of Islamic institutions, the Ministry of Religion (the Media
Indonesia, April 7th
, 2003), and the teaching of history of architecture, as suggested by
Adityawarman, who proposes the application of Giroux’s postmodernism emphasizing
pluralism (http://adhistana.tripod.com/artikel/makalah1.txt). In terms of the application of
critical pedagogy, some writers, like Q-Anees (2002) and Hermawan (2003,
http://www.geocities.com/hermanjul/DikDemo.htm) also refer to Freire’s theory. Hermawan
14

as mentioned above, offers an “interactive education system as a solution to develop
students’critical capacity”. In addition, Fanani (2002) and Musthafa, 2003
http://www.bpgupg.go.id/strategy3.htm) propose a pluralistic-multicultural and liberating
education. Finally, the need for the application of critical pedagogy can also be seen from
the organization of a seminar on the possibility of applying a liberating education from a
gender perspective, conducted in various provinces, as released in the Swara Rahima (2003,
http://www.rahima.or.id/SR/07-03/Kiprah1.htm).
In addition to the changes of the curriculum or system of education, another stage which
should be taken, as Hermawan (2003, http://www.geocities.com/hermanjul/DikDemo.htm)
writes, is to shift students into “written thought”. Students should be given a chance and
capacity to put their ideas into well-structured written composition. This, Hermawan further
maintains, can help learners to expand/distribute ideas to a larger number of people, because
the distribution of written thought will be more effective to reach wider society.
1.6 The Teaching of English Writing in the Research Site
This current study was undertaken in the English department of a state university in
Bandung, West Java, Indonesia. The department has two programs: an educational program
whose graduates will become teachers of English, and a non-educational program, whose
graduates are not planning to become teachers. The number of students in each class of each
program is big, around 40-50. English is the major for all students in the department and
four main English skills, namely speaking, writing, reading and listening, are taught as
separate subjects.
Writing is taught in five semesters, from semester two until semester six, two credits in
every semester, with one credit equaling 50 minutes classroom teaching/learning activity. In
the general description of the syllabus of writing subjects, it is stated:
Writing courses (Writing I-V) are intended to equip students with knowledge and skills which would
enable learners to engage in writing activities for various differing communicative purposes using
resources (linguistic or otherwise) available to them at any given time. The focus is, then, on knowledge
of rhetorical conventions as well as the process of writing. The topics for students’ writing may range
from those based on their own experience, the experience of others, and printed sources written by
others. As a terminal goal, the final stage of the writing instruction (i.e., Writing V) should enable
15

learners to engage in academic writing activities such as responding to editorials, report writing, and
self-sponsored essay writing (Course Description for Writing, 1999; see Appendix 1 for the syllabi of
writing courses).
Based on the researcher’s observation in the research site, it was evident that most students
found writing a difficult subject. In the journals made at the end of every semester by
students whom the researcher taught, the majority of students mentioned writing was one of
the most difficult subjects. This has been confirmed by the fact that the number of students
who complete their bachelor’s degree by writing a thesis is always far lower than that of
those who take several courses as substitutes for the thesis. In the year 2000, for example,
the number of students who graduated by writing a thesis was 22 out of 84.
In reference to the description of the syllabus of writing courses above, there are several
possible reasons for this problem. The first one is to do with insufficiently allocated time for
writing, which is two credits per week, per semester. If writing is taught as a craft, not as a
“one shot activity”, which needs a lot of practice, guidance and feedback, two credits for
teaching writing in big classes (as described above) is not sufficient. It will be very difficult
for the teacher to help students develop their writing skills in such a short period of time in a
big class.
The second reason concerns the contradiction between the purpose of writing instruction and
the syllabi. Despite the purpose of the courses as mentioned above, the syllabus for each
writing course, Writing I –III, and even writing IV and V seem to envisage only paragraph
development. The courses do not provide sufficient practice and opportunity for students to
become competent writers of a variety of genres.
Finally, the fact that students need to sit for the midterm and final tests indicates that the
teaching of writing still follows “the traditional one-off writing task” (Gibbons, 2002, p. 67).
This kind of test does not give students appropriate time to go through the process of
writing, starting from researching the topic, outlining, drafting, revising, editing and
proofreading, all of which can help sharpen students’ critical thinking and critical literacy.
16

However, with the socialization of the GBA by the department and the involvement of
lecturers of the department in the nation-wide upgrading of English teachers regarding the
GBA, the teaching of writing in the department and thus students’ writing capacity will
improve.
1.7 The Significance of the Study
The study reported here, in the light of the problems reviewed, has sought to do the
following:
(1) to address problems of teaching English academic writing in a tertiary context in
Indonesia, using a genre-based approach;
(2) to test ways of developing critical capacities (critical thinking and critical literacy) in
EFL students in such a context;
(3) to investigate the possibilities and values of implementing an interactive or dialogic
curriculum (where the teacher, like his/her students, is an apprenrice, whos is also
seeking) in a democratic classroom in Indonesia.
It is claimed that the study is significant in that (i) it attempts to integrate and synthesise
perspectives and approaches from several areas of research about development of critical
capacities in an English language program and (ii) it seeks to do this in a country where
such approaches have rarely hitherto been attempted. Moreover, in terms of critical literacy,
as this study focuses not only on reading, but also writing (while most work on critical
literacy focuses on reading, as Kamler, 2001, suggests) this study is expected to enrich the
literature on critical writing pedagogy.
Lastly, regarding the 2004 English curriculum, which involves the GBA, the study, which
dealt with the GBA and started before the establishment of the curriculum, can be of great
significance. The results of the study are both timely and important in terms of providing
English educators and secondary English teachers in Indonesia with an interesting
background to, and useful practical activities and directions for successful implementation
of the new curriculum, the GBA in particular in their classes.
17

1.8 Outline of the Thesis
The subsequent chapters will be framed as follows. Chapter 2 explores relevant literature
concerning the theories that have given shape to this study, particularly to do with the
notions of critical thinking (CT), critical pedagogy (CP), critical literacy (CL) and systemic
functional linguistics (SFL). The chapter will suggest that a synthesis of the four areas is
possible and desirable. Chapter 3 outlines the design and methodology of the study. This
includes a description of the research question, participants, setting, data collections and
analyses as well as systemic functional grammar (SFG) as a tool for students’ texts analyses.
Chapter 4 focuses on a detailed delineation of the teaching program conducted, steps taken
in the process of data collections as well as analyses of some parts of the data obtained,
particularly from students’ journals and observations. Chapter 5 offers a discussion of
students’ texts analyses using SFG, from which students’ critical capacity will also be
discussed. Chapter 6 gives a discussion on interview data. The thesis will be concluded with
Chapter 7, providing conclusions drawn from discussions in Chapters 4, 5, and 6, as well as
limitations of the study and recommendations for further research. It will be argued that the
study as reported here demonstrated the value of the teaching program which involved a
synthesis of approaches from several areas of research including critical thinking (CT),
critical pedagogy (CP), critical literacy (CL) and systemic functional linguistics (SFL).
From students’ text analyses which will be presented in Chapter 5, students showed
improvements in their control of the target academic texts they wrote. In addition, from the
discussion in Chapters 4 and 6, students also demonstrated a developing interest in critical
issues and they participated with some success in the interactive classroom. The study is a
small scale one, and with longer time and greater opportunity the students might well have
made greater progress. The evidence overall suggests the potential of the pedagogy for
teaching English academic writing in Indonesia. It will be recommended in Chapter 7 that
further studies be conducted to test the methodology further.
18

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter reviews the relevant literature that informs the research work undertaken in a
tertiary institution in Indonesia, where students were studying English as a foreign language.
The literature falls into four fundamental areas. The first of these, to be discussed in Section
2.2, is associated with critical thinking (CT) drawn from the CT movement (e.g. Paul, 1993,
2002; Norris and Ennis, 1990; McPeck,1981,1990; Siegel, 1988, 1997), and concerns
identifying clear CT skills and applying these skills in reading and writing. A second broad
area, discussed in Section 2.3, is associated with liberationist theories of education known as
critical pedagogy (CP), drawn from the work in developing countries, like Brazil (e.g.
Freire, 1971; Freire and Macedo, 1987) as well as advanced countries, like the United States
(Giroux, 1981; 1988a,b, 1992a,b; 1997). It will be argued that CP shares some broad
commonality with the theory of CT, but has its own distinctive way of defining criticality
(critical capacity) and pedagogic practices (Burbules and Berk, 1999; see also Keesing-
Styles, 2003). A third area, discussed in Section 2.4, known as that of critical literacy (CL),
seeks to develop critical perspectives on reading and writing of texts, interrogating their
representations and values. It will be argued that although the form of CL adopted in this
study has been given shape by all the theories reviewed in this study (the CT movement,
discussed in Section 2.2, CP in Section 2.3 and the genre-based approach (GBA) in Section
2.5), the discussion of the section will focus on CL from a critical social theory of literacy
(e.g. Heath, 1983; Lankshear, 1994; 1997; Luke and Freebody, 1990, 1997a,b), supported by
another orientation to CL, that is critical textual analysis, particularly critical language
awareness (CLA) (e.g. Wallace, 1992a,b, 2001). A fourth area, to be discussed in Section
2.5 concerns systemic functional linguistic (SFL) theory (e.g. Halliday, 1975, 1994a). It will
be shown that SFL is relevant to this study for at least three reasons. Firstly it is committed
to a social model of literacy that is related to the theories of CL reviewed in Section 2.4;
secondly, it offers a genre-based model of pedagogy, which, it will be argued, complements
the theory of CP discussed in Section 2.3 and to some extent concurs with the CT movement
discussed in Section 2.2; thirdly, it offers an analytical tool for close study of the texts
students produced.
19

It will be suggested overall that each broad area of theory reviewed has informed the study
reported in this thesis and that a synthesis of these four broad areas of research and theory
can be shown to offer a possible critical genre-based pedagogy for the teaching of English in
a contemporary society/country such as Indonesia.
2.2.Critical Thinking (CT)
Critical thinking (CT) as a topic has enjoyed renewed interest and attention recently. At a
broad level, the theory of CT shares some common concerns with other theories reviewed in
this chapter (especially CP and CL). As CT has been central to radical education (Giroux,
1992a; Giancarlo and Facione, 2001) theorists in the fields argue that critical education,
which helps to make people more critical in thought and action, can increase freedom and
enlarge the scope of human possibilities (Burbules and Berk, 1999, p. 46; Giancarlo and
Facione, 2001). The main distinctive feature of the theory of CT in education is to do with
its idea that specific reasoning skills undergrid the curriculum as a whole, at all levels of
schooling. While it may well encourage discernment in relation to the social and human
condition, CT does not specifically demand social action (as CP suggests). CT is primarily
aimed at the individual, and it largely ignores the pedagogical relations, which occur
between teacher and learner or between learners (Burbules and Berk, 1999; see also
Canagarajah, 2002, p. 96-103 on a similar observation on differences between CP and CT).
The CT tradition concerns itself primarily with criteria of epistemic adequacy, aiming at
self-sufficiency, and “a self-sufficient person is a liberated person … free from the
unwarranted and undesirable control of unjustified beliefs” (Siegel, 1988, p. 58; see also
Burbules and Berk, 1999, p.46-47). The theorists of CT see that “that person who is so well
educated that she or he is able to think for him or herself is the person whose mind is
liberated”(Schneider and Shoenberg, 1998, cited in Giancarlo and Facione, 2001, p. 29).
This section will take up several issues of CT relevant to this study, including the concept of
CT used in this study, essential components of CT emphasized in this study, the teaching
and assessment of CT, the relationship between CT and literacy (reading and writing) and
criticisms of the CT movement.
20

2.2.1 The Concept of CT
The concept of CT used in this study has been shaped by the CT movement, representing
diverse points of view, including psychology (e.g. Sternberg, 1987; Nickerson, 1987);
philosophy (e.g. Paul, 1990, 1993, 2002; Chaffee, 2000; Ennis, 1987, 1992; Ennis and
Noris, 1989; McPeck, 1981, 1990) and education (e.g. Nickerson, Perkins, Smith, 1985;
Perkins, 1987; 1992). The concept particularly captures dimensions reflected in its
etymology, major definitions and explanations in the literature, the tradition of research into
CT and the basic values it presupposes (Paul et al,
http://www.criticalthinking.org/schoolstudy.htm; see also Chaffee, 2000).
Etymologically, the word critical derives from two Greek roots: “kriticos”, meaning
discerning judgment, and “criterion” meaning standards (Paul et al,
http://www.criticalthinking.org/schoolstudy.htm; see also Chaffee, 2000, p. 45 for the
definition of the word critical). The word critical, Paul et al argue, is also characterized by
careful analysis and judgment and by an attempt at objective judgment so as to determine
both merits and faults. Applied to thinking, then CT can be defined as thinking that
explicitly aims at well-founded judgments and hence it utilises appropriate evaluative
standards in the attempt to determine the true worth, merit, or value of something (Paul et al,
http://www.criticalthinking.org/schoolstudy.htm). To be critical for the CT tradition
basically means:
to be more discerning in recognizing faulty arguments, hasty generalizations, assertions lacking
evidence, truth claims based on unreliable authority, ambiguous or obscure concepts, and so forth
(Burbules and Berk, 1999, p. 46).
In the literature there is an issue of generalisability of CT, of which there are two
conceptions: the general and the subject-specific conceptions (Bailin, 1992, 1994, 2002;
Burbules and Berk, 1999; Thayer-Bacon, 2000; Barnett, 1997; Siegel, 1988, 1997). The
general conception, despite its emphasis on content knowledge, says CT can be
characterized as a set of generalized abilities and dispositions which can be utilized or
applied across a variety of situations and circumstances (see Norris, 1992; Ennis, 1992;
Paul, 2002: Nosich, 2001; Reichenbach, 2001; Siegel, 1988, 1997) and that CT transfers to
other domains of knowledge (Halpern, 2003, p. 360). The subject-specific conception, on
21

the other hand, sees CT as a form of thinking specific to particular cognitive frameworks,
and discipline-specific, depending on knowledge of what constitutes good reason in a
discipline, which in turn requires extensive knowledge of the subject matter (McPeck, 1981;
1990; Brookfield, 2003). The subject-specific conceptionists, such as McPeck (1981, p. 3)
argue that “thinking is always thinking about something. To think about nothing is a
conceptual impossibility.”
Despite a heated debate between the two conceptions (see McPeck, 1981, 1990; Paul (1990,
1993; and The generalisability of CT, edited by Norris, 1992), it is argued in this study that
the two conceptions are complementary (Siegel, 1988: Nickerson, Perkins and Smith, 1985).
It is true that CT needs knowledge (Sternberg, 1987, p. 254; Nickerson, Perkins, Smith,
1985) and has to have an object (Barnett, 1997, p. 65), that we cannot think critically unless
we know about the topic and the issue that we have to think of (McPeck, 1981, 1990;
Brookfield, 2003). However, it is also true that a critical thinker must have CT skills, tactics
and standards to assess his or her knowledge and reason, to warrant beliefs, claims and
actions properly, as general conceptionists (Norris, 1992; Ennis, 1987, 1992; Paul, 1992;
2002; Siegel, 1988, 1997; Reichenbach, 2001-to mention only a few) propose.
The interdependency between the background knowledge and thinking skills and the
necessity to teach both have been observed by CT theorists, such as Lazere (1987); Lipman
(1991, 2003); Paul (2002); Perkins (1987a,b); Siegel (1988, 1992); Sternberg (1987); Thayer
and Bacon (2000). Sternberg (1987), for example, argues:
Thinking cannot occur in the absence of knowledge. One needs something to think about. It is a mistake
to concentrate only upon knowledge to the exclusion of thinking skills, because such concentration risks
generating students who know a lot but who are unable to evaluate their knowledge. It is equally a
mistake to concentrate only on thinking skills, because the results may be students who know how to
think but who have nothing to think about (1987, p. 254; see also Nickerson, Perkins and Smith, 1985,
p. 49-50; Reichenbach, 2001, p. 30 for a similar observation).
This follows that CT is also connected to the manner of teaching – the critical manner
(Siegel, 1988, p. 45) meaning the manner of teaching that models, reinforces and encourages
in students the skills, habits and dispositions necessary for the development of students’ CT.
22

Thus, definitions of CT used in this study have been drawn from the work of general
conceptionists, particularly Paul (2002); Nosich, 2001; Moore and Parker (1995), and the
subject-specific conceptionists, especially Mc Peck (1981, 1990, 1992).
CT is a careful, deliberate determination of whether we should accept, reject, or suspend judgment about
claim - and of the degree of confidence with which we accept or reject it (Moore and Parker, 1995, p. 4).
CT is based on articulately intellectual standards and hence is intrinsically subject to assessment by
those standards. Criteria for the assessment of thinking in all domains are based on such general
standards as: clarity, precision, accuracy, relevance, significance, fairness, logic, depth, and breadth,
evidentiary support, probability predictive or explanatory power. … There is an intimate interrelation
between knowledge and thinking (Paul, 2002, p. 3). CT involves using knowledge to bring about
reasonable changes (Lipman, 2003, p. 211).
CT is a skillfull thinking that is conducive to good judgment because it is sensitive to context, relies on
criteria, and is self correcting (Lipman, cited in Nosich, 2001, p. 46; see also Lipman, 2003, p. 205-220).
CT is always thinking about X, manifests itself in connection with some identifiable activity or subject
area and never in isolation (McPeck, 1981, p. 13; see also McPeck, 1990, 1992).
The various definitions of CT (and the etymology of the word critical) above reveal a
commitment to values of careful judgment, reflection, self assessment or correction,
contemplation (Nickerson, 1987, p. 32), objectivity, where the latter involves using
objective factors to make decisions (Zechmeister and Johnson, 1992, p. 6; Langrehr, 1994),
and sensitivity to context (Lipman, 1991, 2003). All these, it is said, can be developed
through, among others, nurturing careful use of language (Nickerson, 1987, p. 35), and
sensitivity to different language uses (Salmon, 1989, p. 33), which in this study was through
reading and writing texts. It will be argued later as an aspect of this study that nurturing of
such critical language capacities is an important part of genre-based pedagogy, which will
be discussed in Section 2.5.
With respect to the traditions of studies into CT, like other studies, this study reflects the
perception that “human thinking left to itself often gravitates toward prejudice, over
generalization, common fallacies, self deception, rigidity and narrowness” (Paul et al,
http://www.criticalthinking.org/schoolstudy.htm).Thus, based on the urgent need for CT in
Indonesia, as discussed in Chapter 1 Section 1.5, this study attempts to seek ways to train
students so that errors, blunders and distortions of thought can be minimized.
23

2.2.2 Essential Components of CT
There are several components of CT in the literature that should be envisaged in CT
instruction. These include: arguments, the issue, reasons, facts and opinion (Moore and
Parker, 1995; Reichenbach, 2001; Picciotto, 2000; Diestler, 2001; Toulmin, 1971; Toulmin,
et al, 1984) (see Appendix 4.5, on the hand out given to the students).
The concept of argument in this study is not associated with negative connotations of a kind
of verbal battle or disagreement between two persons (Kurfiss, 1988; Boylan, 1988;
Diestler, 2001; van Eemeren et al, 2002). The notion of argument used in this study, which
is the heart of CT (Bowell and Kemp, 2002, p. 5) refers to:
The sequence of interlinked claims and reasons that, between them, establish the content and force of
the position for which a particular speaker (or writer) is arguing (Toulmin et al, 1984, p. 14).
The promotion of students’ capacity to argue has been considered as one way to promote
student’s CT (Mc Peck, 1990, p. 52; Norris and Ennis, 1990), and this has been emphasized
even in natural sciences, where the claim to demonstrable empirical truth might seem to be
most unassailable (Bizzell, 1992, p. 9; see also Bazerman, 1988; Kelly and Bazerman,
2003). Regarding this, Kuhn suggests:
One could not say that a theory prevailed because it was presented in discourse so transparent that the
convincing power of the evidence supporting the theory was conveyed in the most unfiltered way.
Rather, one would have to say that a theory prevailed because it and its supporting evidence were
presented in discourse that argued the way scientists were prepared by training, by their socialization
to their discipline, to hear a position argued (cited in Bizzell, 1992, p. 9).
The teaching of arguments in this study focused on promoting students’ capacity “to
construct arguments systematically, following a line of reasoning consistently to a
conclusion” (Zechmeister and Johnson, 1992, p. 6) and to organize the information they
received into meaningful clusters of units (sentences, concepts and schemata), which is
called “information-organisation skills” (1991, 2003). The promotion of this capacity is
relevant to the aim of the GBA, which will be discussed later. The teaching of argument also
focused on identifying arguments and their components, such as claims, grounds, warrants,
backings, qualifiers, and rebuttals (Toulmin, et al, 1984; see also Nickerson, Perkins, and
Smith, 1985, p. 290-294; Currie, 1994; Connor, 1996, Furlough, 2003 and Appendix 4.5 for
detailed explanation of each component).
24

Other components essential to CT were also emphasized, such as: the issue, the question that
is being addressed (Diestler, 2001; Bowell and Kemp, 2002); the main or primary question
the author asks and then goes on to answer (Reichenbach, 2001; Bowell and Kemp, 2002);
reason, the central point of an argument, as it provides support for claims (Toulmin et al,
1984, Beyer, 1997, Diestler, 2001, p. 9), and it is by means of reasoning that we extend and
defend claims or knowledge (Lipman, 2003, p. 179); facts, which is what actually happened,
what is true (Glossary of CT: F-H, 2001), verifiable by empirical means, distinguished from
interpretation, inference, judgment (Picciotto, 2000) and opinions, something that may be
believed to be true, but questionable or debatable (Picciotto, 2000). Students’ capacity to
differentiate facts and opinions in particular constitute a critical importance in academic
discourse, as Hyland (1999, p. 106) suggests.
A further matter emphasized in this study concerns CT standards, which become a central
element in a CT instruction, as Paul suggests that “thinking skills programs without
intellectual standards are tailor-made for misinstruction … as the idea is to help students to
make sound arguments” (1990, p. 92). CT standards also allow students to monitor their
thinking and reasoning (Nosich, 2001; Paul, 1993, 2002; Barnett, 1997) and can be regarded
as a way of gauging how well CT skills are performed (English, 2002; Beyer, 1995; Barnett,
1997, p. 70-71). These standards include commitments to clarity in arguments, relevance of
data and evidence used to the main point, accuracy of the quality of the arguments, depth
and breadth and sufficiency in the arguments and precision in the sense of being specific
about detail (see Appendix 4.5). Students were also encouraged to be alert to stereotypes,
ambiguous and vague language (Bowel and Kemp, 2002; Browne and Keeley, 1988;
Chaffee et al, 2002; Lipman, 2003).
To follow the work of Beyer (1997), Ennis, (1987, p. 12-15); Nickerson (1987); Siegel
(1997) and Zechmeister and Johnson (1992, p. 6-7), the study also focused on some
dispositions and abilities that a critical thinker usually has (which, according to Siegel, 1997,
p. 27, along with attitudes, habits of mind and character traits, are understood as components
of “a critical spirit”). These include encouraging students (i) to be well-informed, using and
mentioning credible sources; (ii) to be open-minded, considering seriously other points of
25

view than their own and withholding judgment when the evidence and reasons are
insufficient; (iii) to take a position or a stance (and change a position) when the evidence
and reasons are sufficient to do so (which to Hyland, 1999, p. 106, is an important feature of
academic writing); (iv) to be objective, using objective factors to make decisions and
avoiding being influenced by emotional or subjective factors (see Langrehr, 1994); (v) to be
honest intellectually, accepting statements as true even when they don’t agree with one’s
own position; (vi) to have respect for other viewpoints, to be willing to admit that he/she is
wrong and that others may be right (see also Wilks, 2004, p. ix) and (vii) to be systematic:
following a line of reasoning consistently to a conclusion. The focus of these dispositions
also aimed to lead to students’ ability in interacting with others, especially in presenting
argumentation and a position, oral or written (Ennis, 1987, p. 14).
Part of encouraging CT dispositions, as the literature of CT suggests, is a matter of
enhancing students’ capacity to be alert to some fallacies in reasoning, including:
- Provincialism: the tendency to accept or reject ideas on the basis of experience in
one’s own group or society;
- Hasty conclusion or generalisation: Drawing conclusions from too little evidence or
from unrepresentative samples;
- A classic case of faulty analogy: Comparing one situation or idea to another and
disregard significant differences that make this comparison invalid;
- Begging the questions, circularity: Endorsing without proof of some form of the very
question at issue;
- Irrelevant reasons/causes: The reasons given in support of a conclusion are
irrelevant to the truth or falsity of the conclusion (see Boylan, 1988; Dietler, 2001;
Fulkerson, 1996; Kahane, 1984; Kurfiss, 1988; McPeck, 1981; Thomas, 1986;
Toulmin et al, 1984; Picciotto, 2000).
The dispositions and abilities above, the theory says, can be fostered through some activities
to make up CT (Chaffee, 2000, p. 44), especially through: carefully exploring situations with
questions; viewing situations from different perspectives: a willingness to listen to and
examine carefully other views and new ideas; “a willingness to learn from others, often
26

from the voices he/she dislikes” (Askeland
http://www3.wittenberg.edu/laskeland/critical_thinking.htm) and discussing ideas in an
organised way: exchanging ideas in the process of “take and give” (Chaffee, 2000, p. 69; see
also Tsui, 2002). Regarding discussion, McPeck maintains:
Not only do discussion and argument enable students to understand the disciplines more deeply, in an
epistemological sense, but they enable students to partake in autonomous discourse about these things.
It helps to provide those characteristics in students which, we all agree, are desirable: those
characteristics which many people regard as tantamount to critical thinking (Mc Peck, 1990, p. 50).
Activities emphasized in discussions, which can also improve reasoning skills (Grant, 1988)
are based on the suggestion from Chaffee (2000, p. 70-73) and will be discussed in Chapter
4 Section 4.3.1.2.
Moreover, in line with the emphasis of the above-mentioned aspects, this study focused on
the enhancement of students’ thinking skills, especially three major skills most relevant to
educational purposes, as proposed by Lipman (1991, 2003, p. 178-186, see Appendix 4).
These are inquiry (self-correcting practice) skills, reasoning skills, and information-
organization skills.
Finally, throughout the program, students were encouraged to enhance their metacognition,
which is the awareness and control of their own thinking (Flavell, 1976, cited in Baron,
1987, p. 229; Costa, 2003, p. 61; Marzano, et al, 1988) through, among others, writing on
what they had trouble learning; and taking notes of what they read before they forgot it
(Baron, 1987, p. 229; Costa, 2003, p. 61), planning and revising their writing (Marzano et al,
1988), which happens to be relevant to the suggestion from the genre-based approach (the
GBA) (see Chapter 4, Section 4.3.2.2). Students were also made aware of some
assumptions, that learning to think takes time and practice (Beyer, 1997); and that thinking
is hard work; and that all human beings can continue to develop the capacity for thinking
throughout their lifetimes (Costa, 2003, p. 54).
2.2.3 The Teaching and Assessment of CT
There is a general suggestion that CT should be taught directly and explicitly (Paul, 1993;
27

Norris and Ennis, 1989; Eichhorn, http://www.amsc.belvoir.army.mil/roy.html; Costa, 2003;
De Bono, 1976; 1991). There are in fact three broad approaches to the teaching of CT,
which are the general approach, the infusion approach and the mixed approach (Bailin,
1994; Ennis, 1992; Jones and Idol, 1990; Sternberg, 1987).
The general approach attempts to teach CT abilities and dispositions separately from the
presentation of the existing subject-matter offerings. Although this approach does involve
content, the primary purpose of this approach is to teach students to think critically, using
non-school subject contexts (Sternberg, 1987, p. 254: Bailin, 1994).
The infusion approach involves infusion of CT instruction in subject matter instruction, in
which students are encouraged to think critically in the subject, and in which general
principles of CT dispositions and abilities are made explicit (Ennis, 1992, p. 23; see also
Kurfiss, 1988; Jones and Idol, 1990; Bailin, 1994).
The mixed approach consists of the combination of the general approach with the infusion
approach. This approach involves a separate course aimed at teaching general principles of
CT, but students are also involved in subject specific CT instruction. It is this approach
which was employed in this study, as Chapter 4 will show, and given the debate about the
general and subject-specific conceptions of CT (above), this approach is ideal (Sternberg,
1987, p.255).
With respect to assessment, which is still problematic in this theory, especially in selecting
appropriate performance measures for determining whether thinking ability has been
improved (Nickerson, Perkins and Smith, 1985, p. 316; see also Norris and Ennis, 1990;
Ennis, 2003; Norris, 2003), this study used some techniques for gathering information on
students’ CT as suggested by Norris and Ennis (1990). These, as will be described in
Chapter 3, include interview, journals, classroom observations and students’ argumentative
texts. To judge the enhancement of thinking skills, the study used some criteria regarding
intellectual performance in a general way (Nickerson, Perkins and Smith, 1985), referring to
some CT standards (Nosich, 1995; Hughes, 2000; Lipman, 2003), dispositions and abilities
28

that a critical thinker usually has, as well as activities that make up CT emphasised in this
study, as described above. Moreover, argumentative text analyses using SFG enables the
researcher “to read representations in the texts critically”(Threadgold, 1994, p. 22) and to
judge CT improvement using the criteria to assess arguments, including the structure of
arguments (see Chaffee, 2000; Chaffee, et al, 2002; Hughes, 2000; Lipman, 2003) “the
evidence of among others, development of thoughtful, careful work habit, ability to see
things from another perspective or from another person’s point of view”, as Nickerson,
Perkins and Smith (1985) also propose. Students’ CT improvement was also assessed in
terms of the presence of fallacies (as mentioned above) or “weaknesses that detract from the
soundness of an argument” (Hughes, 2000, p. 114).
2.2.4 The Relationship between CT and Literacy (Reading and Writing)
The relationship between CT and literacy has been taken up by many writers, among them,
Anderson (1998), Chaffee et al (2002), and Fisher (1990). Anderson (1998), for example, to
quote Paul (1993), argues that critical writing promotes critical reading and critical thinking,
which in turns enhances critical writing (see also Tsui, 2002 for a similar observation on the
impact of the process of writing on the development of CT). Similarly, Fisher (1990) states:
Literacy, the ability to read and write, encourages a more abstract form of thinking, it brings greater
precision to the definition of terms, and it allows us to refer back, to think about our thinking, to weigh
arguments, to supplement memory, …, to communicate with others, and to learn in autonomous ways.
No wonder such a powerful form of intelligence provides the key to success in school and beyond
(1990, p. 5).
To the CT movement, critical reading (and writing) is critical thinking applied to the process
of reading and writing (Anderson, 1998; Kurlan, 2000; Chaffee et al, 2002; see also
Creighton, 1997 for the inclusion of CT in a CL program). “Critical reading (and writing)
refers to a careful, active, reflective, analytic reading (and writing)” (Kurlan, 2000, p. 1).
Applied in ESL/EFL contexts, critical reading and writing can imply “a careful, active,
reflective and analytic reading and writing in ESL or EFL” (Kabilan Bin Abdullah, 2000,
http://www.eltnewsletter.com/back/June2000/art192000.shtml). Critical ESL/EFL learners
are then learners who are able to carefully and deliberately determine whether to accept,
reject, or suspend judgment about a claim, to try to advance their knowledge by trying to see
29

an issue from various perspectives and to assess their thinking with standards in ESL or
EFL.
To the CT movement, in critical reading and writing students should be encouraged to ask
questions relevant to the CT standards, such as clarity, accuracy, relevance, and precision
(Thomas, 1986; Bates, 1990; Nosich, 2001) (see also the hand out given to the students in
Appendix 4 for questions used to interrogate these standards). Questions of clarification and
/or challenge, such as “why…” (Ennis, 1987, p. 12) or “What are the reasons of X to believe
Y? Do you think it is right?” (McPeck, 1990, p. 51) are also considered important for
students’ CT development, to allow students to perform and engage in autonomous thinking.
Regarding the concept of text, the CT movement shares with other theories reviewed in this
study, in that a text “provides but one portrayal of the facts, one individual’s take on the
subject matter” (Kurlan, 2000, p. 1). To the CT movement, critical readers recognise the
various ways in which each and every text is the unique creation of a unique author.
Moreover, like other theories reviewed in this study (especially critical pedagogy and critical
literacy), the CT movement argues for multiple and authentic materials (see examples given
in Chaffee et al, 2002; Reichenbach, 2001; Moore and Parker, 1995), socially relevant cases
(Burbules and Berk, 1999, p. 55) and controversial topics to enable students to see and learn
from other voices, including those with which they are in disagreement (Chaffee et al,
2002). Moreover, in reading and writing that can guide to CT, the theory of CT to some
extent shares with SFL text analysis as applied in the GBA, in that it starts with the
organisation, the author’s purpose, then to the elements of the texts and how each element
works, as Browne and Keeley (1986) propose.
2.2.5. Criticisms of the CT Movement
The first criticism has typically taken the form of an attack on the rationalistic underpinnings
of its epistemology: that its reliance on empirical evidence excludes other sources of
evidence or forms of verification (experience, emotion, feeling) - in short, that its alleged
30

masculinist way of knowing is different from “women’s ways of knowing” (Beleny et al,
1986; Thayer-Bacon, 1993, cited in Burbules and Berk, 1999, p. 57).
Other criticisms are to do with little substantiated knowledge on effective pedagogy coming
from research on CT and very few studies on CT among tertiary students examine the
impact of instructional factors (Tsui, 2002, see also http://www.questia.com). In terms of
assessment in particular, it is said that although there are published tests that can be used to
evaluate the development of CT and the effectiveness of a program, these tests, as
Nickerson, Perkins and Smith (1985, p. 317) argue, prompt two observations. First, clearly
there is a diversity of opinion regarding what constitutes an appropriate test. Second, not
only do many available tests focus on certain aspects of thinking to the exclusion of others,
but they may not always do an adequate job for measuring what they are intended to
measure.
2.2.6 Summary of Discussion of CT
This section has focused on the discussion of CT, including the concept of CT adopted in
this study; or some components of CT (such as arguments, the issue, reason, facts and
opinions, some dispositions and abilities, as well as activities that make up CT); and
provides a brief account of three approaches to teaching CT (the general approach, the
infusion approach and the mix approach). It is hoped that the inclusion of these aspects can
generate in students critical capacities which are of vital importance in Indonesian education
and society in the Reform era, as outlined in Chapter 1, Section 1.5.
As the ability to think critically is generally regarded as a major goal of academic instruction
(Glaser, 1980, cited in English, 2002; Norris, 1992) and the purpose of a radical education
(Giroux, 1992a), the question has emerged as to “what is the role of schools and teachers in
the classroom to help students achieve a functional level of criticality?” (see Horn, Jr, 2000).
Moreover, as the need for the inclusion of CT in Indonesian education is also parallel to the
calls for the changes in Indonesian curriculum and practice of education, into a more
interactive and empowering curriculum (see Chapter 1, Section 1.5), the subsequent section
31

will deal with critical pedagogy (CP) particularly some principles which are considered to be
able to encourage students’ critical capacities and the practice of dialogic and interactive
education. These are of critical importance to the current Indonesian education and society
in general.
2.3. Critical Pedagogy (CP)
Critical pedagogy (CP) has been very much influenced by critical theory (Brookfield, 1995;
Kanpol, 1999; Morgan, 1999; Wink, 2000) and is actually “the doing of critical theory”
(Kanpol, 1999, p. 27). Thus influenced, CP is a struggle for freedom (Freire, 1985), for
empowerment of both teachers and students (Cummins, 1996).
While the CT tradition is concerned primarily with criteria of epistemic adequacy, aiming at
self-sufficiency, CP begins from a very different starting point. It regards specific belief
claims, not primarily as propositions to be assessed for their truth content, but as part of
systems of belief and action that have aggregate effects within the power structures of
society. It asks first about these systems of belief and action, “who benefits?” The primary
preoccupation of CP is with social injustice and how to transform inequitable, undemocratic,
or oppressive institutions and social relations (Burbules and Berk, 1999, p. 47). In the
language of CP, the critical person is one who is empowered to seek justice, to seek
emancipation. Not only is the critical person adept at recognizing injustice but, for CP, that
person is also moved to change (Burbules and Berk, 1999; see also Benesch, 2001). CP aims
to develop students’ critical awareness of those oppressive social forces, including school
structures and knowledges (Morgan, 1997, p. 6).
The distinctive feature of CP, apart from some common concerns with other theories
(reviewed in this study, such as the CT movement and the GBA), as Luke and Walton
(1994) put it, is that it:
Retains an instructional emphasis on expression and negotiation on the marginal and oppressed “self”.
It stops short of calling for direct instruction and explicit knowledge of specialized written genre and
textual techniques. Relatedly, it presupposes that critical and powerful competence with these genres
and techniques can evolve from a pedagogy which is centered on voice (1994, p. 1196; see also
Kincheloe and Steiner, 1998; and Pennycook, 2001 about the place of teaching method in CP).
32

However, as critical theory and pedagogic reality are so often in disagreement, it is argued in
this study that teachers who apply CP must be situationally attentive. They must work with
the cultural and cognitive complexities represented by students’ varying personalities,
learning styles, genders, developmental levels, ideologies and backgrounds (Brookfield,
1995, p. 209). Therefore, like other participatory approaches to literacy instruction, this
current study is context specific (Auerbach, 1996, 1999; Kincheloe and Steinberg, 1998;
O’Brien, 2001; Pari, 1999), in two senses. First is that the principles of CP used in this study
are only those relevant to the current Indonesian condition /context; and second is that the
principles of CP adopted are synthesized with those from other related theories reviewed in
this study.
There are mainly two theorists, whose work has significantly contributed to this study. First
of all is Freire (1971, 1993), whose work in a developing country (although Freire’s work
does not only apply to developing or the Third World countries, as suggested by Gadotti,
1994, p. 126), in a way, is relevant to the Indonesian situation today. Underpinned by critical
theory, Freire (1971) in his work with peasant students in Brazil, who had been oppressed
and saw themselves part of reality or part of nature: “more part of the world than
transformers of the world” (Bizzell, 1992, p. 21), sees education as political. Freire’s CL
aims to arouse students’ awareness of oppression imposed on them through conscientization,
which refers to “learning to perceive social, political, and economic contradictions, and to
take action against the oppressive elements of reality” (Freire, 1970, p.1; 1993, p. 17).
Accordingly, Freirian CL emphasises “challenging the status quo in an effort to discover
alternative paths for social and self development, as a social action through language use
that develops us inside a larger culture”, as Shor (1999, p. 1) suggests. Freirian CL also
involves social action to change the nature of existing society, as Giroux (1981) and Freire
and Faundes (1989) argue. Moreover, Freirian CL concerns itself with creating a dream in
the students of a new society against the power in power or the political struggle to change
the society, as Freire and Shor (1987) have said.
However, because the context of this study is different from the one described by Freire
(1971), it is argued in this study that CP, particularly Freire’s argument here, cannot be
33

naively imported into Indonesian discussions of the politics of education (see Bizzel, 1992,
and Brookfield, 1995 in American context and Cheah, 2001 in Singapore). Despite Freire’s
influence on this study, this study did not involve challenging the status quo or motivate the
students to change those in power or to take any political action. Such a tradition of
critiquing and challenging the status quo is not yet well established in Indonesia, although
there are signs that this tradition has begun to emerge (see Chapter 1, Section 1.5). Freire’s
principles of CP adopted in this study are to do with “reading the word and the world”
(Freire and Macedo, 1987, see also Roberts, 2000); and “dialogic education” (Freire and
Shor, 1987). These, as Luke and Walton (1994, p. 1195) describe, are at the heart of Freire’s
(1971) critique of traditional literacy education as banking education, in which “the students
are the depositories and the teacher is the depositor” (Freire, 1993, p. 53), “teachers make
deposits of information into the passive mind of students” (Elias, 1994, p. 132; Freire and
Macedo, 1987, p. 34). These principles are essential to encourage students’ critical capacity,
the development of which is urgent in contemporary Indonesian education and society, as
outlined in Chapter 1, Section 1.5.
The second theorist whose work has given shape to this study is Giroux (1988a, b, 1992a, b;
1997) from an advanced country, the United States, to do with the principle of the classroom
as a democratic public sphere (Giroux, 1988b; 1997). This principle is deemed to be
important for the enhancement of democracy that Indonesia has been seeking to achieve and
realize in every aspect of life, again, as already outlined in Chapter 1, Section 1.5. Each
principle of CP employed in this study will be discussed below.
2.3.1 Reading the Word and the World
The principle of reading the word and the world (Freire and Macedo, 1987) has had a very
influential impact on the practice of critical literacy and also the form of CL adopted in this
study. To Freire, “reading and writing are transitive verbs; that is texts are always about
something in the world. Reading, accordingly, always entails engagement with problems
and values of the social world” (Freire, 1970, cited in Luke and Walton, 1994, p. 1195).
Reading, for Freire is a means of achieving critical consciousness, an understanding of the
34

forces and ideologies that shape one’s life; writing is a means of clarification, articulation,
and liberation of the oppressed’s voice, position, interests, and possibilities for action (Freire
and Macedo, 1987, see also Luke and Walton, 1994, p. 1195). Freire elsewhere argues that
the reading has to do with knowing, and cannot be explained as merely reading words since
every act of reading words implies a previous reading of the world and a subsequent
rereading of the world. There is a permanent movement back and forth between reading
reality and reading words (see Dillon, 1985, p. 18). This principle is consistent with the
concept of intertextuality, which is highlighted in the SFL theory discussed later.
As in the CT movement, reading in this approach does not take place in “a vacuum” (Wink,
2000, p. 57), it is “just one of the myriad activities to which a critical approach might be
applied” (Roberts, 2000, p. 95). In reading texts, it is said that students should be
encouraged to read the world, to read texts by focusing on how different audiences might
respond to them, thus highlighting the possibilities of reading against, within, and outside
their established boundaries (Giroux, 1992b, p. 30).
Like theorists of CT (above) and a critical social literacy (which will be discussed later),
Freire argues for authentic materials, such as filmstrips, materials presenting propaganda -
from advertising commercials to ideological indoctrination – as a problem-situation for
discussion (1998, p. 93), the material context of every day life (Sholle and Denski, 1993, p.
312). Freire also proposes topics focusing on what is taking place today inside various social
movements (Freire and Macedo, 1987; Freire and Faundes, 1998). Moreover, like a critical
view of literacy and the GBA (which will be discussed later), Freire attaches importance to
grammar, semantics and other linguistic aspects, saying “if I teach Portuguese, I must teach
the use of accents, subject-verb agreement, the syntax of verbs, noun case, the use of
pronouns, the personal infinitive …” (Freire, 1997, p. 75).
2.3.2 Dialogic Education
Dialogue refers to “the encounter between men (human beings), mediated the world, in
order to name the world” (Freire, 1993, p. 69) (see also Degener, 1999, p. 17; Wink, 2000).
35

Freire sees education as a question of establishing dialogue, of taking an anti-authoritarian
and interactive approach. The teacher, like his/her students, is an apprentice, someone who
is also seeking (Freire, 1985; Freire and Shor, 1987; Gadotti, 1997; McLaren, 2000). For
Freire, critical teaching is not a one-way development, not something done for the students
or to them for their own good (Freire, 1989, cited in Shor, 1999, p. 12). Students should
actively participate in their own learning rather than just passively accept what the teacher
says (Degener, 1999), and the teacher should also be full of respect for what the students
say, all the questions deserve to be answered, and the teacher may never have the answer,
but possibly one of the answers (Freire and Shor, 1987).
In the ESL context, a relationship of respect between the teacher and student plays a very
important role, as Cummins notes:
Techniques and strategies will be effective only when teachers and students forge a relationship of
respect and affirmation; when students feel that they are welcomed into the learning community of the
classroom and supported in the immense challenges they face in catching up academically; and when
the students feel that their teachers believe in them and expect them to succeed in school and in life
(1996, p. 74).
A question that has arisen in the literature on dialogic education centres on who selects the
object to be known. Regarding this, Shor and Freire suggest:
The object to be known is put on the table between the two subjects of knowing. They meet around it
and through it for mutual inquiry … .Of course the educator has had a certain “gnosiological” or
intellectual experience in picking this object for study before the students meet in the classroom, and
in painting it or preserving it for discussion. However, this prior contact with the object to be known
does not mean nevertheless that the teacher has exhausted all the efforts and dimensions in knowing
the object (1987, p. 99).
Moreover, based on her study in critical English for academic purposes (EAP), Benesch
(2001) concludes:
The most effective way to engage students might be to try a mix of teacher and student choice with
whole class selection of a theme…. … whole-class selection of a shared topic requires democratic
decision making, an important component of community building in a critical classroom (2001, p.
82).
Corresponding to the authority and the directive role of the teacher, in dialogic education the
authority and directive roles of the teacher still exist (Freire and Shor, 1987, p. 101; Freire
and Macedo, 1996, p. 199-228). In the study reported in this thesis, the directive role of the
teacher is confirmed by the principle of explicit teaching and apprenticeship, in which the
36

teacher should act as an expert and teach in an authoritative way, as suggested by the GBA
which will be discussed later. Moreover, complementation between the GBA and Freirian
dialogic education concerns the fact that one of the principles of the GBA is its emphasis on
the zone of proximal development from Vygotsky (1962), which will be discussed later. It is
said that “Freirian dialogic education can become an addition to the Vygotskian zone”
(Shor, 1999, p. 12-13). Through the combination of these principles, Shor argues, while
teachers develop as critical democratic educators, students can develop as authorities,
agents, unofficial teachers who educate the official teacher while also getting educated by
each other and by the teacher (1999, p. 13).
Other principles relevant to dialogic education (which in some ways are relevant to the
above-mentioned assumptions of CT) were emphasized in the study reported in the thesis, to
do with encouraging students to ask questions (Freire and Faundez, 1989; 1998), which is
compatible with one of activities that make up CT discussed above; seriousness and
happiness, that “the acts of teaching, of learning, of studying should be seen as serious,
demanding tasks that not only generate satisfaction but are pleasurable” (Freire, 1997, p. 89-
92); rigor, democracy and direction: “Knowing is something demanding many things, which
makes you tired, in spite of being happy. Knowing, … is not a weekend in a tropical beach”
(Shor and Freire, 1987, p. 79-80; Shor, 1999, p. 13).
2.3.3 The Classroom as a Democratic Public Sphere
The term “public sphere” refers to a zone of connection between social systems and the “life
world”, the domain of everyday living, in which people can deliberate on matters of social
and political concerns as citizens and in principle influence policy decision (Habermas,
1984, cited in Fairclough, 2003, p. 44; Fairclough and Chouliaraki, 1999).
Applied in education, this principle, which corresponds to dialogic education above,
concerns the creation of conditions in classrooms, which are conducive to support individual
freedom and social justice, regarding schools as democratic sites dedicated to forms of self
and social empowerment (Giroux, 1988b, p. xxxiii). Giroux states:
37

Schools are public places where students learn the knowledge and skills necessary to live in an
authentic democracy. … Schools as democratic public spheres are constructed around forms of
critical inquiry that dignify meaningful dialogue and human agency. Students learn the discourse of
public association and social responsibility (1988, p. xxxiii).
Elswhere Giroux (1997) argues for the need for educators to create “public spaces” in their
classroom, which refers to:
A concrete set of learning conditions where people come together to speak, to dialogue, to share their
stories, and to struggle together within social relations that strengthen rather than weaken the
possibility for active citizenship (Giroux, 1997, p. 106).
In applying the notion of the public sphere in university level, which is relevant to this
study, Giroux (1997) argues that teachers of higher education, or “public intellectuals”, to
use Giroux’s (1997) term, need to define higher education as a resource vital to the moral
life of the nation. To follow Aronowitz (1994), Giroux goes on to say that “teachers of
higher education need to decentre the curriculum. That is, students should be actively
involved in governance, including setting learning goals, selecting courses and having their
own autonomous organisations” (1997, p. 267).
Regarding the object of knowing, Giroux (1988) suggests a similar point to the dialogic
education above, that teachers must make classroom knowledge relevant to the lives of their
students so that the students have a voice, that is, affirm student experience as part of the
pedagogical encounter by providing curriculum content and pedagogical practices which
resonate with the life experiences of the students. Moreover, with respect to the directive
role of the teacher, Giroux says: “critical direction is necessary to help students recognize
the political and moral implications of their own experiences” (1988, p. xvi).
The work undertaken based on CP have been reported in various fields, such as ESL/EFL
contexts on bilingualism by Cummins (1996) and Moore (1999); in the participatory
approach to adult literacy education in ESL by Auerbach (1996, 1999) and Pari (1999); in
EAP by Benesch (2001) and in composition study by Bizzell (1992).
2.3.4 Criticisms of CP
Like other theories, CP has been criticized, and the first general criticism relevant to this
38

study is that the literature on CP focuses on understanding and promoting democratic ideas
and practices in terms of a universal theory, which may lack applicability (Gore, 1992, cited
in Keesing-Styles, 2003, p. 4; Brookfield, 1995, p. 209; Kanpol, 1999). To address this
issue, as indicated earlier, this study holds the view that in implementing CP, teachers must
be situationally attentive. The principles of CP should not be naively imported to any
situation.
The second criticism and concern of educators in applying CP is to do with the principle of
dialogic education from Freire. It is said that while being a democratic authority is a
teacher’s challenge, in a dialogic program there is also the opposite dilemma, that of a
teacher not having enough authority. In some cases the lack of authority interferes with a
teacher’s ability to initiate a critical and power-sharing process (Shor, 1999, p. 13) (see also
Elias, 1994; Ohliger, 1995 about criticisms of Freire’s theory). To minimize the problem this
study also emphasises explicit teaching and the directive role of the teacher, in which the
teacher plays a role as an expert, as the GBA suggests (see the discussion below).
The third criticism concerns Freire’s critique of banking education and concept of education
being liberating or domesticating, which sees no value in lecture and direct presentation as
educational methods (Elias, 1994; see also above). Again, through the principle regarding
the existence of the directive role of the teacher in dialogic education as indicated above,
and of explicit teaching (as the CT movement and the GBA suggest) and apprenticeship in
which the teacher acts as an expert in an authoritative way (as the GBA suggests), it is
argued in this study that “all education to some degree entails a transmission of a culture, a
tradition, and a history. A more balanced view of education sees the process as involved in a
tension or dialectic between cultural transmission and cultural criticism” as Elias (1994, p.
114) and other critics of Freire’s banking education observe (see Ohliger, 1995).
2.3.5 Summary of the Discussion of CP
This section has treated three interrelated principles of CP applied in this study, to do with
“reading the word and the world”, “dialogic education” and “the school or class as a
39

democratic public sphere”. In reference to the contemporary Indonesian education, as
discussed in Chapter 1, Section 1.5, the principle of “reading the word and the world”, is
relevant to the urgency of the development of critical capacity in Indonesia today. Similarly,
the principles of dialogic education and classroom as a democratic sphere play an important
role in teacher education in particular (which is consistent with the context of this study), as
an initial attempt to develop interactive curriculum, the application of which has been
considered essential for students’ critical capacity development. Furthermore, dialogue and a
democratic atmosphere in the classroom are consistent with the development of democracy
that Indonesia has been striving to achieve so far, as also outlined in Chapter 1, Section 1.5.
The section has also shown that despite differences in pedagogic practices, CP is relevant to
other theories reviewed in this study, particularly the theory of CT, in that both theories
emphasise the need for critical education to help students develop their critical capacities for
empowerment. The principle “reading the word and the world” is relevant to the form of CL
adopted in this study. Moreover, the principles of “dialogic education” which corresponds to
that of “classroom as a democratic sphere”, as Horn, Jr (2000) argues, can only be achieved
through CL. Therefore, the subsequent section will deal with CL, focusing on an orientation
as proposed by a critical social theory of literacy.
2.4 Critical Literacy (CL)
Critical literacy (CL) is open to multiple interpretations (Cheah, 2001) and may take a
diversity of forms (Frye, 1997; Pennycook, 2001; Comber, 1998, cited in William,
http://www.cdesign.com.au/aate/aate_papers/069_williams.htm). Before this section goes
further to discuss CL, it should be noted here that CL envisaged in this study focused on
critical reading and writing.
Based on the discussion in previous sections, it can be seen that the form of CL adopted in
this study has been drawn from several orientations. The first orientation is the CT
movement, as discussed in Section 2.2, in that critical reading and writing in this study
imply CT applied in reading and writing. The second orientation is CP, especially “reading
40

the word and the world” as discussed in Section 2.3. The third orientation, which will be
treated in this section as mentioned above, is drawn from a general view of literacy (which
has commonalities with other theories reviewed in this study), that is literacy as a social
construct (Heath, 1983; Luke and Walton, 1994; Kress, 2003), supported by another
orientation to CL, which is also considered as a “variant” (Lankshear et al, 1997, p. 41; Luke
and Walton, 1994) of critical social theory of literacy, that is critical language awareness
(CLA), which may be seen as the pedagogical wing of critical discourse analysis (CDA)
(Pennycook, 2001) (see also Hyland, 2002 on the major task of CDA from a pedagogical
perspective). The last orientation, which has a great deal in common with a critical social
theory of literacy will be treated in Section 2.5, to do with empowering students through the
mastery of argumentative genre (genre of power), as suggested in the SFL GBA.
2.4.1 A Critical Social Literacy: Literacy as a Social Practice
A critical social theory of literacy (which has a great deal in common with SFL theory)
suggests that literacy must be seen not so much as a monolithic entity but rather as a set of
contextualised social practices (Barton, 1994ab; Barton and Hamilton, 2000; Pennycook,
2001); social construct or activities (Luke and Freebody, 1997b), or a social action (Kress,
1985a; 2003), embedded in social contexts (Hamilton, 2000).
As a social activity, there are many types of literacy and the focus is always on literacies, as
a plural set of social practices (Pennycook, 2001) in their social contexts, as social literacies
(Gee, 1990; Lankshear et al, 1997); or multiliteracies (Cope and Kalantzies, 2000). The
theory also sees literacy involving not just the mastery of an arbitrary code for writing the
meanings we make with language but also a critical arena for cultural domination and social
control. In this context, Luke and Freebody state:
Writing and reading are social activities. That is, we are always reading something, written by
someone or writing something for someone. These others are always in some relationship to us-often
materially or symbolically unequal relationships of power but always relationships in which versions
of ‘ourselves’ and ‘others’ are implicated and constructed. Even those texts we read or write that
come from or are intended for people we do not know assemble versions of our identities and
positions as readers - as men and women, students and teachers, taxpayers and newspapers readers,
and so forth. … (1997b, p. 193).
41

One crucial work under this perspective is Heath’s (1983) illustration of how people from
different backgrounds had different ways of using print to take meaning from the
environment and participated in different sorts of literacy events (see Gee, 1990, Wallace,
1992a; Pennycook, 2001).
Under the theory, there are at least three potential objects of critique that a CL might
involve, including: a critical perspective on literacy or literacies per se; a critical perspective
on particular texts; and a critical perspective on wider social practices, – i.e. being able to
make “critical readings of wider social practices” (Lankshear, 1994, p. 10; Lankshear et al,
1997).
Accordingly, CL teaching begins by problematising the cultures and knowledges of the text
– putting them up for critical debate, for weighing, judging, critiquing the power relations,
how and in whose interests social institutions and texts can refract and bend social and
natural reality, manipulate and position readers and writers. Learning the linguistic structure
of texts is also considered a crucial part of this process (Luke, O’Brien and Comber, 1994, p.
14) (see also Brown, 1999, p. 4).
Texts in this theory, as in the CT movement and CP above, can be seen in different ways
(Kress, 1985a, b; 2003, Lankshear, 1994, Lankshear et al, 1997). Texts are motivated, and
there is no neutral position from which a text can be read or written. There is not one text,
but many. Any text is open to multiple readings (Apple, 1993, p. 210) (see also Volosinov,
1986, cited in Luke and Freebody, 1997, p. 193; Luke and Freebody, 1990; Frye, 1997;
Comber, 2001; 2002; Wallace, 1992a, b, 2001; Gibbons, 2002).
As a social action, a text always has an issue, or content, something it is about, one reason
for action, and in terms of a social semiotic representation, it deals with who acts, and in
relation to whom (Kress, 2003, p. 84). Therefore, the field suggests that CL should include
awareness of what the text is about, who is the writer and to whom (2003, p. 84) and how,
why and in whose interests particular texts might work (Luke and Freebody, 1997, p. 218).
One practice which relates to this suggestion and is worth mentioning, given its relevance to
this study, and to the principle of “reading the word and the world” as outlined above, is the
42

work under critical language awareness (CLA) in EFL reading context in Great Britain by
Wallace (1992a, p. 114, 1992b; 2001) (CLA, according to Carter, 1995, p. 87, refers “in
particular to the development of skills of reading language, for what it reveals and conceals
of spoken and written texts”). Following Kress (1985a; see also 2003), Wallace divides the
stages of reading into pre-, while-, and post-reading activities, which can be described
below:
Pre-reading phase involves exposing students to several questions, including:
• Why is this topic (the text) being written about?
• How is this topic being written about?
• What other ways of writing about the topic are there?
• Who is writing to whom and what is the topic.
The pre-reading tasks may also include asking what the text is (seemingly) about drawing on
a scan of the headline, pictures, photos, subheadings, etc.
While-reading phase involves several strategies, including:
• Offering students alternative readings of a text, devise tasks which offer the reader a
possibility of more than one way of reading a text. This strategy is important given a
disparity of values which may exist between a writer writing in the past and a
contemporary reader.
• Identifying parallel discourses: identifying where contrasting people, places,
countries, or phenomena are described, the writer’s use of language which favours
one person or social group over another.
• Analysing linguistic choices: drawing on a range of linguistic devises or linguistic
choices made by the writer to help construct discourses which reflect beliefs and
values, assumed to be shared with the model readers. Regarding linguistic analysis,
the work of CLA has also followed SFL (which will be discussed below), using the
Field/Mode/Tenor. Texts then are analysed using questions regarding the
experiential, interpersonal, and textual meanings, as suggested by SFL, such as:
- Who takes what subject positions in sentences?
43

- What types of process and participants dominate?
- How are active and passive constructions allocated?
- What modal constructions are employed? (Bloor and Bloor, 1995; Butt et al,
2000; Cope, 2002; Fairclough, 1989; Lankshear et al, 1997; Wallace, 1992b).
Post- reading tasks serve the purpose of heightening the reader’s awareness of other ways
in which the topic could have been written about. One kind of activity, which coincides with
Luke and Freebody’s (1997) suggestion is discussing or comparing two texts which deal
with the same topic, comparing lexico-grammatical choices in the texts, identifying
unspoken beliefs of the writers (see Perkins, 1998; McGregor, 2002a,b). Corresponding to
the principles of dialogic education and classroom as a democratic atmosphere, Luke also
suggests that teachers could begin CL by altering traditional classroom talk which puts texts
and teachers beyond criticism (cited in Jongsma, 1991, p. 519; see also Comber, 1994, p.
663).
Moreover, in teaching reading, theorists under the field propose that the teacher should
encourage the students to play different roles while reading, including as a code breaker,
text participant, text user, and text analyst and critic (Luke and Freebody, 1990, p. 8-14;
1997, p. 214, see also Gibbons, 2002; Comber, 2002). As a text analyst, it is said that
students should be encouraged to recognize that all texts represent a particular view of the
world and that readers are positioned in a certain way when they read it. This is done by
asking among others: “what does this text do to me?” (Luke and Freebody, 1997, p. 114;
Comber, 2002, p.1). Questions which can be asked by a text analyst, as proposed by Love et
al, 2001, are among others:
• Who would feel left out in this text and why?
• Do any of the claims made in this text clash with your values, beliefs, or
experiences?
• How is the reader positioned in relation to the author (e.g. as a friend, opponent,
someone to persuade, invisible, or someone who agrees with the author’s views)?
• Are there gaps or absences, or silences in this text? If so what are they? Is there a
group of people missing who logically should be included?
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Regarding materials, theorists of CL, like those of CT and CP, argue for use of multiple
texts (Luke and Freebody, 1997; Frye, 1997) which should be authentic (Wallace, 1992a,b;
Varaprasad, 1997)- that are not specially written for pedagogic purpose (the significance of
which for ESL context has been mentioned above) and conflicting discourses against each
other within single lessons. For ESL /EFL contexts, Wallace suggests that a text should also
(i) be a vehicle for teaching specific language structure and vocabulary; (ii) present content
which is familiar and of interest to the learners; and (iii ) be at the appropriate language level
(1992a, p. 71). In terms of topics, it is suggested that teachers should also engage with issues
that are often controversial, certainly contemporary (Gilbert, 1993, cited in Lankshear et al,
1997, p. 47).
The social theory of literacy has been criticized by those who work under the Freirian-based
approach, in that it “lacks critique of power and a vision of change” (Pennycook, 2001, p.
77-78).
2.4.2 Summary of the Discussion of CL
This section has presented a brief discussion of one orientation to critical literacy adopted
that is literacy from a perspective of a critical social theory of literacy, supported by the
work of critical discourse analyses, particularly critical language awareness. Through
critically examining texts in terms of their representations, ideologies and the construction of
reality they serve, students can develop their CT skills, as outlined in Section 2.2, and their
capacity to read the word and the world, as suggested by CP, discussed in Section 2.3. These
capacities, as mentioned repeatedly in the previous sections in this chapter, and Chapter 1,
Section 1.5, are urgent in Indonesian education in particular and Indonesian society in
general. Moreover, the suggestion from CL, that teachers could begin by altering traditional
classroom talk which puts texts and teachers beyond criticisms is relevant to the principles
of dialogic education and the class as a democratic public sphere outlined above, which are
again, relevant to the current Indonesian education and context.
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The discussion will now go on to deal with the last theory which has given shape to this
study, that is SFL. As mentioned above, SFL is relevant to this study for at least three
reasons. Firstly it is committed to a social model of literacy that is related to the theories of
CL reviewed this section; secondly, it offers a genre-based model of pedagogy, which, it
will be argued, complements the theory of CP discussed in Section 2.3 and to some extent
concurs with the CT movement discussed in Section 2.2; thirdly, it offers an analytical tool
for close study of the texts students produced.
2.5 Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL)
Systemic functional linguistics (hereafter abbreviated to SFL), which has been used in
“critical linguistics” (Fairclough, 1992a; Pennycook, 2001) is a social theory of language
which has been developed and influenced by previous linguists. SFL has been influenced by
Malinowski, Firth, Pike and Hymes specifically in terms of the concept of context of
situation and context of culture (as cited in Halliday, 1976; Halliday, 1985c; Christie, 1987;
Bloor and Bloor, 1995; Mathiessen and Nesbitt, 1996). It has also been influenced by the
Prague School of Linguistics, concerning its notion of functional sentence perspective,
examining utterances in terms of the information they contain and the role of each part of
the utterance in terms of its semantic contribution to the utterance as a whole (Halliday,
1994a; Paltridge, 1997; Connor, 1996). SFL also owes much to the work of Whorf in its
focus on the relationship between language and culture, and Saussure and Hjelmslev,
regarding interpreting linguistic theory as a semiotic system, specifically the notions
“system” (the paradigmatic range of linguistic choices available to the user of a language)
and “function” (syntagmatic combinations of linguistic structures described in terms of their
functional role within the clause) (Bloor and Bloor, 1995; Paltridge, 1997; Butt, 1996;
Mathiessen and Nesbitt, 1996).
SFL has had an impact on educational studies throughout the world (Connor, 1996) and its
most obvious impact has been on the teaching of writing (Wells, 1999) as revealed in the
discussion in the SFL genre pedagogy later. Because SFL is also concerned with language in
46

education, the basic concepts of SFL deal with not only the concept of language itself, but
also with language learning, which will be discussed below.
2.5.1 Basic Principles in SF Theory
There are several basic principles in SF theory. The first one is that language is a social
semiotic (Halliday, 1985c, p. 3; 1994c; Butt, 1996; Christie, 2002; Eggins, 1994). Drawn
from Saussure’s concept that language is a system of signs, “the union of a form which
signifies (signifiant or signifier) and an idea signified (the signifie or signified)” (Culler,
1976, p. 19; 1975, p. 16), this principle implies that “a language is a signing system”
(Halliday, 1985c, p. 4).
In Saussure’s (1960) theory, semiotics, as described by Kristeva (1989, p. 296), refers to
“the study of all verbal and nonverbal systems as languages, that is as systems in which
signs are articulated by a syntax of difference”. Similarly, in SFL the term semiotics is also
often used to refer to “the general study of meaning-making (semiosis), including not just
meanings we make with language, but meanings we make with every sort of object, event or
action in so far as it is endowed with a significance, a symbolic value in our community”
(Lemke, 1995, p. 9). In this context, Halliday argues:
Linguistics is an aspect of the study of meaning. There are many other ways of meaning, other than
through language. … These will include both art forms such as painting, sculpture, music, dance, and
so forth, and other modes of cultural behaviour that are not classified under the headings of forms of art,
such as modes of exchange, modes of dress, structures of the family and so forth. … But to explain this
general notion, we cannot operate with the concept of a sign as an entity. We have to think rather of
systems of meaning, systems that may be considered as operating through some external form of output
that we call a sign, but that are in themselves not set of individual things, but rather networks of
relationships. It is in that sense that I will use the term semiotic to define the perspective in which we
want to look at language: language as one among a number of systems of meaning that, taken all
together, constitute human culture (Halliday, 1985c, p. 4; see also Eggins, 1994, p. 16).
Regarding the social concept of language, Halliday (1985c) further states that the term
“social” suggests two things simultaneously. One is “social” used in the sense of the social
system, which is synonymous with the culture. The other is the term “social” used to
indicate that SFL is concerned particularly with the relationships between language and
social structure, considering the social structure as one aspect of the social system. This
47

principle, applied in the GBA as will be discussed later, has commonalities with the social
theory of literacy discussed above.
The second principle is that SFL sees language as a resource for making meaning rather than
as a system of rules (Christie, 1990; Halliday, 1994a; Halliday and Martin, 1993). This view
draws on Pike’s proposal (as cited in Mathiessen and Nesbitt, 1996, p. 50), that “a linguistic
theory is a tool or resource for construing what we observe”. Language is “a shaper of
reality for those who use it” (Hasan, 1996, p. 14). Under this principle, SFL sees meaning
“as choice, which is not a conscious decision made in real time but a set of possible
alternatives” (Halliday, 1994a, p. xxvi). Regarding this, Christie and Unsworth argue:
SFL describes language in terms of set of choices of meaning, a set of options, such as singular/plural,
past, present, future tense, positive/negative polarity is called a system, and hence the name is systemic.
When language is described in this way, every choice embodied in an utterance or text carries in terms
of the potential choices, not made (2000, p. 2).
The third principle, which has a great impact on language study, is that SFL concerns texts,
rather than sentences, as the basic unit through which meaning is negotiated (Halliday and
Martin, 1993, Halliday, 1994a). SFL theory proposes that the object of language study
should involve a whole text (meaningful passage of language), not decontextualised
sentence or utterance (Christie and Unsworth, 2000; Eggins, 1994). Under this concept, SFL
treats grammar as the realization of discourse, from which emerges the conception of
functional grammar, naturally related to its text semantics. This, as Halliday and Martin
(1993) suggest, has allowed for an analysis of the semantic organization of, say, scientific
texts and the systems of meaning they instantiate.
The fourth principle is that SFL focuses on close relations between texts and social contexts
rather than texts as decontextualised structural entities in their own right (Halliday and
Martin, 1993; see also Halliday, 1975, 1996; Eggins, 1994; Hasan, 1996). “SFL looks … for
solidarity relationships between texts and the social practices they realize” (Halliday and
Martin 1993, p. 22-23). It is said that context is critical to meaning in any linguistic event in
any language, and “what we write or talk will be very much dependent on the topic, and
when, in what circumstance” (Eggins, 1994, 7). Regarding this, Bloor and Bloor suggest:
Each individual utterance in a given context has a particular use. … A speaker might say ‘good
afternoon’ as a means of greeting a friend at an appropriate time of a day. We can say that the
48

communicative function of ‘good afternoon’ is greeting. This greeting can have a different
communicative function when it is said in a different situation, for example when a teacher says this to a
student who comes late. These words become a reprimand (1995, p. 8; see also the discussion on ext
and context below).
Finally, SFL concerns language as a system for construing meaning, rather than as a conduit
through which thoughts and feelings are poured. SFL views language as “a meaning-making
system rather than a meaning-expressing one” (Halliday and Martin, 1993, p. 23; Veel,
1997). Under this principle, unlike other linguistic theories, SFL does not hold “a binary
theory of language” (Culler, 1976; Hymes, 1996), which involves dichotomies (Christie,
1990, Bloor and Bloor, 1995, Veel, 1997), such as performance and competence (Chomsky),
langue and parole (Saussure), form and content. This binary system or dichotomy is both
advantageous and dangerous, because in fact it permits one to classify anything (Culler,
1975). One of the major problems of the binary system, as Levi-Strauss sees it, is that the
simplification achieved by setting two items in opposition to one another results in
complications on another plane because the distinctive features on which various
oppositions turn will be qualitatively very different (cited in Culler, 1975, 1976, p. 15).
Likewise, Hymes argues that binary categories, however suggestive, prejudge (1996, p. 49).
All the basic points of SFL have been summarized by Eggins, who notes:
… common to all systemic linguists is an interest in how people use language with each other in
accomplishing everyday social claims about language: that language use is functional; that its function
is to make meanings; that these meanings are influenced by the social and cultural context in which they
are exchanged and that the process of using language is a semiotic process, a process of making
meanings by choosing (1994, p. 2).
In addition to the basic points above, there are some essential notions of SFL, including: text
and context, intertextuality, and metafunctions which will be delineated below.
2.5.2 Text and Context
The term text, comes from the Latin word for weaving, referring to “words and sentences
woven together to create a single whole” (Christie and Misson, 1998, p. 8). However, the
concept of text in SFL is similar to the concept of discourse in critical discourse analysis
(CDA), that is language use in speech and writing (Fairclough and Wodak, 1997). Text is
49

“the socially and contextually complete unit of language” (Kress, 1993, p. 24), “which may
be written or spoken, preferably from beginning to end” (Eggins, 1994, p.5). To Halliday, a
text is “a semantic unit”, and hee describes it as:
the language people produce and react to, what they say and write, and read and listen to, in the course
of daily life. … Any instance of language that is operational, as distinct from citational (like sentences in
a grammar book, or words in a dictionary)… . The term covers both speech and writing … it may be
language in action, conversation, telephone talk, debate, … public notices, ... intimate monologue or
anything else (1975, p. 123).
The consideration of language as a text, has nothing to do with its size or length or form, but
with meaning, as Feez and Joyce state:
Whether a stretch of language is a text or not has nothing to do with its size or form. It has to do with
the meanings of the stretch of language working together as a unified whole. The single word stop on a
road sign and Tolsoy’s novel War and Peace are both texts because they are unified wholes. One page
of War and Peace, though longer than a stop sign, is not a text because it cannot stand alone as a unified
whole (1998a, p. 4; see also Lemke, 1991; Christie and Misson, 1998).
In short, the term text refers to “any instance of language, in any medium, that makes sense
to someone who knows the language” (Halliday and Hasan, 1976, cited in Halliday and
Matthiessen, 2004, p. 3).
Corresponding to the word text, there is the term texture which is a matter of meaning
relations, manifested by certain kinds of semantic relations between its individual messages
(Hasan, 1985b, p. 71; Lemke, 1991, p. 23; Eggins, 1994). Halliday (1975) considers texture
as:
Text-forming component of meaning: it is the potential the system has for being operational in a
context. … Without texture, meaning is a meaningless activity. Texture implies … a mode of
organization of meaning that relates to function. The texture of discourse depends not only on
structuring the parts in an appropriate way and joining them together, but on doing so that relates to the
context-as narrative, as dialogue, or whatever generic mode is selected (1975, p. 111).
In addition, the word context originally meant being woven together, where the prefix con
carried the sense of being together and over the passage of the centuries, it has come to refer
to those elements that accompany a text (Christie and Misson, 1998, p. 8).
To follow Malinowski’s concept of context of situation and context of culture and Firth’s
context of situation (Halliday, 1985c; Eggins, 1994), Halliday approached the concept of
context by arguing that there are three aspects in any situation that have linguistic
50

consequences: field, mode, and tenor (Halliday, 1976, 1985c; Halliday and Martin, 1993;
Hasan, 1996; Martin, 1997) .
Field refers to the ongoing activity or subject matter (Halliday, 1975, p. 131; Feez, 2002), or
what is happening, the nature of the social action that is taking place (Halliday, 1985c, p. 12;
Feez and Joyce, 1998a, p. 5).
Tenor refers to who is taking part (Halliday, 1985c, p. 12; Halliday and Martin, 1993, p. 32),
or the role relationship between interactants (Halliday, 1975, p. 131; Hasan, 1996, p. 47;
Eggins, 1994, p. 52); their relative status and the amount and type of contact they have with
each other (Macken-Horarik, 2002).
Mode refers to the symbolic channel or wavelength selected which is really the semiotic
function or functions assigned to language in the situation (Halliday, 1975, p. 131; Martin,
1997). It is the role played by language, and the simplest distinction is between spoken and
written language (Macken-Horarik, 2002, p. 24); the rhetorical mode, what is being
achieved by the text in terms of such categories as persuasive, expository, didactic, and the
like (Halliday, 1985c, p. 12; Halliday and Martin, 1993, p. 33); the distance between the
people communicating in terms of time and space, whether they are they face to face or
separated by time or space (Feez and Joyce, 1998a).
The three variables of context of situation are called the register variables (Eggins, 1994),
and register is defined by Halliday (1985c) as:
a configuration of meanings that are typically associated with a particular situational configuration of
field, mode and tenor. But since, it is a configuration of meanings, a register must also, of course,
include the expressions, the lexico-grammatical and phonological features, that typically accompany or
release meanings (1985c, p. 38-89).
While context of situation refers to the immediate environment of language, “context of
culture”, refers to a broader background against which the text has to be interpreted
(Halliday, 1985c, p. 46). Halliday notes:
Any actual context of situation, the particular configuration of field, tenor, and mode that has brought a
text into being, is not just a random jumble of features but a totality-a package, so to speak of things that
typically go together in the culture. … factors (which) constitute the context of culture, … determine
collectively the way the text is interpreted in its context of situation (1985c, p. 46-47).
51

Context of culture also gives a purpose and meaning to a text (Eggins, 1994, p. 30), and this
allows us not only to describe the register of the text, but also to suggest what the overall
purpose or function of a text is, that is the genre the text belongs to (Eggins, 1994, p. 26).
Included in genre is the schematic structure or stages of a text, and therefore, genre has been
defined as:
A staged, goal oriented, purposeful activity in which speakers engage as members of our culture
(Martin, 1984, p. 25, cited in Eggins, 1994, p. 26).
The relationship between language (text), register (context of situation) and genre (context
of culture) can be seen in Figure 2.1 below.
Figure 2. 1 Genre and register in relation to language (cited from Eggins, 1994, p. 34).
ion.
coded) through language; and that this
rocess of realizing genres in language is mediated through the realization of register
, 1997; Paltridge, 1997).
From Figure 2.1, it can be seen that genre is one of two levels of context recognized in SFL,
in which the context of culture is more abstract, more general than the context of situat
The diagram also shows that genres are realized (en
p
(Eggins, 1994; Martin
The interdependence between text and context has been well summed up by Christie and
Misson (1998), who say:
52

Any text is said to be comprehensible in terms of the context which gives rise to it. … Context is
known only because of the text which gives it life. Conversely, text is only known because of the
context which makes it relevant (1998, p. 8).
Halliday sees the relationship between text and context as dialectical: the text creates the
context as much as the context creates the text. Meaning arises from the friction between the
two (1985c, p. 47). Halliday further says that a text relates to other texts and this will be
discu
Intert
Lemk ). The term intertextuality can
dialogic theory of
uttera
Fairc
(text) without relation to other utterances (texts), and at the most elementary level, any and
rov, 1984, p. x).
Bakhtin
T
w
w
Regard
… a set of previous texts, texts that are taken for granted as shared
among those taking part. … school provides clear examples. Every lesson is built on the assumption of
earlier lessons in which topics have been explored, concepts agreed upon and defined… (1985c, p. 47).
; Barton, 994; Hyland, 1999;
000; The New London Group, 2000; Fairclough, 2003). However, Bazerman (1988) also
ssed under the notion of intertextuality below.
2.5.3 Intertextuality
extuality refers to the way texts refer to other texts (Barton, 1994; Bazerman, 1988;
e, 1995; Fairclough, 1992a; Hyland, 1999; 2000, 2002
be traced back to Bakhtin’s work, formulated by Kristeva, regarding
nce (Todorov, 1984, p. 60; see also Fairclough and Chouliaraki, 1999, p. 119;
lough, 2003, p. 42; Hyland, 2002; Lemke, 1995). For Bakhtin, there is no utterance
all relations between two utterances are intertextual. Bakhtin states:
The most important feature of the utterance, or at lest the most neglected, is its dialogism. That is its
intertextual dimension. After Adam, there are no nameless objects nor any unused words. Intentionally
or not, all discourse is in dialogue with prior discourses on the same subjects, as well as with discourses
yet to come, whose reactions it foresees and anticipates (cited in Todo
also suggests:
wo verbal works, two utterances, in juxtaposition, enter into a particular kind of semantic relation,
hich we call dialogical … . Dialogical relations are (semantic) relations between all the utterances
ithin verbal communication (cited in Todorov, 1984, p. 60-61).
ing intertextuality in SFL, Halliday writes:
part of the environment of any text is
In academic work, intertextuality can be very explicit, indicated for example, by precise
quotation from a precisely identified text (Bazerman, 1988
2
observes that intertextuality can also be implicit, as he puts it:
The tie between text and the world can be seen from explicit citation and implicit knowledge. This
can indicate an article’s relationship to the previous literature on the subject. About explicit
53

references, questions arise concerning the precision of meaning conveyed by the reference, the
relation of the reference to the claim of the article, the use made of the reference, and the manner of
discussion of the reference. About implicitly used knowledge, questions arise concerning the extent of
codification and the role the knowledge takes in the argument. … each article’s attention to the
anticipated audience can be seen in the knowledge and attitudes the text assumes that the reader will
have, in the type of persuasion attempted, in the structuring of the argument, and in the charge given
by the author to the readers (i.e. what the author would like the readers to do after being convinced by
the article) (Bazerman, 1988, p. 25).
Apart from citations or reported speech, there is another level of intertextuality, which is a
combination of different genres in a discourse, which is termed “interdiscursivity”
(Fairclough and Chouliaraki, 1999, p. 49, Fairclough, 2003).
Given the concept of intertextuality in writing, Kress (1985a,b; 2003) argues that writing is
according to designs in ways which are overt, and much more-far
etafunctions of language that SFL argues that all natural languages have.
ideas. The interpersonal metafunction concerns the use of language to set up and sustain
becoming assembling
reaching than they were previously. To Kress, “… our use of language in the making of
texts cannot be other than the quotation of fragments of texts, previously encountered, in the
making of the new text” (2003, p. 6). In addition, as all texts are motivated by difference
(including the differences in social power between the participants in the interaction), Kress
also notes that the writer’s task is to construct a text in which that difference is resolved in a
particular way, by constructing a reading position from the point of which that difference is
neutralized in a plausible, natural reading. The function of the writer is therefore both a
linguistic one - the construction of the text, and a political one - the resolution of difference
(1985a, p. 49; 1985b; 2003; see also Fairclough, 2003).
2.5.4 Metafunctions
There are three m
These three metafunctions are: the ideational metafunction (observer function), the
interpersonal metafunction (intruder function) and the textual metafunction. The ideational
metafunction is to do with how language is used to represent experience, or to organize,
understand and express our perceptions of the world and our consciousness. This
metafunction can be classified into two sub-functions: the experiential function, which is
concerned with content or ideas, and the logical function with the relationship between
54

interaction between people using language. The textual metafunction is to do with how
language works to create connected and coherent discourse (textual function) (Halliday,
1975
Draw
been hi
ontextual features. Halliday goes as far as saying that each function interacts with variables
is context, Eggins (1994) says that the three types of
eaning can be related both upwards (to context) and downwards (to lexico-grammar):
r (Eggins, 1994, p. 78 ; see also Martin, 1997, p. 4 for a similar
Given
accor bout a text’s context, we can make
terpersonal meaning. Language is structured to make three main kinds of meanings
; Christie and Unsworth, 2000; Bloor and Bloor, 1995).
n from his study on his son’s language development, Halliday’s major contribution has
s argument on systematic correlation between the three metafunctions and specific
c
of context (field, tenor and mode, where field focuses on institutional practices, tenor on
social relation, and mode on textual) and has its own distinctive grammar (Halliday, 1975,
1985c; Eggins, 1994; Martin, 1997; Feez and Joyce, 1998a; Christie and Unsworth, 2000,
Colombi and Scleppegrel, 2002). In th
m
- The field of a text can be associated with the realization of experiential meanings, realized through the
Transitivity patterns of the grammar.
- The mode of a text can be associated with the realization of textual meanings, realized through the
Theme patterns of grammar.
- The tenor of a text can be associated with the realization of interpersonal meanings, realized through
the Mood patterns of the gramma
observation)
the correlation between the organization of context with the organization of grammar,
ding to Martin (1993), if we know something a
predictions about its grammar; and conversely if we analyse a text’s grammar, we can
recover information about its context.
All strands of meaning in SFL are interwoven in the fabric of the discourse. We cannot pick
out one word or one phrase and say this has only experiential meaning, or this has only
in
simultaneously, as Halliday argues:
Every sentence in a text is multifunctional; but not in such a way that you can point to one particular
constituent or segment and say this segment has just this function. The meanings are woven together in
a very dense fabric in such a way that to understand them we do not look separately at its different parts;
rather, we look at the whole thing simultaneously from a number of different angles, each perspective
contributing towards the total interpretation (1985c, p. 23).
The three main systems of grammar (Transitivity, Mood and Theme systems) will be taken
up in greater detail in Chapter 3, Section 3.3.
55

After discussing SFL, the researcher will now give an account to the SFL genre pedagogy
and approach which was used in the teaching program conducted in this study.
2.5.5 The SFL Genre Theory and Approach
The SFL GBA to teaching writing has been developed mainly in Australia, based on SFL
developed by Halliday (1985, 1994). The SFL GBA is also called an interventionist
pedagogy (Rothery, 1996) or overt instruction (The New London Group, 2000). The SFL
BA has influenced the entire state educational system in Australia, and has been adopted in
tridge,
, Johns, 1997; Grabe and Kaplan, 1996; Christie, 1989; Cope and
to
e teaching of English which often ignored the teaching of grammar (Martin, 1985; Martin,
G
primary, secondary, tertiary, professional and community teaching contexts in programs for
native speakers of English as well as ESL and EFL learners. Educators in countries as
diverse as Singapore, South Africa, USA, Italy, Hong Kong, Australia, UK, China, Canada,
Sweden and Thailand are employing genre-based approaches in developing their syllabuses,
materials and curricula (Derewianka, 2003). The fact that the GBA has been applied in EFL
context indicates that the GBA is also relevant to this study and the Indonesian context in
general, where students learn EFL. This has also been shown by the release of the 2004
curriculum of English for secondary education in Indonesia, which involves the GBA, as
indicated in Chapter 1 Section 1.3.
The GBA emerged some years ago, partly due to the dissatisfaction with the process
approach to teaching writing in Australian school, which emphasizes natural learning,
personal voice and focuses on Narrative texts. The advocates of the process approach, such
as Britton et al (1975); Graves (1983; 1984; a,b,c; 1994); Murray (1982; 1985; 1989);
Turbill (1982; 1983; 1991); Cambourne (1987), are of the opinion that students can learn to
write without formal instruction, as they learn to speak (see the discussion in Pal
1997, p. 24; Connor, 1996
Kalantzis, 1993; Comber, 1994; Haneda and Wells, 2002). The GBA also emerged due
th
Christie and Rothery, 1994). The genre theorists argue that educators have a responsibility to
intervene in the learning process (Christie, 1991), students should learn not only Recounts
and Narratives, but also those which may be more highly valued in terms of school leaving
56

examinations and university credentials (Martin, 1984, cited in Comber, 1994; see also
Martin, 1985). Genre theorists, such as Martin and Christie argue that genres, such as
Reports, Discussions, Explanations, among others, should be explicitly taught and teachers
require knowledge of SFL in order to understand how these are typically constructed
eakinUniversity,2002,
lty/education/models_of_literacy/pedagogy_topic .htm
(D
http://www2.deakin.edu.au/facu ).
ssary to discuss the concept of genre used in the GBA.
or model, which has also been used by those who work under the social
eory of literacy, particularly critical language awareness (CLA as discussed above). This
analysis is expected to enable students “to understand how texts position readers, thus
The GBA, supported by SFL, shares with a critical social literacy perspective, a view that
“literacy is a social practice, a form of social action where language and context co-
participate in the meaning making enterprise” (Halliday, 1978, cited in Colombi and
Schleppegrel, 2002, p. 2). Other commonalities and differences from the GBA, compared
with other theories reviewed earlier can be seen from its main goals, principles and models
which will be discussed below. However, before describing the goals and basic principles of
the GBA, it is nece
2.5.5.1 The Concept of Genre
The concept of genre has been used in many fields, including folklore studies, linguistic
anthropology, ethnography of speaking, conversational analysis, rhetoric, literary theory,
sociology of language and applied linguistics (Paltridge, 1997). However, the concept of
genre to be discussed here will be based on one of the views of genre used in applied
linguistics, in SFL theory in particular, in that genre is considered as text types (Christie,
1990, Martin, 2000; Macken-Horaik, 1998; Cope and Kalantzis 1993a, Callaghan, Knapp
and Noble, 1993).
A text, as in a critical social theory of literacy, is also viewed as “a social construct, which
has an identifiable structure, and as a construct, its structure and its social function can be
deconstructed” (Macken-Horarik, 1997, p. 305). Texts are also analysed using the
Field/Mode/Ten
th
57

opening up the potential to challenge their meanings” (Rothery, 1996, p. 118) and “to gain
control of genres as well as to make explicit the ways in which language operates to
marginalize, to exclude and disempower” (Kamler, 1997, p. 403), which is considered as a
central purpose of a pedagogy where “teaching and critique go hand in hand”, as suggested
by Th
text s
lement in the text functions to then the linguistic feature of
tin, Christie and Rothery (1987; 1994) explain:
Genres are referred to as social processes because members of a culture interact with each other to
achieve them; as goal-oriented, because they have evolved to get things done; and as staged because it
eld, mode and tenor choices in predictable ways” (1993, cited in Kress,
003, p. 93). This means that genre also includes everything that goes on in the text, which
cessary for students to learn, and to follow Martin (1985); Rothery (1985);
erewianka (1990) the first letter of genre labels is capitalized. These are: Recount, Report,
sion, Procedure, Narrative, News Story (Macken-Horarik,
2002, p. 21-23).
readgold (1993, p. 10, cited in Kamler, 1997, p. 403). As in the CT movement, in SFL
hould be first analysed in terms of its schematic structure and purpose, how each
fulfil the purpose of the text,
e
each element.
Genre has also been defined as the ways that we get things done through language – the
ways we exchange information and knowledge and interact socially (Callaghan, Knapp and
Knoble, 1993, p. 193). Genre, as mentioned above, has also been defined as “a staged, goal-
oriented social processes”, as Mar
usually takes more than one step for participants to achieve their goals” (Martin, Christie-Rothery,
1987:59, 1994; Christie, 1991, p. 236, Martin, 2000, p. 4).
This means essentially that when looking at genres we are especially interested in the way
they achieve their social purpose, which they usually do in more than one step, as Martin,
1993, p. 121) argues. Martin also defines genre as “a staged, goal-oriented social processes
which integrate fi
2
are “field”, “mode” and “tenor”.
Based on its obligatory and optional stages (as well as the social purpose), genre theorists
within an Australian SFL perspective argue that there are at least eight prototypical genres
that are ne
D
Explanation, Exposition, Discus
58

However, in the interest of space, this section will just describe briefly Exposition and
Discussion genres. This is because these two genres belong to argumentative genres, which
are the focus of this study (particularly Discussion genre). Moreover Exposition and
Discussion are two genres that students in this study wrote, as will be discussed later in
Chapter 5.
2.5.5.2 Argumentative Genres
Argum
evidenc
characterized, skills in argumentation,
ne of critical thinking dispositions (Ennis,
l experience, the authenticity of which few could question.” Thus,
rgumentative writing is relevant to the necessity of CT development in Indonesia, as
tive writing is important
r students’ empowerment because argumentative writing plays a decisive role in academic
entative writing or genre refers to a genre of writing which involves arguments, facts,
e, reasons, description or explanation which support the side being argued, use
reference to expert authority whom the reader is apt to believe, to make the writer’s position
seem indisputable (Crossley and Wilson, 1979; Smalley and Hank, 1982; Munsell and
Clough, 1984; Feez and Joyce, 1998b). It is also concerned with the analysis, interpretation
and evaluation of the world around us and its emphasis is on persuading someone to our
point of views (Derewianka, 1990, p. 75). Thus
spoken and written, has been considered as o
1987) and argumentative writing, has thus been considered to be critical to challenge
students’ CT, as Kurfiss (1988) states:
critical thinking involves justification of beliefs, and argumentation is the vehicle by which
justification is offered … learning the skills of argument enables students to reason effectively in
various disciplines (1988, p. 13).
This coincides with Bizzell’s (1992, p. 23) suggestion that “learning to argue (in writing)
could lead more directly to academic thinking than would writing in which students simply
present persona
a
discussed in Chapter 1, Section 1.5.
Moreover, from a CP and CL perspective the teaching of argumenta
fo
discourse (Bizzell, 1992), and is often deemed to be the genre closely associated with social
power. Therefore, it is hoped that the teaching of argumentative writing from primary up to
tertiary levels, can help students to get access to “the language of power” (Martin et al,
59

1988, cited in Comber, 1994, p. 657), in line with the goals of the GBA which will be
discussed later.
As mentioned above, there are two types of argumentative genre that will be discussed in
section: Exposition, which is the genre of one sample of students’ texts, which will be
this
analysed in Chapter 5, and Discussion, which is the genre in focus.
Exp
giving reasons to support a thesis and elaborate these reasons using evidence (Feez and
oyce, 1998b, p. 138; Macken-Horarik, 2002, p. 22). Expositions can be found among
ents which support the thesis, containing any factual information,
evidence, description or explanation which supports the thesis (Feez and Joyce, 1998b,
an one argument is usually presented in favour of a judgment (thesis),
arg
(M
or -Horarik, 2002;
nsworth, 2000); or to discuss both sides of an argument (Feez and Joyce, 1998b, p. 140).
t organization of a
iscussion includes:
osition is a genre whose purpose is to argue for a particular point of view on an issue,
J
others, in school essays, editorials, commentaries, political debate. The text organization of
an Exposition, according to Feez and Joyce (1998b, p. 138), consists of the following stages:
(i) a Thesis which introduces the issue and the writer’s point;
(ii) a series of Argum
p. 138); and
(iii) a Restatement of the Thesis (Reiteration, to use Macken-Horarik’s term, 2002, p. 22):
a stronger and more direct statement of the thesis introduced in the first stage (see also
Unsworth, 2000).
In Exposition, more th
and in mature exposition, each argument (reason) tends to form a paragraph, and the
uments and thesis may be summed up in the restatement of the thesis (conclusion)
artin, 1985, p. 14).
Discussion is a genre whose purpose is to discuss an issue in the light of some kind of frame
position; to provide more than one point of view on an issue (Macken
U
Discussions can be found in essays, editorials and public forums, which canvas a range of
views of an issue, panel discussions, research summaries. The tex
D
60

(i) An Issue stage, which introduces the issue and summarises the debate; presents what the
discussion is about (Feez and Joyce, 1998b; Macken-Horarik, 2002; Gibbons, 2002;
e times begin with a background stage which provides any information the
ls and Principles in the SF Genre Traditions
The g
reade
sense
(Brook, 2000).These goals go with the need for the promotion of writing skills in Indonesian
educa
Genr
possi
apital (Feez, 2002, p. 55). The goal of a genre pedagogy has pedagogical and political aims,
Unsworth, 2000);
(ii) Arguments for one side; Arguments for the other side; and
(iii) Recommendation or Judgment which is presented as the most logical conclusion. It
also recommends a final position on the issue (Macken-Horarik, 2002).
Discussions som
reader needs in order to follow the arguments (Feez and Joyce, 1998b).
2.5.5.3 Major Goa
oals of the GBA are basically to help students become more successful writers (and
rs) of academic and workplace texts (Hyon, 1996, p.700); and to help students make
of not only the structure of texts but also a wide range of compositional concerns
tion, as described in Chapter 1, Section 1.4.
e pedagogy is a response to the realization that knowledge about the stable patterns and
bilities of variation within texts across a range of social institutions is a form of cultural
c
as Kress explains:
Work on genre in relation to literacy developed out of quite specific educational and political aims,
namely to bring about greater possibilities of access to the resources and the technology of literacy, and,
through greater access, to bring about some of the conditions for a redistribution of power in society.
The question which has been at the forefront of consideration has been: what does someone needs to
know about literacy; what skills and knowledge would they need to have in order to function fully and
effectively in a literate, technologically developed society?
From the beginning, therefore, genre work has been both a pedagogical and a political project, a
pedagogical project motivated by the political project of allowing greater, fairer, possibly equal access
to the cultural and social resources and benefits of this kind of society. If one assumes that access to
social, economic and cultural benefits has much to do with command of the highest level of literacy
skills, then a quite revolutionary program might be built on the attempt to give everyone access to
literacy skills and knowledge in the fullest sense. The fundamental political aim has, therefore, always
been that of access - on the assumption that full access to, and control of, literacy is essential to full
participation in all aspects of social life (Kress, 1993, p. 28-29).
61

Based on the aims above, the genre pedagogy has also been called pedagogy for inclusion
and access (Cope and Kalantzis, 1993b; Pennycook, 2001) and empowerment (Macken-
orarik, 2002). Like the Freirian CL, the SFL genre pedagogy aims to develop a literacy
996). Critical reading
nder the approach includes reading society through written text, in line with Halliday’s
CL adopted in this study, as described
above.
one of the principles of CP adopted in this study, in that it allows the students not only to
ave developed
gh levels of literacy which demands induction into what is called mainstream literacy, and
H
pedagogy that can empower students to gain access to educational discourses of the kind
that they may otherwise not become familiar with in their life (Colombi and Schleppegrel,
2002; Cope and Kalantzis, 1993; Macken-Horarik, 2002; Feez, 2002). The SFL genre
pedagogy also aims to help students from non-mainstream backgrounds to acquire and
critique the genres required for success in schooling, in employment, in the community
(Derewianka, 2003, p. 142; Macken-Horarik, 2002, p. 44-45). These goals, again are
consistent with the contemporary demand of the application of CP in Indonesia, which is
expected to empower students to become agents in the current Indonesian society, as
outlined in Chapter 1, Section 1.5
Like the previous theories, this approach also encourages reading and writing multiple texts
in various genres or text-types (Feez and Joyce, 1998a,b; Rothery, 1
u
view of language as a social semiotic, or alternatively a resource for making meaning where
the hidden actors, the meaning makers, are social beings (Cope, 2002). Moreover,
underpinned by SFL which upholds the interconnectedness between text and context, the
GBA can lead to students’ awareness of the various ways in which each and every text is the
unique creation of a unique author, and of how texts are relative to particular groups and
contexts, as suggested by the CT movement and
Moreover, by the close study of texts and their contexts, the GBA is consistent with
understand the word but also the world, as Davison (2001) observes.
The difference and the additional value of the GBA in terms of critical literacy is that the
SFL GBA presupposes reading for understanding, and to do this, one must h
hi
the familiarity with the mainstream literacy is not “a given” (Rothery, 1996, p. 118;
62

Macken-Horarik, 1997; 1998; Martin, Christie and Rothery, 1994). The genre theorists such
as Martin, Christie and Rothery (1994) emphasise:
To understand the world, to understand various disciplines, students should be given tools… . These
tools are fundamentally linguistic ones - the genres and varieties of abstract and technical language
To r
discu
Kalan yce, 1998a; Feez, 2002
ibbons, 2002; Hammond, 1990; Macken-Horarik, 2002; Veel and Coffin, 1996).
ning whose
struct
learn
erson engages (Halliday, 1975, see also Christie, 1987, Painter, 1989). Halliday argues:
s place is
th
th
th
in nd ideology of the culture (Halliday, 1985c, p. 5).
Thi o
discuss ocial activity, which
nec i
A
aw child is
in sses are
internalised, they become part of the child’s independent developmental achievement (1978, p. 90).
associated with each discipline (p. 237).
Therefore, in a CL program within schooling, as Macken-Horarik (1998, p. 79) argues,
“students need to: (i) gain access to a range of contextualization practices in reading and
writing; (ii) develop meta-level awareness of texts and the practices they instantiate; and (iii)
acquire both of the above within visible pedagogies marked by explicitness.”
ealize its aims, genre pedagogy stresses several basic principles which have been
ssed widely (see, for example: Callaghan and Rothery,1988; Christie, 1991; Cope and
tzis, 1993; Derewianka, 1990; DSP, 1989; Feez and Jo
G
The first principle is that language learning is a social activity (Feez and Joyce, 1998a). This
principle derives from Halliday’s theory about language as a resource for mea
ural shape, so to speak, reflects its socio-cultural functions. To learn how to mean is to
how to construct the meanings relevant to the various context of situation in which
p
Learning is, above all, a social process, and the environment in which educational learning take
at of a social institution, whether we think of this in concrete terms as the classroom and the school,
with their clearly defined social structures, or in the more abstract sense of the school system, or even
e educational process as it is conceived of in our society. Knowledge is transmitted in social contexts,
rough relationships, like those of parent and child, or teacher and pupil, or classmates, that are defined
the value systems a
s c ncept of learning is parallel to Vygotsky’s (1978) view and Bakhtin’s (1986) as
ed in Antonacci and Colassaco (1995, p. 265) that learning is a s
ess tates the interdependence of the students with society. Vygotsky argues:
n essential feature of learning is that it creates the zone of proximal development, that is learning
akens a variety of internal development processes that are able to operate only when the
teracting with people in his environment and in cooperation with peers. Once these proce
Under this principle, language learning in the GBA should result in three outcomes:
63

• Students learn language: by interacting with others in purposeful social activities
students begin to understand that the target language is a resource they can use to
make meaning;
• Students learn through language: through learning the target language, students
begin to interpret and organise reality in terms of that language;
•
talk about language (Halliday, 1980, cited in
IRA/NCTA, 2002-2004, see also Derewianka, 1990; Feez and Joyce, 1998a).
p. 57-58).
The s
above
of stu
been
cia anipulating two
ence to a distant future,
eans and distant ends,
Students learn about language: building a knowledge of the target language and how
it works; developing a language to
From this principle, it is clear that the GBA, emerging as a dissatisfaction with the
progressive approach, “puts language back into the picture, and this is not back to basics.
But it is the key to providing progressive educators with somewhere to go,” as Martin,
Christie and Rothery (1994, p. 246) argue. With respect to CL, this principle is important
because knowledge about language engenders a critical orientation to literacy which should
be a necessary (if not sufficient) component of any CL that should be promoted in schools
(Veel and Coffin, 1996).This stance has been supported by Threadgold (1988) who says:
To teach genres, discourses and stories is inevitably to make visible the social construction and
transmission of ideologies, power relationships and social identities (cited in Davison, 2001, p. 49; see
also the discussion in Feez, 2002,
econd principle, corresponding to the first and the suggestion from the CT movement
, is that learning occurs more effectively if teachers are explicit about what is expected
dents (Feez and Joyce, 1998a, p. 25; Cope and Kalantzis, 1993b). This concept has
influenced by the work of Bernstein (1971) in investigating the codes of different
l classes. Bernstein reports that the middle class child is capable of m
so
language codes - the language between social equals (peer groups), which approximates to a
public language, and a formal language which permits sensitivity to role and status (1971,
p.30). This, argues Bernstein, has been made possible because the child in the middle class
and associate levels grows up in an environment which is finely and extensively controlled;
the space, time and social relationships are explicitly regulated within and outside the family
group. Bernstein goes on to argue:
The more purposeful and explicit the organisation of the environment with refer
that is the greater the rationality of the connections and inter-relations between m
64

the greater the significance of objects in the present. Objects in the present are not taken as given, but
become centres for enquiry and starting points for relationships. The effect of this on the experience of
the child is to make him more generally and specifically aware of a wide range of objects at any one
time which will intensify his curiousity and reward his explorations. … the school is an institution
where every item in the present is finely linked to a distant future, consequently, there is not a serious
clash of expectations between the school and the middle class child (1971, p. 29).
Drawing on Bernstein’s work, th
teach
that
spo e seen as a deliberate
w
th
or
ap
C
This ar
If
m
pr se outside
the culture, rather than conveyed as implicit codes … Explicit presentation makes learning
er (2000); Feez (2002); Gibbons (2002). Gibbons
l language use. It aims to foster
ility to critique the ways that
language is used in authentic contexts, such as the way it is used to persuade (2002, p. 60).
e GBA suggests that teachers should be more explicit in
ing: how language works to make meaning; the text organization; and linguistic forms
characterize different genres. The genre theorists argue that educators have a
nsibility to intervene in the learning process and teaching should b
re
act, one in which the teacher takes an overtly interventionist role (Christie, 1991, p. 254-
255). Explicitness should also be applied in the curriculum structure and lesson scaffolds
(Cope and Kalantzis, 1993b). Moreover, as a visible pedagogy, a GBA:
ould take nothing for granted initially, and would not count as acquired what some and only some of
e pupils had inherited, instead, the genre-based approach would do all things for all and would be
ganised with the explicit aim of providing all with the means of acquiring that which, although
parently a natural gift, is only given to the children of the educated classes (Martin, 1993, quoted by
hristie and Unsworth, 2000, p. 19-20).
gument is similar to Delpit’s (1988) statement, that
you are not already a participant in the culture of power, being told explicitly the rules of that culture
akes acquiring power easier. … Entering a new culture is easier, both psychologically and
agmatically, if information about the appropriateness of behaviour is made explicit to tho
immeasurably easier (1988, p. 283, see also Gibbons, 2002; Cummins, 1996):
The value of explicit teaching in ESL/EFL has also been observed by several writers, like
Grabe and Kaplan (1996); Galagh
provides a comprehensive concept of explicit teaching in ESL/EFL, saying:
Explicit teaching does not mean a return to the teaching of traditional grammar, and to the
meaningless drills and exercises devoid of functional and communicative purpose. Nor does it mean
that grammar is taught separately from the authentic use of language. Neither does it mean a breaking
up of language into component parts of speech, or a fragmentation of the time table into spelling,
dictation, composition, and so on, or a separation of the macro-skills of reading, writing, listening, and
speaking. It does mean that students are encouraged to reflect on how language is used for a range of
purposes and with a range of audiences, and that teachers focus explicitly on those aspects of
language that enable students to do this. Explicit teaching is related to real life use, so that
understanding about language is developed in the context of actua
active involvement in learning, independence in writing, and the ab
65

So, through the principle of explicit teaching, the GBA avoids hidden curriculum, or what
McLaren calls the pedagogical unsaid (cited in Wink, 2000, p. 54), which is the
unexpressed perpetuation of dominant culture through institutional processes.
Another principle of the GBA is that students learn under the guidance of the teacher in
pprenticeship (Cope and Kalantzis, 1993a; Feez and Joyce, 1998a; Butt et. al, 2000), with
e can be reached by the students in more effective ways when they are
affolded at the point at which they need it. Thus, “the teacher or the expert must be
blem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more
apable peers” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86, see also the discussion in Antonacci and Colasacco,
s, there are two things suggested about language learning.
First, if
a
the students as an apprentice and the teacher in the authoritative (Feez and Joyce, 1998a;
Feez, 2002; Macken-Horarik, 2002) role of expert on language system and function. Under
this principle, the GBA puts an emphasis on scaffolding (Wood, Bruner, and Ross, 1976)
and the zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1962; 1978).
Scaffolding describes the tutorial assistance provided by the adult who knows how to
control those elements that are beyond the child’s capabilities (Wood, Bruner and Ross,
1976; Langer and Applebee, 1987; Wells, 1999). The support is provided when the novice
needs it, as competenc
sc
responsive to the needs of the students; the teacher must be deliberate in appropriating the
support at the time it is needed” (Wells, 1999, p. 127).
The zone of proximal development refers to “the distance between the actual development
level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development
as determined through pro
c
1995; Wells, 1999; Feez and Joyce, 2000).The role of the teacher in practice means:
“engaging with learners in activities to which they are committed, observing what they can
do unaided; then providing guidance that helps them identify the nature of their problems,
and find solutions that enable them to bring the activity to a satisfactory completion”
(Wells,1999, p.159).
Under this model of learning, thu
a teacher is only concerned with what students can already do with language, ie with
66

their e
econd, if a teacher supports students so that they move through the zone of proximal
uage functions can bring wider
mpowerment” (see the discussion in Morgan, 1997, p. 19). This has been supported by
A knowledge of grammar can help us to critically evaluate our own text and those of others (e.g.
; Disadvantaged School
rogram (DSP) (1989); Feez and Joyce (1998a); Feez (2002); Gibbons (2002); New South
xisting level of independent performance, then the students will never progress.
S
development to their potential level of performance, real learning and progress is possible
(Feez and Joyce, 1998a).
In relation to the teaching of grammar, genre theorists contend that teaching grammar must
be a fundamental part of an effective GBA to reading and writing. It is said that grammar
enables us to break out of the reductiveness of the genre as end-product problem (Callaghan,
Knapp, and Noble, 1993). Through the learning of grammar, students will know how
language functions and “the knowledge of lang
e
Derewianka (1998), who argues:
Identifying points of view; examining how language can be manipulated to achieve certain effects and
position the reader in a particular way; knowing how language can be used to construct a particular
identity or a particular way of viewing the world (1998, p. 1).
Although the technical apparatus of linguistics has been rejected (especially by
poststructuralist theorists, as stated by Threadgold, 1994, p. 22), if we are to read
representations critically, we need more than intuitive skills. If we are to change
representations significantly, as for example in the re-training of the judiciary against
gender-bias, we must have a metalanguage, a grammatics, which allows us to be specific
about what needs changing, as Threadgold (1994, p. 22) suggests. Moreover, in learning to
write, grammar also plays a critical role, as learning to write involves learning new genres
and new ways of using grammar (Martin, 1985, p. 53).
2.5.5.4 Models of Teaching under the SFL GBA
There are several models of the SFL GBA, such as those offered by Callaghan, Knapp and
Noble (1993); Callaghan and Rothery (1988); Derewianka (1990)
P
Wales Department of Education, Literacy and Education Network and Directorate of Studies
(1990a,b,c,d); Rothery (1996). Perhaps the best known pedagogical work is the curriculum
67

cycle - an approach to teaching different genres of writing which was published extensively
through materials developed through the New South Wales Disadvantaged Schools
rogram. As the DSP program involved many ESL students, the GBA, to some extent, is
ticular, and Indonesian school and teacher education
context in general, where students learn English as a foreign language.
Derewianka (1990), Negotiating Field
the model suggested by Rothery (1996) or Building Knowledge of the Field (Feez and
a (see Reid, 1987) and also by the reactions of educators in Britain
nd North America (Haneda and Wells, 2002, p. 5).
and Medway, 1994) point out that although it is
usefu
to be
genre
996; Lemke, 1995; Nunan, 1999). In this context, Freedman (1994, p. 196) argues that
explicit teaching is unnecessary, for the most part, not even possible, and where possible,
not useful (except during editing, for a limited number of transparent and highly specific
P
relevant to the current study in par
The curriculum cycle consists of three major stages: Modeling, Joint Negotiation of Text and
Independent Construction of Text. Some other writers add one or two other stages to the
model, such as Preparation in the model proposed by
in
Joyce, 1998a; Feez, 2002; Gibbons, 2002; Macken-Horarik, 2002).
As will be shown in Chapter 4, the stages of the GBA used in this study cover: Building
Knowledge of the Field (or Negotiating Field, to use Rothery’s (1996) term); Modelling
(conceptualized as Deconstruction in Rothery’s (1996) model); Joint Construction; and
Independent Construction. These stages, along with reasons for their application in this
study will be discussed in Chapter 4, Section 4.3.
2.5.5.5 Criticisms of the SFL GBA
The genre-based pedagogy has not been without its critics, as is evidenced by the so-called
“genre debate” in Australi
a
The first criticism from those working under the genre pedagogy in North America, centres
on explicit teaching of the identification and description of the conventions of particular
genres. The critics, such as (Freedman
l to be able to identify and describe the conventions of particular genres, it is very easy
come prescriptive and normative about such conventions, listing properties of different
s (see also the discussion in Barton, 1994; Richardson, 1994; William and Hasan,
1
68

features). Further, Freedman argues, whenever explicit teaching does take place, there is risk
of over-learning and misapplication (1994, p. 196-198; see also a similar observation in
Freedman, 1997, p. 179).
Another criticism has been articulated by the process approach advocates, who see the
teaching of genre rules as limiting students’ creativity and free expression (see the
discussion in Sawyer and Watson, 1987; Dixon, 1987; Berkenkotter and Huckin, 1995).
Sawyer and Watson, for example, state:
Learning a new genre is not a conscious process, nor even one that necessarily involves conscious
language formation, nor even the absorbsion of models. Rather, their subjects developed a new genre in
response to the demands of the particular task. … a premature emphasis on form can hinder learning. …
Learning implies gradual development, and hence a fluid approach to genres, rather than the imposition
of conventions from earliest days (1987, p. 50).
The progressivists also argue that the GBA emphasises only the product, rather than process
(as discussed in Nunan, 1996) and see genre literacy as a revival of transmission pedagogy
(as discussed in Cope and Kalantzis, 1993a, p. 2).
The last criticism of the GBA comes from those who work under a critical social theory of
literacy (e.g. Luke, 1996) to do with the point of genres of power. Luke argues that “power
is utterly sociologically contingent… . There are no guarantees of power: there are no genres
of power” (1996, also cited in Freedman, 1994, p. 192).
However, based on the findings of this study to be shown in Chapters 4, 5 and 6, and the
theories which underpin this study, all the criticisms above cannot seemingly be justified. In
an EFL context like Indonesia, the GBA, with its emphasis on students’ mastery on
language use in different contexts over a long period of time, step by step, will lead to the
teaching of English which is functional, as proposed by the authority of education in
Indonesia, as mentioned in Chapter 1, Section 1.4. Moreover, because the GBA also
encourages students to use their language mastery in writing various genres, it has the
potential to improve the writing skills and capacity of Indonesian students and academics in
general, the development of which is urgent, as again, mentioned in Chapter 1, Section 1.4.
Regarding the first criticism, for example, the value of explicit teaching can be seen from the
69

students’ development portrayed in their texts, in terms of writing skills, and their critical
capacity, as will be presented in Chapter 5. Explicit teaching is also considered meaningful
y the students, as interview data will show in Chapter 6. From the perspective of CT
education, to some degree entails a
ansmission of culture, a tradition and a history (Elias, 1994, p. 114); and “all forms of
pes, they will be able to manipulate them for their own purposes” (Gibbons,
ckin, 1995, p. 160-161). Regarding the criticism
to do with emphasis on the product, as Chapter 4 will reveal, the GBA does put emphasis on
inappropriate. Research
ndings indicate that some genres, especially argumentative writing, is more difficult and
b
teaching, explicit teaching is important to make the teaching of skills and knowledge of CT
possible, as the CT theorists suggest. Finally, from a CP perspective, explicit teaching in
which the teacher explicitly explains the learning material and play an authoritative role, as
outlined earlier, can be used as a way to overcome the dilemma of the teacher not having
enough authority in a dialogic classroom (although explicit teaching does not mean
exhibiting the power of the teacher, as suggested by Gibbons, 2002). The principle of
explicit teaching can also address the criticisms of CP regarding lack of lecture as
educational method, which is critical, as “all
tr
teaching are political, including academic genres and cognitive apprenticeship, and
imposition is unavoidable” (Benesch, 2001, p. 70).
The second criticism cannot seemingly be justified either. “Making rules and expectations
explicit to students does not limit their freedom and autonomy. On the contrary, it gives
them the tools to be creative and autonomous. Once students are aware of the conventions of
any of the text ty
2002, p. 68; see also Berkenkotter and Hu
the process of writing, and this has also led to students’ awareness that writing is a recursive
process, as interview data will show in Chapter 6.
The last criticism regarding “genres in power” is again seemingly
fi
needs more reasons than other genres (see CT theorists, such as Moore and Parker, 1995,
Kurfiss, 1988 above) and are more highly valued in university credentials and are demanded
more in university level of education. This suggests that some genres are more valued
(Johns, 2002a) and thus more powerful and statusful (Martin, 1985; Clark and Ivanik, 1997)
than the others.
70

2.5.6 Summary of the discussion of SFL
This section has addressed several aspects related to SFL. These include basic principles of
SFL which makes it distinctive, and other basic notions of SFL, such as the notion of text
and context, intertextuality, and metafunctions, and the impact of SFL in language education
through the discussion of the GBA, which is underpinned by SFL.
It has been shown that the goals of the GBA, as described above, are relevant to the
necessity of the improvement of students’ writing skills in all levels of Indonesian
education. It has also been suggested that the GBA has commonalities with other theories
reviewed in this chapter. Students’ mastery of different uses of language in different
contexts, emphasized in the GBA, can lead to students’ sensitivity and care in using
language, which constitutes a central part of students’ development in CT, as sophistication
in CT is reflected in sophistication in language (Chaffee, personal communication with the
researcher, 11th
April, 2004). Underpinned by SFL, which proposes the connectedness of
text and context, through the theory of register (Field/Tenor/Mode) and genre, the GBA has
a great deal in common a critical social theory of literacy as discussed in Section 2.4.
Students’ mastery of the interrelatedness between text and context enables them to
interrogate texts, to do with their representations, such as “what is the topic, who is the
writer and to whom, and why was the text created and what is another way of creating the
text”. Moreover, called as a pedagogy for “access and inclusion” (Cope and Kalantzis,
1993b), the GBA is relevant to CP, as it also aims to empower students through helping
them master how language works in specific contexts which can give them access to the
language of power. What is more is that the GBA argues that this mastery or capacity, is not
the teacher’s intervention or direct instruction and explicit teaching. With
that teacher education of English in Indonesia should provide students with sound
given, but needs
these principles and other basic principles, as outlined above, the GBA is relevant to the
urgency of the improvement of the teaching of English in Indonesia, to the one which is
functional, and thus can lead to students who can use the language in context. Moreover,
with the emphasis of development of students’ writing skills the GBA has the potential to
develop writing skills of Indonesian students and academics, the development of which is
critical in contemporary Indonesia, as discussed in Chapter 1, Section 1.4. Thus, it follows
71

background knowledge and clear understanding of the GBA and the competence to
implement the approach in their classrooms in different contexts.
2.6 Conclusion
y. Aspects of the theories reviewed in this chapter
re also relevant to the priorities of education in Indonesia, such as to fulfill the necessity of
and across the curriculum subjects in all
levels of education in general.
It has also been argued that there is a potential complementation across the four areas of
theories reviewed and therefore a synthesis of the principles in each theory is possible and
desirable. One important object of this study was to test the complementary nature of the
four different areas of theory in designing and implementing an English academic writing
program at a tertiary level in Indonesia.
The forthcoming chapters will explain how the study was designed and implemented and the
nature of the findings. Chapter 3 will thus outline aspects of the methodology used, while
later chapters will develop analyses of the results.
This chapter has provided a theoretical background of the study including a detail
delineation of theories of CT, CP, CL and SFL. It has been demonstrated that despite the
distinctiveness of each theory reviewed, aspects of these four theories emphasised in this
study are interrelated and complementar
a
the development of critical capacity, the urgency of the implementation of interactive
pedagogy, and the promotion of democracy in the classroom through the teaching of writing
and reading skills in theEFL context in particular,
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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
Chapter 2 has discussed literature related to this research, including notions of critical
thinking (CT), critical pedagogy (CP), critical literacy (CL), and systemic functional
linguistics (SFL). This chapter will provide a detailed delineation of the methodology of the
study, which drew on all the literature reviewed. The discussion, as will be shown in Section
3.2, will begin with describing the purpose of the study and the research questions, then the
research design, setting, participants, data collections and analyses. Regarding the data
collection in particular, it will be demonstrated that this study, characterised as a qualitative
case study (and to some extent, program evaluation), employed data collections in an on
going way (Fraenkel and Wallen, 2000). Ongoing data collections will be discussed in brief
in this chapter, as their procedural details will be provided in Chapter 4 in the overview of
the research program. Only the use of interviews, conducted at the end of the study, will be
described in detail in this chapter. Justifications for the steps in the whole procedure will
also be provided. In Section 3.3, systemic functional grammar (SFG), used as a tool for
students’ texts analyses will then be discussed.
3.2 Methodology
As indicated earlier, several aspects will be approached in this section, regarding the purpose
of the study and research question, research design, setting, participants, data collections and
analyses.
3.2.1 Purpose of the Study and Research Question
The purpose of this study was to identify and describe the effectiveness and values of a
teaching program in helping to promote students’ argumentative writing skills and critical
capacities (in terms of CT and CL) in a tertiary EFL Indonesian context. The teaching
program attempted to synthesise the GBA and classroom practices informed by the CT
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movement, CP, and CL adopted in this study (as discussed in Chapter 2). Based on the
above purpose, the present study endeavoured to address the question:
Can a genre-based pedagogy using critical and dialogic teaching principles lead
to enhanced argumentative writing performance and critical capacity in
tertiary EFL students in Indonesia?
3.2.2 Research Design
Relevant to the purpose and research question above, a qualitative study which embraced
characteristics of several research methods was employed. Based on the classification of
research designs from Nunan (1992), this research can be characterised as a qualitative
program evaluation because in this study the researcher created and then implemented a
teaching program. In the course of the program, she evaluated the value and the
effectiveness of the program, through ongoing assessment of students’ achievements (done
by herself and her colleague who was involved in this study) relevant to the objectives of the
program. This assessment was valuable “to assist the researcher in deciding whether the
teaching program needed to be modified or altered in any way so that objectives may be
achieved more effectively” (Nunan, 1992, p. 185).
However, this research also has similar characteristics to a case study. First, like a case
study, it was carried out in “a small scale, a single case” (Stake, 1985, p. 278). It “focused
on one particular instance of educational experience or practice” (Freebody, 2003, p. 81),
that is, a teaching program, where “the researcher acted as teacher” (Stake, 1995, p. 91). The
second characteristic, which constitutes the important aspect of case study, as Yin (1993, p.
32) suggests, is that this research employed “multiple sources of evidence – converging
from the same set of issues” (Yin, 1993, p. 32) or “multiple data collections and analytic
procedures” (Freebody, 2003, p. 83) to allow for “in-depth study” (Ary, Jacobs and
Razavieh 1972; Connole , 1993) or “down to earth” study (Cohen and Manion, 1985, see
also Cohen, Manion and Morrison, 2000). Multiple data gatherings aimed to enhance the
construct validity of the study (Yin, 1993, p. 39-40) and to gain more rounded and complete
accounts to test the values and effectiveness of the teaching program implemented in this
study, as mentioned in the purpose of the study above. The third characteristic is that this
study used text analysis, which is another method of qualitative case study (Travern, 2001;
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Freebody, 2003), using SFG, which provides a powerful analytical tool, and constitutes “one
of a variety of linguistic approaches that have been well developed in the area of education”
(Freebody, 2003, p. 185).
3.2.3 Setting
The research was undertaken at the English Department of a state university in Bandung -
West Java, Indonesia. The Department has two programs: educational, whose graduates are
prepared to become English teachers (to which the participants of this study belonged); and
non educational, whose graduates are prepared to be involved in non teaching jobs.
This research site, at tertiary level, was chosen for several reasons. First of all, having been a
teaching member in the Department for almost 15 years, the researcher hoped to get access
easily to the research site, and thus to increase feasibility of the study. The researcher’s
familiarity with the situation in the research site, let alone with the participants, was
expected to lead to a more natural conduct of research, in the context that normally occurs.
This accordingly was aimed at avoiding any students’ unnatural behaviour performance,
despite their awareness of the study and the fact that the class was set up for the purpose of
research (see Chapter 4, Section 4.2).
The second reason was related to the genre in focus, an argumentative genre, which has been
reported to be difficult (Moore and Parker, 1995; Fulkerson, 1996; Connor and Laurer,
1988, Cahyono, 2001a) (see the report from NAEP report, 1981, cited in Baron, 1987, p.
232; and Cameron and Todd, 2001, p. 115, regarding students’ academic writing in IELTS:
International English Language Testing System). The choice of the tertiary level was
deemed appropriate and relevant because it is at this level that students are required to write
such genres (Dudley-Evans, 2002; Grabe, 2002). Regarding CT and CL, it is also at this
level that “students are expected to think more conceptually, to write more analytically, and
to read more critically” (Chaffee, et al, 2002, p. 4).
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The last reason for the choice of the tertiary level was that one of the principles of CP
adopted in this study, is the teacher should aim to create a school or class as a democratic
public setting (Giroux, 1988; 1992; 1997). Conducted at the tertiary level, it was hoped that
this study would have an impact on wider society and the civic life of Indonesia, despite its
being small scale. The reason for this is that the university has been defended as “a vital
public sphere, whose moral and pedagogical dimensions help renew civic life” (Giroux,
1997, p. 258) (see also Fairclough and Chouliaraki, 1999, p. 8-9 for a similar discussion).
The university “influences a large number of people not only in terms of what they learn and
how they locate themselves in the context and content of specific knowledge forms, but also
in terms of their impact on a variety of institutions in public life” (Giroux, 1997, p. 258-
259). It was hoped that the inclusion of CP in a tertiary education, particularly in a teacher
education classroom, “would result in a significant potential for ongoing social change”, as
Keesing-Styles (2003, p. 1) notes. This is because the inclusion of CP in teacher education
will create a new generation of teachers who will be implementing a new curriculum and
teaching practice, applied in this study, which is relevant to the current Indonesian context,
as outlined in Chapter 1.
3.2.4 Participants
The participants of this study were 18 semester six student teachers of a Bachelor degree
(which usually takes at least eight semesters) in the department, who voluntarily participated
in the study upon the researcher’s giving information on the nature of the study and what
was expected of them (see Chapter 4, Section 4.2). Student teachers were chosen as they
were considered to have a potential to apply their learning from this program in their own
teaching later. Moreover, with the principles of CP adopted in this study, as discussed in
Chapter 2, student teachers were expected to learn “what teacher-students interactions in the
classroom should look like, which would then influence the interactions and power relations
in the broader society” (Cummins, 1996, p. iii). This, as Cummins further argues, embodies
an image of the society they will graduate into and the kinds of contributions they are being
enabled to make within the society.
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The students involved in this study had taken the subjects Writing I to IV, offered in the
department, which mostly deal with writing paragraphs and some genres of writing (see
Appendix 1, about the syllabus of the teaching of writing in the research site). As
argumentation is difficult, as mentioned above, by selecting these students, the researcher
hoped that the materials or the tasks given in the class were in line with their English and
writing capacities.
All participants were between 20-21 years of age. They were all Moslems, originally from
the Sundanese ethnic group in Indonesia, having Bahasa Sunda as their mother tongue.
Bahasa Indonesia is their second language and English is thus their foreign language. The
class had only two male students, which is common in language classes in all language
departments in the university. However, from a CL perspective, as revealed in interview
data in Chapter 6, this is a limitation of the study, as the class was not heterogeneous. A
mixed-gendered class, with students having different cultural backgrounds could have
provided an ideal environment in which the students “could test their own readings against
those of others” (Janks, 2001, p. 149). Another limitation, as will also be shown in the
interview data, is that the class was much smaller than regular classes in the research site
and in other Indonesian contexts in general, which will influence the reliability of the results
of the study. Moreover, the class being additional to the others and the voluntary-based
participation may also mean that the students were potentially more motivated, which again,
affects the reliability of the results of the study. The last limitation is to do with the class
being set up specifically for the purpose of research. From the perspective of classroom
observation in ESL or EFL, it would have been much better if the research had taken place
in an ongoing and regular class (van Lier, 1988, p. 9). This is because “in an ongoing class
things are done along similar lines a number of times, and they turn into routines in which
all participants know what is likely to happen next” (van Lier, 1988, p. 10), which can lead
to “a natural and undisturbed lesson” (van Lier, 1988, p. 39).
With the help of her colleague(s), who had taught writing subjects to the students, the
students were grouped into low, mid and high achievers, based on their performance in
previous writing lessons, as well as their diagnostic writings (see Chapter 4). To ensure the
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appropriateness and accuracy of the groupings and selection of students whose writings
would become the samples of this study, the researcher also tried to consult the documents
available in the department to discover students’ general performance in learning English, in
writing subjects in particular, as indicated by their grades.
3.2.5 Data Collection
As outlined above, this study used multiple techniques of data collection, conducted not only
at the conclusion of the study, but also in an ongoing way (Fraenkel and Wallen, 2000, p.
505; Bogdan and Biklen, 2003). Ongoing data collection will be taken up briefly in this
section (as their detailed presentation will be provided in Chapter 4), and the use of
interview, which was conducted at the end of the research in detail. Each method of data
collection will be described below.
3.2.5.1 A Phase of Teaching EFL Writing Classes
In the 11 week teaching program, the researcher acted as a teacher, as mentioned above. The
researcher applied the basic principles of the GBA, supported by suggestions from the CT
movement, CP and CL adopted in this study. Prior to the teaching phase, a questionnaire
was distributed and a diagnostic writing task was organised to get information on students’
backgrounds and their familiarity with the genre in focus as well as their critical capacities.
After each session, the students were invited to write a journal aiming to provide guidance
for the researcher on students’ difficulty and interest. From a CT point, journal writing was
important, as it allowed students “to reflect, to dig deeper if they would, into the heart of the
words, beliefs, and behaviours they described in their journals” (Janesick, 2000, p. 178).
Journals also allow the teacher to see the development of CT dispositions, from indications
of open-mindedness, seeking reasons, trying to be well-informed, and so on (Norris and
Ennis, 1990, p. 36). Students’ journals also allows for the researcher’s critical reflection, “to
see herself through the students’ eye” (Brookfield, 1995, p. 94). Moreover, from a
perspective of ESL or EFL teaching, journal writing was also important for needs analyses
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(Feez and Joyce, 1998a) and as “an introspective tool in language research, for both the
students and the teacher” (Nunan, 1992, p. 119-121).
The researcher also wrote observation notes immediately after each session while “the
memory of the observation was still fresh” (van Lier, 1988, p. 241). Observation notes
focused on what was said and done by both the researcher and the students in the
“interactional setting” (Morrison, 1993, cited in Cohen, Manion and Morrison, 2000, p. 305;
Allwright, 1988). This aimed to help “increase the researcher’s sensitivity to her own
classroom behaviour and its effects and influence on students” (Allwright, 1988, p. 77).
Observation (and the collection of students’ writing samples below) constituted a technique
for evaluating the program as “it provides objective measures of pre-to-post-training
changes in students” (Allwright, 1988, p. 260).
As no observation is value-free or theory-free (van Lier, 1988, p. 46; Fraenkel and Wallen,
2000, p. 538-539), the researcher invited one of her colleagues, Mr Ari (pseudonym), to
observe the class. This was intended to enable the researcher “to check her observations
against his” (Fraenkel and Wallen, 2000, p. 539) and accordingly to promote the reliability
of observations (Allwright, 1988; van Lier, 1988; Shimahara, 1988). The whole phase of the
teaching program will be taken up in Chapter 4, Section 4.3.
3.2.5.2 The Collection of Students’ Written Texts
Students’ texts were collected at various stages of the research program. They constituted
the main resource of information to plot students’ development in control of writing skills
and their critical capacities, and to test the value and effectiveness of the teaching program.
Students’ written texts, as Kress (1985, p. 47) argues “everywhere bear the signs of the
struggle to meet the demands of the generic form, the effects and meanings of discourses,
and the forms of language in the written mode, and everywhere bear the signs of their
achievement in doing so.” This coincides with Freebody’s argument that “in most cases,
students’ actual achievements can be gauged through their production of various kinds of
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texts” (2003, p. 179). Therefore, students’ text analyses also constitute one of the most
important sources of target situation data in devising an L2 (EFL) writing syllabus later
(Hyland, 2003, p. 62) in Indonesia. Moreover, students’ texts, which are argumentative, are
also of a valuable source to evaluate students’ CT (Norris and Ennis, 1989; Baron, 1987).
From a CL perspective, texts analysis is also important, as in students’ texts can be seen the
values and beliefs of the students about issues discussed (Lemke, 2002, p. 23).
Samples of students’ texts represented students’ different levels of achievement and will be
closely analysed in Chapter 5. The analyses use SFG, in that the texts were analysed in
terms of the schematic structure and then linguistic features, to do with the textual,
ideational and interpersonal metafunctions as suggested by SFL.
3.2.5.3 The Use of Interviews
The last source of data was interviews with the students. An interview has been defined as
“an interaction between two people, with the interviewer and the subject acting in relation to
each other and reciprocally influencing each other” (Kvale, 1996, p. 35). Thus defined,
interviews in this study were an important means of helping students to bring to
consciousness their knowledge gained in the teaching program, what aspects they thought
had developed, and which aspects of the teaching program were responsible for the
development or changes observed in this study. This enabled the researcher “to check the
accuracy of – to verify or refute – the impressions she had gained through observations”
(Fraenkel and Wallen, 2000, p. 509) and text analyses conducted in this study.
An interview was also an important way to evaluate students’ CT (Norris and Ennis, 1989),
and as Chapter 6 will show, also CL. From a CP perspective, interviews with student
teachers were crucial as their responses revealed how they understood processes of teaching
and learning, which would “shape their work as teachers or educators” (Boyce, 1999, p.1).
With the concept that “as students need change, so would the program” (Degener, 1999, p.
10), it was hoped that students’ input from interviews would become the basis to refine the
program structure, the class instruction and the follow up of practical importance. This, so
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Degener further argues, enables the students to see how their input affects the program and
thus see themselves as active participants.
Two stages of interviews were conducted. The first time was immediately after the teaching
program and the second occurred eight months after the teaching program. The first
interview aimed to find out more about students’ insights as learners, and the second one
about students’ perceptions of the teaching program, not only as learners, but also as student
teachers. The second interview was deemed important as over this period of time, the
students had had subjects which required academic writing skills, like Research Project and
critical reading, or Extensive Readin. Moreover, they had enrolled in the subject Kuliah
Kerja Nyata (obligatory social action internship for advanced students), during which they
would have a chance to visit some schools and to interact with students and teachers of
primary and secondary schools. Accordingly, the second stage interview also aimed to find
out the students’ perceptions of the applicability of their learning in their current academic
activities, as well as the likelihood of their applying a similar teaching program in their own
teaching, and the challenges this might involve. The two stages of interviews can be
described in Table 3.1 below.
Table 3. 1 Overview of Interviews
Conduct of Interviews Individual Focus Group
Stage 1: Immediately
after the teaching
program
Students involved: Seven,
representing various levels of
achievement. (Pseudonyms:
Warda, Candra, Nia, Riya,
Ira, Wati and Ina).
Students involved: 10, representing
various levels of achievement, some of
whom were already interviewed
individually.
Pseudonyms: Candra, Nia, Ira, Riya,
Wati, Elli, Cinta, Ary, Rifky, Puri
Stage 2:
Eight months after the
teaching program
Not conducted Students involved: Eight, representing
various levels of achievement and
previously interviewed in the first stage.
Pseudonyms: Candra, Nia, Ira, Riya,
Wati, Elli, Cinta, Puri.
As illustrated in Table 3.1, two types of interview were employed: individual and focus
group. An individual interview was chosen for several reasons. First, such an interview is
literally defined as “an inter view, an inter-change of views between two persons conversing
about a theme of mutual interest” (Kvale, 1996, p. 14). So defined, individual interviews
were intended to allow for greater depth than is the case with other methods of data
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collection techniques, as they could “provide access to what is inside an interviewee’s head,
… what he/she thinks” (Cohen and Manion, 1980, p. 242; 1985) about the teaching
program.
From a point of CT evaluation, the value of individual interview has been observed by
Norris and Ennis, who say:
Interviewing students individually is a way of acquiring very detailed information on the students’
critical thinking. Interviewing students individually has certain advantages over other information
gathering techniques. … many students can express ideas easier … in oral rather than in written
form. While interviewing the evaluator has also the option to ask students to clarify what they have
said, to request further reasons for their conclusions, and to ask specific questions about what might
have influenced their thinking (1989, p. 145-146).
The focus group interview aimed to function as “a source of validation” (Frey and Fontana,
1993, p. 25) of previously gathered data via one-on-one interviewing. Moreover, as the
evolving relations among group members can be a stimulus to elaboration and expression, a
focus group was expected to bring the researcher closer to “truth” by the addition of
embellishing interpretive data, as Frey and Fontana (1993, p. 32) further note. Finally, the
focus group aimed to get the range of students’ opinions, and suggestions about the
effectiveness of the teaching program, the suitability of the materials and tasks, their
development of writing and critical capacities. In this context, Krueger and Morgan (1993)
argue:
Often a major part of our research goal is to learn more about the range of opinions or experiences that
people have. Focus groups have a strong advantage here because the interaction in the group can
provide an explicit basis for exploring this issue. … One of the things that frequently become clear in
such discussions is that each individual may have several different opinions about the subject. This is
visible in statements of qualified agreement, such as “I agree with you, so long as …” (1993, p. 17-18).
As also shown in Table 3.1, in stage one seven students were involved in individual
interviews, and 10 in the focus group (to follow Frey and Fontana, 1993, p. 30). Some
students involved in the focus group had already been interviewed individually.
Furthermore, in stage two, due to time constraints, only a focus group interview was
conducted, involving eight students who were also interviewed in the first stage focus group.
The interviewees in the two stages were selected to represent different levels of
achievement, and two of them, Candra and Wati were the writers of the texts analysed in
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Chapter 5. Moreover, Nia was the writer of Texts 5.2 and 5.6, which are also mentioned in
the chapter, but they are not closely analysed.
A guided or semi-structured interview was used in both stages of interviews to enable the
researcher to get all information required (without forgetting a question), while at the same
time to permit the participants’ freedom of responses and description to illustrate the
concepts (Field and Morse, 1985, p. 67). The strength of a semi-structured interview,
according to Kvale is that:
A semi-structured interview … has a sequence of themes to be covered, as well as suggested questions.
Yet, at the same time there is an openness to changes of sequence and forms of questions in order to
follow up the answers given … by the subjects (1996, p. 124).
Questions asked in individual interviews in stage one can be seen in Appendix 18.1.
Moreover, the focus group only used some of the same questions, as students’ responses had
already confirmed the students’ main ideas in the individual interviews. Most questions were
leading questions and popular opinion about leading questions today is that “leading
questions are not that powerful” (Kvale, 1996, p. 157) (see also Merriam, 1998, p. 78-79;
Cohen, Manion and Morrison, 2000, p. 122). However, Kvale (1996) further argues for the
importance of leading questions, particularly in qualitative research, as saying:
The qualitative research interview is particularly well suited for employing leading questions to check
repeatedly the reliability of the interviewees’ answers, as well as to verify the interviewer’s
interpretations. Thus, contrary to popular opinion, leading questions do not always reduce the
reliability of interviews, but may enhance it; rather than being used too much, deliberately leading
questions are today probably applied too little in qualitative research interviews (1996, p. 158).
All questions in the interview stage one were tried out with several students who were not
involved in the study, for suggestions and advice, particularly regarding whether the
questions were ambiguous, vague or confusing.
The questions used in stage two can be found in Appendix 18.4. There were only three main
questions asked in this interview. Each was to do with what the students remembered they
learnt in the program, what development they thought they gained, using samples of their
texts as a prompt, and what challenges they thought they would face in implementing a
similar teaching program in their own teaching later.
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In order to remove some of the bias in verbal reports toward pleasing the instructor as the
researcher, who was also the interviewer, in the stage one interview, the researcher was
accompanied by her colleague who had served as a classroom observer, and some of the
questions were asked by him (Hyon, 2002, p. 133). Moreover, two weeks after the
individual and focus group interviews in stage one, two individual interviews were
conducted with a mid and a high achiever, who had been interviewed previously. These
interviews were intended to test the reliability of the students’ verbalisations. To allow the
students to express their ideas in a more elaborated way, these two interviews were
conducted in bahasa Indonesia by a researcher’s colleague (Hyon, 2002) who did not
participate in the teaching program. Data from this interview are not reported in this thesis,
given the space, but they did confirm evidence obtained in the previous interviews. The
second stage of interview was conducted only by the researcher as she could not find a
colleague who could help accompany her to ask the questions, due to the fact that the
interview was conducted during a break time.
Before the interview, the researcher informed the interviewees about (i) what was going to
be discussed; (ii) the release of pseudonyms in the research report; and (iii) the fact that the
conversation would be tape-recorded to avoid the loss of data, and to enable the researcher
to transcribe it later, enabling an in-depth analysis of the interviewees’ verbatim statements.
The researcher also attempted to establish an atmosphere such that the interviewee “could
feel secure to talk freely” (Cohen, Manion and Morrison, 2000, p. 279). All interviews were
conducted in a quiet classroom, to allow the interviewees to concentrate on the questions
asked and to enable the researcher to obtain clear recordings. Interviews were conducted in
English (except for those conducted by the researcher’s colleague as mentioned above),
although the students were allowed to speak in bahasa Indonesia when they had difficulty in
expressing ideas.
3.2.6 Data Analysis
Data analyses in this study were conducted over the course of the teaching program and
after the teaching program. Ongoing data analyses were essential and provided valuable
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ongoing material for evaluation or for modification of the teaching program. On going data
analyses and interpretations were based on data mainly from the questionnaire and
diagnostic writing prior to the teaching program, students’ journals and observation notes.
Some of these data, especially those from students’ journals and classroom observations will
be discussed in Chapter 4. Moreover, data which were analysed after the research program
were mainly students’ writing samples (including diagnostic texts), and interview data,
which respectively will be discussed in Chapters 5 and 6.
Students’ texts were first analysed using functional grammar (SFG) (see Appendices 15 and
16). SFG, as will be discussed later in Section 3.3, is a text-based grammar (Jones, et al.
1989), and “functional in its interpretation of texts, of the system, and of the elements of
linguistic structures, designed to account for how the language is used” (Halliday, 1985b, p.
xiii). SFG also has the capacity not only to locate language socially, but also to identify the
linguistic characteristics of a genre (Cope and Kalantzis, 1993, p. 84). Thus characterised,
SFG was “a valuable resource for (students’) texts analysis, which is concerned with the
linguistic forms of the texts” (Fairclough, 2003, p. 12).
The students’ texts, as will be alluded to in Chapter 5 were analysed in steps, to follow the
suggestion from the genre theorists, such as Christie (personal consultation on 13th
November, 2003), in that the texts were first analysed in terms of the logic or schematic
structure, organisation and purpose, and how well each element in the text performs its
function (This suggestion, to some extent, coincides with that from the critical thinking
theorists, such as Browne and Keeley, 1986, as mentioned in Chapter 2). Then the texts,
based on each element were analysed in terms of linguistic features, to do with the textual,
ideational and interpersonal metafunctions. These analyses will then be related to aspects of
critical capacity focused in this study, as discussed in Chapter 2.
Likewise, the data from the interviews were transcribed and subsequently categorised and
interpreted to answer the research question. During the transcription stage students’ names
were replaced with pseudonyms (Silverman, 1985, 1993, cited in Exley, 2002,
http//www.aare.edu.au/02pap/exl02213.htm). The transcription in the first stage interview
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“was confirmed” (Taft, 1989) or “sent back” (Kvale, 1996, p. 189) to the participants to
make sure that it was exactly what the students said and meant. This also aimed to give the
interviewees an opportunity to reply, for example, “I did not mean that” (Kvale, 1996, p.
189). The transcription of the second stage interview, however, was not sent back to the
participants, due to time constraints.
All interview data were analysed in steps. The first one was to put the interview questions
into categories, (especially the first stage). Then a thematic analysis (Kvale, 1996; Merriam,
1998) was then developed, when the researcher categorised students’ comments into themes
that had become the focus of the study. Then the data from the two stages of interview were
presented in a condensed body of information, which can be found in appendix 18.2 -18.4.
In the discussion of these data, as will be presented in Chapter 6, students’ responses in the
interviews will also be related to their developments in writing skills and critical capacity
concerned with in this study, and the value of each element of the teaching program.
A “data source triangulation” (Stake, 1995, p. 112), which is ”the most desired pattern for
dealing with case study data” (Yin, 1993, p. 69) was then conducted, to make a contrast and
comparison of all the data obtained from different sources (Freebody, 2003), i.e. students’
journals, classroom observations, text analyses and interviews. This aimed to enhance the
validity of the conclusion of the study (Stake, 1995; Freebody, 2003).
3.2.7 Summary of Methodology of the Study
This section has presented a brief discussion of methodology-related aspects of the study,
including purpose of the study and research question, research design, setting, participants,
data collections and analyses. Procedural details of data collections, and to some extent data
analyses in particular, as mentioned above, will be provided in Chapter 4. The subsequent
section will provide an account of SFG, which was a tool for students’ texts analyses.
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3.3 Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG)
Functional grammatical analysis examines a language as a meaning making system. It
focuses on grammatical systems as a means for people to interact with each other.
Functional grammar “sees grammar as shaped by, and as playing a significant role in
shaping, the way we get on with our lives” (Martin, Mathiessen, Painter, 1997, p. 1).
Functional grammar sets out to investigate what the range of relevant choices are in
language, both in the kinds of meanings that we might want to express (or functions that we
might want to perform) and in the kinds of wordings that we can use to express these
meanings and to match these two sets (Thompson, 1996, p. 8).
As indicated in Chapter 2, Section 2.5, SFL holds the principle that all languages have three
major functions: textual, ideational (experiential and logical), and interpersonal
metafunctions. Each function is realised in a different patterns of grammar. The textual
function is realised in the Theme system, referring to what is fore grounded. It is what the
clause is about. The experiential metafunction is realised in the Transitivity system and in
lexis. The logical metafunction is realised in the Conjunction system. The interpersonal
metafunction is realised in the Mood system and modality.
The Theme system will be discussed first, because it plays a significant part in constructing
the flow of a discourse (text) (Halliday, 1994a;b) which is the first aspect looked at in texts
analyses undertaken in this study (As indicated above, and will be shown in Chapter 5,
students’ text analyses will start with the organisation or the schematic structure of the texts,
which is to do with the textual meaning of SFL, realised in the Theme system of grammar).
Then the section will go on to discuss the Transitivity system, to do with how the text
organises experience, one part of the ideational function of language. This will be followed
by the discussion of the conjunction system - the other aspect of the ideational function, to
do with the logical aspect – the logico-semantic relation of clauses. In addition, the
discussion on interpersonal meaning will cover aspects of modality (including mood). The
section will then be concluded by a brief delineation on grammatical metaphors, which also
constitute an important signal of students’ developments in various aspects investigated in
this study.
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Examples of each pattern of grammar (except for few taken from Halliday, 1994a) have
been taken from students’ texts, which can be found in Appendices 15-16. The significance
of the presence of each pattern of grammar will not be discussed, as it will be alluded to later
in Chapter 5.
3.3.1 The Theme System
The Theme system is concerned with “the organisation of information within individual
clauses, and through this, with the organisation of a larger text” (Martin, 1992; Martin,
Mathiessen, and Painter, 1997, p. 21). The Theme system is realised through a structure in
which the clause falls into just two main constituents: a Theme and a Rheme. A Theme is
“the point of departure of the message” (Halliday, 1994a, p. 37; Halliday and Mathiessen,
2004, p. 64), or “the starting point for the message: what the clause is going to be about”
(Halliday, 1985b, p. 39; Eggins, 1994, p. 275). It is the element which comes first in the
clause. Meanwhile, the Rheme is “the part of the clause in which the Theme is developed or
everything that is not the Theme is the Rheme” (Eggins, 1994, p. 275).
In connection with the discussion in Chapter 5, under the Theme system, several aspects will
be approached, including: the boundary of Theme; longer unit Theme; Thematic progression
and higher level Theme.
3.3.1.1 The Boundary of Theme
There are three different types of Themes: topical (experiential), interpersonal, and textual
elements (Eggins, 1994). The topical Theme is the first element in the clause that expresses
some kind of “representational meaning” (Martin, Mathiessen and Painter, 1997, p. 24). It is
realised in Transitivity structure, as: a Participant , a Circumstance or a Process (see the
discussion on the Transitivity system). If the first topical element of a declarative clause is
also the Subject of the clause, including the Subject “it” (Martin, Mathiessen, and Painter,
1997, p. 31), it is called unmarked Theme (see examples of participant as a Theme in Table
3.2). If the Theme is non-Subject, it is called marked Theme (see Examples of circumstance
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and process as a Theme in Table 3.2). Examples of each type of Theme will be given in
Table 3.2.
Table 3. 2 Examples of Topical Theme
Participant as a Theme Education
It
It
It
plays a very important role in a country.
‘s not comfortable to wear … .
is argued … .
is very important [[for us to heal our
reputation from any media, including the Miss
Universe Contest]].
Circumstance as a
Theme
At the beginning of a term students can usually borrow these books at
the school libraries for free.
Process as a Theme Don’t leave any belongings on board the aircraft!
(Halliday, 1994a, p. 47).
Topical Theme Rheme
The interpersonal Theme is the interpersonal part of the Theme, and to follow Eggins
(1994), interpersonal Themes in students’ texts can be categorised into:
(i) The unfused finite (in interrogative structure), typically realised by an auxiliary verb,
signaling that a response is needed;
(ii) Some categories of Modal adjuncts, especially Mood Adjuncts (some of which realised
in interpersonal metaphors of modality, such as I think) and Comment Adjuncts,
(typically realised by an adverb, providing the speaker’s comment or attitude towards the
message, such as inevitably). Examples of interpersonal Themes are given in Table 3.3.
Table 3. 3 Examples of Interpersonal Theme
Unfused Finite as a
Theme
Can We judge (someone of doing a crime)
while ….?
Modal Adjunct as a
Theme:
Mood Adjunct
Comment Adjunct
I think
Inevitably
the government’s
program [[to publish
books]]
the death penalty
is ineffective
has been imposed most frequently
on the poor … .
Interpersonal
Theme
Topical Theme Rheme
The textual Themes are elements “which do not express any interpersonal or experiential
meaning, but which are doing important cohesive work in relating the clause to its context”
(Eggins, 1994, p. 281). Textual Themes found in students’ texts are realised in structural
conjunctions (coordinating and subordinating conjunctions, relatives and conjunctives, see
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Martin, Mathiessen and Painter, 1997). Examples of textual Themes realised in conjunctions
are illustrated in Table 3.4.
Table 3. 4 Examples of Textual Theme
Coordination Let’s put aside those benefits and drawbacks, and let’s see it in an objective way.
Subordination War cannot be approved, because it will leave nothing but misery.
Relative … in order to realize his hidden agenda, which is [[controlling Iraq oil possession
for U.S own favour]].
Conjunctive Besides, the argument [[which is launched by the U.S government of attacking
Iraq]] is not making any sense.
Examples of the interpersonal and textual Themes above indicate that while it is possible for
a clause to realise only one Thematic element, (in which case it must be a topical Theme), as
will be alluded to in Chapter 5, it is far more common that a clause contains a sequence of
Themes, with often several textual and/or interpersonal Themes occurring before the
obligatory topical Theme (see Eggins, 1994; Thompson, 1996).
3.3.1.2 Longer Unit Themes
Apart from being represented by a single clause constituent, as examples above, Themes
may also be constituted by a longer unit. Examples of longer unit Themes are provided in
Table 3.5 below.
Table 3. 5 Examples of Longer Unit Themes
Longer Unit Themes Examples
Embedded clauses:
Wh-clause
Non-finite Clause
That- clause
What no one seemed to notice
[[Publishing academic books]]
[[That [[participating in the Miss
Universe Pageant]] can promote
tourism of the participant’s country]]
The writing on the wall (Halliday,
1994a, p. 45).
is one of the programs [[applied by the
Department of Education]].
has also been stated by Miss St. Marten
(2000).
Long nominal groups:
Nominal groups which
involves clause
embeddings;
Group and phrase
complexes
The first argument [[proposed by the
opponents of death penalty]]
Javis, another opponent of the Miss
Universe Pageant from India,
is regarding deterrence.
suggests … .
Predicated Theme It is they themselves [[who create the war [[and violate the
peace]] … .
Topical Theme (unmarked) Rheme
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As can be noted from Table 3.5, drawn from the work of Halliday (1994, p. 54-61) and
Martin, Mathiessen and Painter (1997, p. 35), longer unit Themes found in students’ texts
can be realised in:
(i) Embedded clauses (Wh-clauses, non-finite, and that-clauses);
(ii) Long nominal groups, including those which extend beyond the main noun, and
which may involve clause embeddings;
(iii) Group and phrase complexes, or Appositions;
(iv) Predicated Theme.
From the examples in Table 3.5 above, it can also be noted that all longer unit Themes are
unmarked. There is another type of longer unit Themes used in students’ texts, but they
function as marked Themes, realized in Wh-clause, finite and nonfinite clauses. They occur
in hypotactic clause complexes, whose ordering of clauses is also marked, that is the
dependent clause comes before the main clause, as will be shown in Table 3.6 below.
Table 3. 6 Examples of Longer Unit Marked Theme
Wh-clause When she had given birth to her baby she was tied…
Finite clause If law discrimination persists, it is improper to [[to employ
capital punishment]]
Non-finite clause After looking at both sides of arguments, I really believe
Topical Theme (marked) Rheme
However, the clause complexes exemplified in Table 3.6, when each clause has its own
Theme-Rheme structure, can also be analysed in the same way as in unmarked ordering of
clauses above.
3.3.1.3 Thematic Progression
Based on the Theme choices in students’ texts, there are three types of Theme progressions,
in which the texts develop the ideas they present (Fries, 1995, p. 320-323; Eggins, 1994;
Ravelli, 2000). To follow Eggins (1994, p. 303-5) and Fries (1995, p. 320) the thematic
progression in students’ texts can be classified into:
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(i) The zig-zag pattern, or a linear thematic progression: The content of the Theme of
the second sentence or clause derives from the content of the previous Rheme, the
content of Theme 3 derives from Rheme 2, etc.
(ii) The theme re-iteration: The Theme enters into relation with a number of different
Rhemes, or the same element occurs regularly as Themes.
(iii) The multiple Theme pattern or progression with derived Themes: The passage as a
whole concerns a single general notion, and the Themes of the various constituent
clauses all derive from that general notion, but are not identical to one another.
An example of each thematic progression, occurring in a short period can be seen below:
The zig-zag pattern:
It especially should be focused upon drug trafficking and corruption cases
Because those cases have a devastating impact toward society in large.
The Theme-re-iteration:
that such contests are against our values and morals,
that they only demean women,
rather than (they) benefit them”.
The multiple Theme pattern:
On the other hand, the opponents of capital punishment adopt three positions, …
The first argument…
The second position …
The last argument of the opponents of capital punishment … .
Other examples of each type of thematic progressions will be revealed in Chapter 5,
especially Sections 5.3 and 5.4.
3.3.1.4 Higher Level Themes: Macro- and Hyper-Themes
Apart from the Theme of a clause or a sentence as discussed above, there are also higher-
level Themes, which are called: hyper-Theme and macro-Theme. Hyper-Theme is the
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Theme of a paragraph. This is an introductory sentence or group of sentences which is
established to predict a particular pattern of interaction among strings, chains. Macro-
Theme can be defined as a sentence or group of sentences (possibly a paragraph which
predicts a set of hyper-Themes. This is the Introductory paragraph of school rhetoric
(Martin, 1992, p. 437; 2002, see also Martin and Rose, 2003; Coffin, 1997, p. 218-219).
Hyper-Theme can also be considered as the opening generalisation in a paragraph which
predicts the pattern of clause Themes and elaboration, and macro-Theme in a text which
predicts its overall development. The proportionalities, as Martin further describes, is as
follows:
Theme: clause;
Hyper-Theme: paragraph;
Macro-Theme: text (1992, p. 437).
In longer texts, Martin (1992, p. 443) further argues, the pattern of macro Themes predicting
hyper-Themes can be extended, with hyper-Themes themselves functioning as macro-
Themes in their own right. Once texts develop to this level of internal complexity, titles,
subtitles, headings and subheadings are commonly deployed to keep track of the
composition structure being erected. Therefore, it is possible that a macro-Theme is labeled
as macro-Theme i, ii , up to macro-Theme n (Martin and Rose, 2003, p. 193-194).
Schematically, the thematic relationships can be seen in Figure 3.1 below, with the proviso
that a text may be organised thematically around more than the three levels shown. The
lowest level hyper-Themes in a text are referred to traditionally as Topic sentences and the
highest level macro-Themes as introductions (Martin, 1992, p. 443-444).
Apart from being woven through Theme, the range of meanings in a text can be woven
through New. While macro-theme, hyper-Theme and clause Themes project forward,
scaffolding the text to its rhetorical purpose (i.e. its genre); macro-New, hyper-News and
clause-News on the other hand, look back, gathering up the meanings which have
accumulated to elaborate a text’ field (Martin, 1992, p. 456; 2002). As will be shown in
Chapter 5, the Recommendation stage of students' texts, particularly the jointly and
independently constructed ones, can be considered as the macro-New, as it accumulates the
main points amassed (Martin, 1992, p. 457). This signals students’ developments in writing
skills and critical capacities investigated in this study.
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Macro-Theme
Macro-Rheme
Hyper-Themes
Hyper-Rhemes
Themes
Rhemes
Figure 3. 1 Solidarity across Levels of Theme (cited from Martin, 1992, p. 443).
All features related to the Theme system covered in the discussion of students’ texts
analyses have been discussed in this section. The section to follow will provide an account
of the second system of SFG looked at in students’ text analyses, that is the Transitivity
system.
3.3.2 The Transitivity System
The Transitivity system belongs to the experiential metafunction and is the overall
grammatical resource for construing goings on (Martin, Mathiessen and Painter, 1997, p.
100). The term transitivity in functional grammar is related to the transitivity in traditional
grammar, but deal with it to some extent differently. The transitivity in functional grammar
is not a way of distinguishing between verbs according to whether they have an object or
not, but refers to a system for describing the whole clause, rather than just the verb and its
object (Thompson, 1996, p. 78). Transitivity, according to Thompson, refers to:
the type of process which determines how the participants are labelled: the ‘doer’ of a physical process
such as kicking is given a different label from the ‘doer’ of a mental process such as wishing … (1996,
p. 78).
The Transitivity system construes the world of experience into a manageable set of process
types (Halliday, 1994a, p. 106), and it discriminates six different types of processes in
English: material, mental, verbal, relational, behavioural and existential. Each process,
Halliday (1994a, p. 107) further suggests, consists, in principle of three components: the
process itself; the participants; and circumstances. Below is the discussion of process types,
along with its participants, then a brief description of circumstances.
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3.3.2.1 Process Types and Their Participants
As mentioned above, process types in English can be categorised into: material, mental,
verbal, relational, behavioural, existential, each of which will be discussed below.
3.3.2.1.1 Material Processes: Processes of Doing
Material processes “construe doing or happening” (Halliday, 1994a, p. 110; Butt, et al, 2000,
Eggins, 1994, Thompson, 1996; Martin, Mathiessen and Painter, 1997). Material processes
answer the question What did X do? or What happened? Potential participant roles are: an
Actor (the Doer of the process), a Goal (or the Thing affected), a Range (or the Thing
unaffected by the process), a Beneficiary (or the one to whom or for whom the process is
said to take place).
Regarding Range in particular, Halliday (1994a) suggests, that a Range may be an entity
which exists independently of the process but which indicates the domain over which the
process takes place. In English expressions a Range may occur in: have a bath, make
mistakes, do a little dance, take another quick look, gave her usual welcoming smile
(Halliday, 1994a, p. 147). Material processes found in students’ texts are, among others:
Material process with Actor as the sole participant
Law discrimination continuous to happen In Indonesia
Actor Process: Material Circumstance: Loc: Place
Material process with an Actor and a Goal (active)
They Can keep the books for a term
Actor Process: Material Goal Circumstance: Loc: Time
Material process with a Goal can also be realised in an agentless passive (Butt, et. al, 2000,
p. 53), as in the following example:
A large number of U.S
troops
have been placed at some spots within the Gulf area of the Middle
East
Goal Process: Material Circumstance: Loc: Place
Material process with a Range and a Beneficiary:
The so-called beauty queens have never done Anything for the nation …
Actor Process: Material Range Beneficiary
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3.3.2.1.2 Mental Processes: Processes of Sensing
Mental processes encode meanings of thinking or feeling (Eggins, 1994, p. 240). They
“construe a quantum of change in the flow of events taking place in our own consciousness”
(Halliday and Mathiessen, 2004, p. 197). Halliday (1994a) and Halliday and Mathiessen
(2004) classify mental processes into three classes: cognition (verbs of thinking, knowing,
understanding); affection (verbs of liking, fearing); perception (verbs of seeing, hearing).
Unlike material processes, “mental processes must always have two participants” (Eggins,
1994, p. 242). These are: a Senser, which must be realised by a human or at least conscious
participant and a Phenomenon, by a nominal group or embedded clause summing up what is
thought, wanted, perceived or liked/disliked. This can be seen in the example below:
The higher middle class will perhaps not feel any meaningful effect
Senser Process: Affection Phenomenon
However, mental processes can have only one participant, that is, in the situation when they
project, as in the following example:
I do believe
Senser Process: Cognition
that capital punishment is still needed to be imposed In our country
Goal Process: Material Circumstance: Location: Place
Of the three classes of mental processes, processes of cognition appear frequently in
students’ texts and it is in the logico-semantic relation of projection that they most
frequently occur. Processes of cognition are used mainly to construe the opinion or belief of
the proponents and opponents of the Miss Universe Contest and capital punishment (see the
jointly-, and independently-constructed texts in Chapter 5), as in: Feminists think… ; the
opponents of capital punishment believe, or the writer’s opinion or belief about the issue
discussed, as in: I really believe; I realise.
3.3.2.1.3 Verbal Processes: Processes of Saying
Verbal processes are processes of saying, as in What did you say? (Halliday, 1994a). But the
category of saying covers any kind of symbolic exchange of meaning (Halliday, 1994a, p.
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140; Halliday and Mathiessen, 2004, p. 253) not only the different modes of saying (asking,
stating, arguing) but also semiotic processes that are not necessarily verbal (showing,
indicating) (see Martin, Mathiessen, and Painter, 1997, p. 108).
Participant roles of verbal processes, to follow Eggins (1994); Halliday (1994a) and,
Halliday and Mathiessen, 2004) can be classified into: (i) A Sayer: The participant
responsible for the verbal process; (ii) A Receiver: The one to whom the saying is directed;
it may be the Subject in a passive clause; (iii) A Verbiage: the function that corresponds to
what is said (This may mean: content of what is said or name of the saying, like a question
in ‘the expression ‘to ask a question’);and (iv) A Target: the entity that is targeted by the
process of saying. However, in analysed students’ texts, only three participant roles are
found in verbal processes, which are a Sayer, a Receiver, and a Verbiage (see Appendix 16).
An example of verbal process occurs in:
We can introduce our own country to the world community
Sayer Process: Verbal Verbiage Receiver
Like mental processes, verbal processes can project (quoting or reporting). In students’ texts
they frequently occur in projecting clause complexes, in which the quoted or reported clause
is not a constituent part of the verbal clause but is a separate clause (Martin, Mathiessen and
Painter, 1997, p. 108). This occurs, among others, in:
The proponents of the Miss Universe Pageant Claim
Sayer Process: Verbal
That this contest emphasises three principles: Brain, Beauty, Behaviour
Actor Process: Material Goal
3.3.2.1.4 Relational Processes: Processes of Being
Relational processes are processes which relate a participant to its identity or description
(Butt et. al, 2000, p. 58). Relational clauses construe being and do this in two different
modes: attribution and identification (Martin, Mathiessen, and Painter, 1997, p. 106).
Relational attributive relates a participant to its general characteristics or description, and
relational identifying relates a participant to its identity, role or meaning. An identifying
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clause is not about ascribing or classifying, but defining, with the meaning being “x serves to
define the identity of y” (Eggins, 1994, p. 258).
There are two main participant roles in relational clauses: Carrier + Attribute in attributive
clauses, and Token (that which stands for what is being defined) + Value (that which
defines) in identifying ones. The verbs that realise relational attributive processes are:
among others: different forms of be, become, turn, grow, turn out, start out, end up, keep,
stay, remain, seem, sound, appear, look, taste, smell, feel, stand. Moreover, verbs that
realise relational identifying are: different forms of be, equal, make, signify, mean, define,
spell, indicate, express, suggest, act as, symbolise, play, represent, stand for, refer to,
exemplify (see Eggins, 1994, p. 257). However, most relational clauses found in students'
texts are realised in different forms of be, as exemplified below:
Attributive relational clauses:
Capital punishment
All lives
is
are
against the value of humanity.
Valuable
Carrier Process: Intensive Attribute
Identifying relational clauses:
Capital punishment is the most effective way
[[to reduce crime rather than life imprisonment]]
Process: Material Goal Circumstance: Comparison
War is the only measure [[ that should be taken]]
Goal Process: Material
Token Process:
Intensive
Value
Unlike attributive relational clauses, identifying relational clauses are reversible. So, the
identifying clauses above can be changed into passive, as indicated below:
The only measure [[that should be taken]]
Goal Process: Material
Is war
The most effective way
[[to reduce crime rather than life imprisonment]]
Pro: Material Goal Circumstance: Comparison
Is capital punishment
Value Process: Intensive Token
Other types of relational processes occurring in students' texts are: circumstantial and
possessive. Circumstantial relational processes encode meanings about circumstantial
dimensions: location, manner, cause, etc., and relational possessive process of ownership
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and possession between clausal participants (Eggins, 1994, p. 262). Examples of each type
of clauses are shown as follows:
Causative clause:
The gas chamber Causes a slow and cruel death
Token Process: Cause Value
Possessive clause:
Capital
punishment
has a unique power
[[to deter people from [[committing crimes]] ]]
Process: Material Goal
Pro: Material Goal Circumstance: Matter
Possessor Process: Possession Possessed
The last type of relational processes found in students' texts occur in a causative relational
type, with causation expressed through a make + be (Process: intensive) structure, as in:
But the uniform Makes the students neat
Agent/Initiator Process: Cause Carrier Attribute
3.3.2.1.5 Behavioural Processes
Behavioural processes are processes of physiological or psychological behaviour (Halliday,
1994a, p. 139; see also Butt, et. al, 2000, p. 54). This group of processes, is intermediate
between mental and material processes and typically have only one participant (Thompson,
1996, p. 99). The participant must be a conscious being and is called the Behaver (Eggins,
1994, p. 250). Behavioural process was not frequently used in students’ texts. An example
of a behavioural process, taken from Halliday (1994, p. 139) is as follows:
You are daydreaming!
Behaver Process: Behavioural
3.3.2.1.6 Existential Processes
Existential processes represent experience by positing that “there was/is something”(Eggins,
1994, p. 254), that “something exists or happens” (Halliday and Mathiessen, 2004, p. 256).
The structure of existentials usually involves “there” and typically employ the verb be or
synonyms such as exist, arise, occur. The word “there” in such clauses is neither a
participant nor a circumstance – it has no representational function in the transitivity
structure of the clause, but it serve to indicate the feature of existence, and it is needed
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interpersonally as a Subject of the verb (Halliday and Mathiessen, 2004, p. 257). The only
obligatory participant in an existential process which receives a functional label is called the
Existent. In students’ texts, Existentials occur, among others, in:
There have been 71 murders [[ committed by people … ]]
Process: Material Actor
Process: existential Existent
3.3.2.2 Circumstances
Circumstance in functional grammar is the name given to those elements which carry a
semantic load, but are neither process nor participant (Bloor and Bloor, 1995, p. 126).
Halliday (1994a) identifies nine types of circumstances, as illustrated in Table 3.7 below,
with examples (in italics) taken from students’ texts.
Table 3. 7 Types and Examples of Circumstances
Types of Circumstances Examples
Extent He only had to be imprisoned for three years (duration).
Location …which can eventually invite visitors to Indonesia (place).
In 1980 there was one murder for every 5,924 Texans (time).
Manner Indian people cannot get benefit from the fact [[that India’s contestant
becomes the winner of the Miss Universe Contest]] (means).
Some death sentences are carried out unfairly (quality).
We can’t assure that the capital punishment will be effectively
implemented in Indonesia if the condition of justice in Indonesia remains
like today (comparison).
Cause The lower-middle class will still suffer from this condition (reason).
Contingency If the school policy changes it, then it will appear [[what we call a “fashion
show”]] among the students (condition).
Though it is not comfortable, it makes the students neat (concession).
Accompaniment …so that she can share the benefit of [[being Miss Indonesia]] with the
society.
… such contests, along with the portrayal of the ideal look in the fashion
world, only serve to perpetuate the myth [[that women are only worth
something [[if they are young, long legged and beautiful ]] ]].
Role The execution of capital punishment is considered as a real punishment
(guise).
The Miss Universe pageant can be used as an arena [[to promote
business]] (product).
Matter … where the participants were questioned about their general knowledge
and the way [[they think]].
Angle According to David Hoekema, punishment is punishment… .
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All aspects of the Transitivity system used in students’ texts analyses have been briefly
discussed, including process types with their participants and circumstances. The discussion
will now turn on the other system to do with the ideational metafunction, that is the logical
multifunction, realised in the conjunction system.
3.3.3 The Conjunction System
Conjunction helps to build cohesion (Halliday, 1994a, p. 324). The cohesive pattern of
conjunction, or conjunctive relations, refers to “how he writer creates and expresses logical
relationship between the parts of a text” (Enggins, 1994, p. 105). According to Halliday
(1994, p. 324-325); Halliday and Mathiessen (2004, p. 538-548) and Eggins (1994, p. 105-
109), conjunctive relations help to build clauses of elaboration, extension, and enhancement.
Elaboration refers to a relationship of restatement or clarification, whereby one sentence is
(presented as) a re-saying or representation of a previous sentence (Eggins, 1994, p. 105).
Common conjunctions used to express this relation are: in other words, that is (to say), I
mean (to say), for example, for instance, thus. Elaboration occurs, among others in: … the
Miss Universe pageant covers a vast spectrum of academic fields. They are, for example,
law students, aspiring journalists; …Thus, after examining all the arguments…
Extension refers to a relationship of either addition (one sentence adds to the meaning made
in another), or variation (one sentence changes the meanings of another by contrast or by
qualification (Halliday, 1994a, p. 324; Eggins, 1994, p. 105). Common conjunctions used to
express this relation are: and, also, moreover, in addition, nor, but, yet, on the other hand.
For example: Moreover, the Miss Universe pageant is also inappropriate to Indonesia’s
oriental values.
Enhancement refers to ways by which one clause can extend on the meanings of another, in
terms of dimensions such as time, comparison, cause, condition, or concession (Eggins,
1994, p. 106). Types of conjunctions used in enhancement and examples of clauses in which
the conjunctions occur are given in Table 3.8 below.
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The presence of conjunctive relations as discussed above, according to Halliday (1994, p.
327) can enhance the texture of the text.
Table 3. 8 Types of Conjunctions and Examples of Clauses Used in Enhancement
Types of
Conjunctions
Examples Clauses Using the Conjunctions in Students’
Texts
Temporal then, next, afterwards, until,
at the same time, before, after
a while, etc
After she died, … ;
…until she delivered her baby…
Comparative likewise, similarly, in a
different way
Similarly, Javis, another opponent of the Miss
Universe pageant from India suggests….
Causal so, then, therefore,
consequently, hence, because
of that, for, in consequence, as
a result, etc
Therefore, we recommend Indonesia should not send
an envoy to the Miss Universe Pageant.
Conditional If, if not, otherwise, e Only death can incapacitate murderers, otherwise
the murderers can harm prison staffs, other
prisoners and even the society.
Concessive yet, still, even though, etc Even though it can incapacitate criminals,…
After describing the conjunction system, the researcher will now go on to provide a brief
account of modality, which relates to the interpersonal metafunction of language.
3.3.4 Modality
Modality refers to a complex area of English grammar which concerns the different ways in
which a language user can intrude on his/her message, expressing attitudes and judgments of
various kinds” (Eggins, 1994, p. 179). These judgments can be of probability or certainty
and usuality or of obligation and inclination (of the doing of something). The former is
called modalisation (epistemic modality) and the latter modulation (deontic modality)
(Halliday, 1994a; Halliday and Mathiessen, 2004; Fairclough, 2003). These two types of
modality, as found in students’ texts, can be subjectively or objectively oriented. Subjective
orientation, or first person statement indicates the writer’s commitment to what she/he is
saying and objective orientation, or third person statement shows the writer’s detachment to
what she is saying, making statements on behalf of others (Halliday, 1994a; Fairclough,
2003, p. 171; see also Mulholland, 1994). Moreover, the two types of modality can be
expressed in different degrees of the writer’s commitment, or different values, which are:
low, median, and high, either in positive or negative polarity (Eggins, 1994;Halliday, 1994a;
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Halliday and Mathiessen, 2004; Fairclough, 2003). There are several markers of modality
found in students’ texts, including:
(i) modal operators: will, can, may, might;
(ii) modal Adjuncts: really, inevitably, highly;
(iii) modal operator +modal Adjunct: should undoubtedly;
(iv) participial adjectives: needed;
(v) mental process clauses: I think, I believe;
(vi) modal adjectives: possible, important;
(vii) relational processes (processes of appearance): seem.
Modality of certainty, as will be revealed in Chapter 5, can also be seen in realis statements
(Celce-Murcia and Olshtain, 2000; Fairclough, 2003), realised in universal present tense,
such as in: War is a very useless action…; All beauty pageants are a waste of money.
Illustration of modality system, drawn from Halliday (1994a) and Halliday and Mathiessen
(2004) and examples from students’ texts will be given below in Table 3.9.
In addition to the examples illustrated in Table 3.9, there are also cases of objectively
oriented expressions in students’ texts, realised in projecting mental or verbal clauses, both
in active and agentless passive constructions, such as: they say, they argue, they believe, they
think, it is said, it is argued, it is claimed, it is revealed. Objective orientation can also be
found in evaluative statements about the writer’s desirability or undesirability on the issue
discussed, realised in relational processes, as in: It seems not to suit Indonesia’s religious,
cultural and oriental values.
Another category of modality found in students’ texts is modality of ability or potentiality
(Halliday, 1994a, p. 359). This modality can also be subjectively or objectively oriented.
Subjective orientation occurs, among others, in: [[ Participating in the Miss Universe
Pageant]] can promote tourism of the participant’s country, and objective orientation in:
Unexecuted criminals will be able to commit further crimes; [[that some criminals [[who
still serve their punishment in jail]] are still capable of [[committing crimes]]. From the
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examples above, it is clear that modality “signals that meaning is contingent and subject to
negotiation” (Coffin, 2002, p. 510).
Table 3. 9 Modality: Types, Orientation, Value and Polarity
Types of
Modality
Examples Orientation Value Polarity
Modalisation:
Certainty,
Probability
Indonesia should undoubtedly take part in the
Miss Universe Pageant.*
It is obvious [[that Indonesia …
Here, I can say … .
Those [[who murder whites]] were more
likely to be sentenced to death… .
Indonesia may have opportunity … .
The higher middle class will perhaps not feel
any effect … .
it is almost impossible [[for the prison system
in Indonesia to gain public’s confidence]].
Subjective
Objective
Subjective
Objective
Subjective
Objective
Objective
High
Median
Median
Median
Low
Median
Median
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Negative
Negative
Modalisation:
Usuality US government never takes into account the
misery … .
Singapore always employs death penalty.
Objective
Objective
High
High
Negative
Positive.
Modulation:
Obligation We must be prepared [[to execute every
criminal ]]… .
Indonesia should undoubtedly take part in the
Miss Universe pageant.*
It is improper [[ to employ death penalty]].
It is very important [[for us to heal the
reputation of our country… .
Subjective
Subjective
Objective
Objective
High
Median
High
High
Positive
Positive
Negative
Positive
Modulation:
Inclination
In response to this, I would like to share
opinions.
Subjective Low Positive
Note: the clauses with an asterisk indicate that both modalisation and modulation may occur in the same
clause (see Eggins, 1994, p. 190).
3.3.5 Grammatical Metaphor
Metaphor in general involves “a transference of meaning in which a lexical item that
normally means one thing comes to mean another” (Martin and Rose, 2003, p. 103).
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Grammatical metaphor or metaphorical modes of expressions can be defined as “the
expression of a meaning through a lexico-grammatical form which originally evolved to
express a different kind of meaning” (Thompson, 1996, p. 163). It is, Thompson further
argues, simply a natural extension of the in-built flexibility and multi functionality of
language. There are two main types of grammatical metaphors in the clause and found in the
students’ texts: metaphors of transitivity (ideational metaphors) and metaphors of mood
(interpersonal metaphors) (Halliday, 1994a, p. 343) which will be illustrated below.
3.3.5.1 Ideational metaphor
Ideational metaphor involves a transference from one kind of element to another, and can be
classified into experiential, concerned with elements of figure, and logical, with
reconstruing a conjunction between figures as if it were a process, quality circumstance or
thing (Martin and Rose, 2003, p. 104). Experiential metaphors in students’ texts, as will be
discussed in Chapter 5, can be seen mostly in nominalisations, “the conversion of a verb
into a noun-like word, and semantically of a process into an entity” (Fairclough, 2003, p.
143; see also Halliday, 1994a, p. 352; Thompson, 1996; Veel, 1997; Martin and Rose,
2003). Nominalisations occur among others, in: - Saddam Husein denied all U.S.
government’s accusation …; Indonesian people still prefer the implementation of capital
punishment.
Moreover, logical metaphors, as will be noted in Chapter 5, are found mostly in the joint and
independent construction texts. They are realised in some relational (circumstantial)
processes, such as: cause and lead to, as in: The gas chamber causes a slow and cruel
death…; Capital punishment could lead to the execution of innocent people…. Logically,
in those expressions, there is a relation of consequence between the two participants: the
gas chamber and a slow and cruel death; and the implementation of capital punishment
and the execution of innocent people, which is usually congruently expressed in “if … then”
(see Halliday, 2002b, p. 174; Martin and Rose, 20003, p. 140-141). Thus, such a sequence
can be unpacked as that related by conjunctions:
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If the gas chamber is used, then a slow and cruel death will appear, or
If the death penalty is implemented, then innocent people will be executed.
Another logical metaphor also occurs in the replacement of internal conjunction, such as
first, with a process to begin, expressed in: To begin, those [[who are against Indonesia’s
participation in the Miss Universe Pageant]] highlight ….
3.3.5.2 Interpersonal Metaphor
Interpersonal metaphor, especially in persuasive texts (like those in this study), plays a very
important role, as a powerful weapon in cases where the speaker or writer wishes, for
whatever reason, to avoid negotiation, with its possible outcome of rejection (Thompson,
1996, p. 172). To follow Halliday (1994, p. 354-367), interpersonal metaphors in samples of
students’ texts are categorized into two: metaphors of modality and metaphors of mood
(which express the speech functions: statement, question, offer and command).
Metaphors of modality occur in some expressions in which modality usually realised either
as a Finite or as an Adjunct in fact gets realised as a clause, expressed subjectively, as in : I
think…; I believe; I strongly argue, … or objectively, as in it is obvious that …; it is true
that… (see the discussion on modality above). Furthermore, metaphors of mood occur,
especially in some commands, realised in statements (see clauses with must, should and
impersonal it in modulation described in Table 3.9 above and the discussion in Chapter 5).
3.3.6 Summary of the Discussion of SFG
The aim of this section was to show how students’ texts were analysed using SFG in
connection with the three metafunctions of language as proposed by SFL. The section
started with the discussion of the Theme system, which is related to the textual
metafunction, then the Transitivity and Conjunction systems, to the ideational metafunction,
and modality to the interpersonal metafunction. The section is finally concluded by a brief
account of grammatical metaphors, regarding metaphors of transitivity and mood, which
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also constitute an important signal of students’ development in various aspects investigated
in this study.
3.4 Conclusion
This chapter has focused on a detailed methodological description of the conduct of study,
including the research questions formulated, the setting, the participants involved and data
collection techniques and analyses employed in the study. A brief account of elements of
SFG as a tool for text analyses has also been provided. The whole research program will
now be delineated in Chapter 4.
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CHAPTER FOUR: THE TEACHING PROGRAM: AN
OVERVIEW
4.1 Introduction
This chapter sets out to describe the various stages of activities developed as part of
implementing the teaching program pursued in this thesis. The description of the program
will be based on the data from the researcher’s field notes, the classroom observer’s notes
and students’ journals (with students’ name presented in pseudonyms). Examples of each
source of the data are presented in Appendix 7. Broadly, the activities, spread out over a
period of 11 weeks, fell into two groups: those that were considered preliminary to the
implementation of the teaching program, and the teaching program itself. Details of the
program are described in such a way that the program could be replicated by other EFL
teacher educators/researchers in a similar context in Indonesia.
The objectives in the preliminary phase, as will be discussed in Section 4.2, were (i) to
establish an appropriate group of students willing to work with the researcher, (ii) to find out
something of their own writing capacities by asking them to write diagnostic texts, and (iii)
to establish how they understood matters to do with being critical in writing and reading.
Data from diagnostic texts, discussed later in Chapter 5, Section 5.2, suggested that while
the students who participated in the study showed some familiarity with one kind of
argumentative genre – the Exposition – most did not show familiarity with the Discussion
genres. In addition, the results of the questionnaire distributed to the students revealed some
confusion about writing and in particular about how to adopt and use critical perspectives. In
the light of these general findings, and on the assumption that the first phase would suggest
important directions for the researcher to pursue, as Section 4.3 will indicate, it was then
intended that the teaching program would draw both on the notions of the genre-based
approach (GBA) in first and second language contexts, as discussed in Chapter 2, Section
2.5. and on notions of critical thinking (CT), critical pedagogy (CP) and critical literacy
(CL), also in first and second language contexts, as discussed in Chapter 2, Sections 2.2, 2.3
and 2.4 respectively.
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The teaching program encountered some problems, to be explained in detail below.
However, as findings in this chapter, Chapters 5 and 6 will suggest, there was some
evidence that students did succeed in mastering the target Discussion genre, while also
demonstrating enhanced critical capacities.
4.2 Preliminary Phase of the Teaching Program
There were four activities done in this phase, including: (i) inducting the students with the
teaching program; (ii) joint decision on the topics for writing; (iii) searching for texts and
reading materials; (iv) distribution of questionnaires and diagnostic writing.
4.2.1 Activity 1: Inducting the Students with the Teaching Program
The starting point prior to the teaching program was to meet with students, to inform them
clearly of the nature of the teaching program, which would involve CT and critical reading
and would be based on the researcher’s intention in teaching it. Possible benefits of their
participation in the study were also mentioned, especially regarding CT, which is an
essential capacity of citizens to live in a healthy democratic society (Kurfiss, 1988) and
critical reading in the current Indonesian situation. Regarding the Discussion genre, it was
mentioned that as one type of argumentative writing, this genre was very important for
tertiary level students, as it represents major types of educational texts encountered by them
in relation to their study (Grabe, 2002, p. 267). All this information was given to realize a
suggestion from a visible pedagogy that “what is to be learned should be made clear to the
students” (Feez, 2002, p. 56; see also DSP, 1989; Cope and Kalantzis, 1993b).
The researcher also informed the students that involvement in this study was extra hard
work for them, requiring “rigour” (Freire and Shor, 1987) and “seriousness” (Freire, 1998,
p. 88-92). She also explicitly informed the students what was expected of them (Varaprasad,
1997), such as attending the class twice a week, reading a lot of materials given to them,
writing in groups as well as individually, participating in interviews and filling in
questionnaires, as written in the Plain Language Statement (Appendix 2).
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The medium of interaction at this stage and later stages throughout the program was mostly
English, to enable students to practise their English. However, bahasa Indonesia was also
used, especially when the students found difficulty in expressing ideas in English. The use
of bahasa Indonesia was expected “to provide students with additional cognitive support
that allowed them to analyse language and work at a higher level than would be possible
were they restricted to sole use of English” (Storch and Wigglesworth, 2003, p. 760).
Bilingualism was also expected to affect positively both students’ intellectual and linguistic
progress and allow for their greater sensitivity to linguistic meanings and more flexibility in
their thinking, as observed by several researchers reported in Cummins (1996, p. 104-105).
From a CP perspective, this aimed to make the classroom a place where students use
multiple discourses to ensure their active participation, where they need not silence the
language they brought to class by adopting a discourse that erased their class and ethnicity
(Pari, 1999, p. 110).
Of 30 students coming to the meeting, 18 students agreed to volunteer to participate in the
teaching program and this was followed by their signing of a consent form (Appendix 3). In
terms of second or foreign language classroom research, as mentioned in Chapter 3, Section
3.3, the fact that the class was set up for the purpose of research is recognized as a
limitation of the study (van Lier, 1988, p. 9).
4.2.2 Activity 2: Joint Decision on the Topics for Writing
Based on principles arising out of dialogic education (Benesch, 2001; Berlin, 1993; Freire
and Shor, 1987), the GBA (Derewianka, 1990; the DSP, 1989) and the teaching of ESL
(Nunan, 1988, p. 2-4) possible topics that the researcher had previously selected were then
offered to the students to decide which topic to discuss first, to initiate their active
participation in their learning. This activity also aimed to build in time for students to
become comfortable with the topics and activities involved in the program before they were
asked to do them (van Duzer and Flores, 1999).
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The topics offered, among others, were: The Miss Universe Contest, Abortion, Capital
Punishment, Sex Education and Working Women, Implementation of Islamic Law in
Indonesia. Those topics were selected because they were controversial, which seemed to suit
the teaching of CT, critical reading and writing (Chaffee et al, 2002; see also Axelrod and
Cooper, 1987; Scriven, 1985, cited in Nickerson, 1987, p. 35). The topics on Capital
Punishment, Sex Education, Implementation of Islamic Law in Indonesia and the Miss
Universe Contest were all current controversial Indonesian issues at the time. This seemed
to coincide with the suggestion from CP that “a radical and critical education has to focus on
what is taking place today inside various social movements …” (Freire and Macedo, 1987,
p. 61; Freire and Faundes, 1989; 1998) and CL, as discussed in Chapter 2, Section 2.4.
Regarding the students’ involvement in the decision making about the topic choice, some
students said “you decide”. This response was not unusual for Indonesian students who
were used to viewing the teacher as the authority (see Auerbach, 1996; 1999, p. 46 for a
similar case). Through the researcher’s persuasion on the importance of their involvement in
the decision making of the topics, the students then with chorus chose the Miss Universe
Contest as the first topic to discuss. The second and third topics, about Working Women and
Capital Punishment were negotiated between the researcher and students as the lessons
proceeded.
4.2.3 Activity 3: Searching for Texts and Reading Materials
Upon the joint decision of the topics discussed, the next activity was to find texts and
reading materials for students. The CT-related materials were based on principles discussed
in Chapter 2, Section 2.2, and text books about CT (see the hand out in Appendix 4). Texts
for consolidation of students’ CT and introduction to CL were taken from Mc Gregor (2002,
p. 4-5) on arguments, to be presented later.
In addition, the materials for discussions throughout the program, and especially in the
Building Knowledge phase of the GBA, were mostly in English, to provide students with
readings “which expose them to authentic English language in use and analytical reading
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that increases awareness of the factors that shape texts and the way that the language of texts
reflects these factors” (Caudery, 1998, p. 5). This also aimed to allow the EFL students in
this study to take advantage of them as input (van Lier, 1988, p. 28), from which they
gathered information and controlled the vocabulary and language patterns that enabled them
to talk (and write) about the topic (Derewianka and Hammond, 1991, p. 52, cited in
Davison, 2001, p. 48). Moreover, from a perspective of writing, which is becoming
“assembling according to design” (Kress, 2003, p. 6; 1985, p. 47-49, and see Chapter 2,
Section 2.5.3); from the metaphor of “text-as texture” and the fact that “a myth that the
author as originator cannot any longer be sustained, as no one in a speech community has
“their own words” (Kress, 2003, p. 6), the provision of materials in English was considered
important to help students to assemble or construct a text “which contracts such relations of
intertextuality with a vast network of other texts” (Kress, 1985a, p. 49; 1985b, p. 146).
Writers, Kress further argues, “have the words - and more importantly, the systematic
organization of words given to them by the discourses and genres of which they have had
experience” (Ibid).
Most of the materials were also “authentic”, as suggested by CT (Chaffee, et al, 2002;
Moore and Parker, 1995); CP (Freire, 1998; Scholle and Denski, 1993) and CL (Wallace,
1992a,b; Frye, 1997; Varaprasad, 1997), in the sense of being written for purposes other
than pedagogic, particularly “to teach language” (Nunan, 1985, p. 38; see also Crawford,
1990, p. 47; van Lier, 1996, p. 13). In ESL/EFL authentic material is important and has
become a central methodological tenet (see Nunan, 1985; Pachler and Reimann, 1999;
Perkins, 1998; Wallace, 1992a) to bring the world of real language use into the classroom
and to provide ample illustration of the use of language in context (Pachler and Reimann,
1999, p. 283). Only articles about Capital Punishment were taken from a book by Cooper
and Axelrod (1987), intended for teaching critical reading and writing. However, as the aim
of the Building Knowledge stage was to build students’ content knowledge about the topic,
some materials, specifically about “Working Women” and “Capital Punishment” were in
bahasa Indonesia.
The materials were also “multiple” (Luke and Freebody, 1997; Frye, 1997), taken from
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various sources, such as magazines, newspapers and reports (Feez, 2002) and the internet
(Gibbons, 2002) to allow for more varied analysis of content and language (Varaprasad,
1997; Gibbons, 2002). In ESL/EFL contexts, like this study, the use of multiple materials,
again, is useful to allow students to learn both language and content (Mohan, 2001; p. 108).
These materials were chosen because within the mass media, lie “generative themes”, topics
that embody contradictions in contemporary ideology and whose explorations can lead to
critical reflection and point to political empowerment (Mazurek, 1999, p. 309). The students
were also encouraged to find various sources themselves to enrich information for their
writing.
Regarding the texts for the Modelling stage, the researcher found it difficult to find texts
which suited the teaching of a Discussion genre and allowed for an explicit exploration of
how language works to construct social and cultural meanings, and relationship of power.
This was because although all texts are ideological encodings, “there is a case for saying that
texts are not equally invested with power relations (and do not) … reveal or mask their
ideological provenance to the same degree” (Wallace, 1996, p. 339, cited in Hood, 1998, p.
14). The researcher then decided to approach one Discussion text from an IELTS
(International English Language Testing System) book, by Sahanaya, Lindeck and Stewart
(1998, p. 142-143). The text, in spite of being irrelevant to the topic discussed, was
considered relevant to the students’ linguistic capacity as IELTS books are usually used for
advanced adult EFL learners like the participants of this study. Two Discussion texts,
Logging in Old-Growth Forests from Feez and Joyce, (1998b, p. 140) and Should We Use
Animals for Entertainment from Christie (2002, p. 62) were also used just to build up
students’ knowledge on the schematic structure and linguistic features of a Discussion genre.
The two Discussion texts can be found in Appendix 12 and some of the reading materials
used in the teaching program in Appendix 13.
4.2.4 Activity 4: Distribution of Questionnaires and Diagnostic Writing
Another activity prior to the teaching program was to invite students to fill in a questionnaire
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(Appendix 5), to gain students’ profiles (Feez and Joyce, 1998a; Derewianka, 1990), of their
experience in learning English, their attitude toward and perceptions of English writing and
their critical capacities. Students were then invited to do a diagnostic writing text (Feez and
Joyce, 1998a), an example of English argumentative text, on any topic they wished to write,
in one sitting. These texts were then given to one of the researcher’s colleague to be
categorized as low, mid and high in terms of argumentative structure and proficiency in
English. Samples of these texts can be found in Appendix 17, and two of them will be
analysed in Chapter 5, Section 5.2.
The data from the questionnaire and diagnostic writing could assist in identifying broad
areas of need which held true for the whole class and the specific needs for individual
learners (Feez and Joyce, 1998a, p. 42). In the questionnaires, all students responded that
they had not learned (consciously and explicitly) about CT and critical reading and did not
have a lot of experiences in English argumentative writing. However, the diagnostic
writings, as will be discussed in detail in Chapter 5, Section 5.2, suggested that the students
had some grasp of understanding of the schematic structure of argumentative writing (i.e.
Exposition and Discussion) and some aspects of critical capacities investigated in this study.
From the topics chosen, which were mostly about current issues in Indonesia, and the text
written, it can be seen that the students “had critical and oppositional into social reality”
(Canagarajah, 2002, p. 100). However, because the students wrote in one sitting and lacked
knowledge of the issue and linguistic repertoire, the texts were reasonably underdeveloped,
and therefore, their critical insights were less explicit, and less ideologically sophisticated.
This had convinced the researcher of the importance of explicit teaching and practices in
writing skills and critical capacities and strong background knowledge to lead the students to
write confidently and critically.
4.2.5 Summary of the Preliminary Phase of the Teaching Program
This section has described various activities prior to the teaching program. It has been
argued that two key principles of CP adopted in this study (the classroom as a democratic
public sphere and dialogic education), which are deemed relevant to the development of the
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current Indonesian education, as discussed in Chapter 1, Section 1.5, had been applied prior
to the teaching program. These were reflected, among others, in the nature of students’
participation in this study, which was voluntary-based, and the joint decision on the topic
discussed. Finally, the diagnostic writing and questionnaire constituted the basis for
assessment of students’ needs in their learning in the teaching program which will be
illustrated below.
4.3 The Teaching Program
Working in the role of “teacher-as-researcher” (Stake, 1995, p. 91), the researcher taught the
students for nine weeks. After each session the writer wrote field notes on what happened in
the class, students’ developments and problems. In each session, as indicated in Chapter 3,
the researcher also invited one of her colleagues to act as an observer and to take notes or
record each event in the class, “what is said and done by the teacher and students” (van Lier,
1996, p. 90) to contribute “to reducing the researcher’s perceptual biases” (Shimahara, 1988,
p. 87; van Lier, 1988, p. 13).
For the whole teaching program, a pre-established lesson plan (Appendix 5) was provided as
a guide for the teacher and the learners (Feez and Joyce, 1998a, p. 2) or pathways (Feez and
Joyce, 1998a, p. 73) which the students would go to along the course of the lessons.
However, this was not a fixed matter, but subject to modification, “once the teaching
program commenced” (Feez and Joyce, 1998a, p. 73), based on students’ interests and
experiences (Freire and Shor, 1987; Auerbach, 1999; Degener, 1999) (see also Nunan, 1988;
Nunan and Lamb, 1996 regarding lesson preparation in the ESL context). This is because
the basis of planning tasks or topic choice (as mentioned above) was often determined
interactively as the lesson proceeded (Burns, 1992, p. 63). However, such an approach did
not seem to be favoured by all students, as interview data in Chapter 6 will reveal that
students’ preference for a strict syllabus seemed to still exist.
Because CT is a prerequisite to CL and “sophistication of language is dependent on
sophistication of thought and vice versa” (Chaffee, 2002; Chaffee’s personal
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communication with the researcher, 11th
April, 2004; Perkins, 1987), the first four meetings
were devoted to teaching CT (Nickerson, 1987; Eichhorn,
http://www.amsc.belvoir.army.mil/roy.html; Costa, 2003) and then introduction to CL.
Students’ CT and CL were then consolidated in each stage of the two teaching cycles of the
GBA. Classroom practices informed by CP were applied throughout the program “which are
required for students’ development of CL” (Wallace, 2001, p. 214; Horn, Jr, 2002, p. 143)
and CT (Giroux, 1992a). Classroom practices informed by CP, as outlined in Chapter 2,
Section 2.3, were mainly regarding the promotion of students’ capacity to read the word and
the world (Freire and Macedo, 1987); a dialogic education (Shor and Freire, 1987) and a
democratic atmosphere (Giroux, 1988, 1977) in the class. These were reflected in students’
active participation in their learning and the “student-teacher interaction (especially in
discussions), or human relationships, which are central to effective instruction” (Cummins,
1996, p. 73). The democratic atmosphere, especially in discussing texts, also aimed to
encourage students to challenge authority, including the perceived authority in texts and
possibly teacher’s judgment and interpretations (Wallace, 1992, p. 63; Cummins, 1996).
In the first week, the researcher taught three times a week, with each session taking four and
a half hours with 20 minutes break. This followed a suggestion from students, as they were
still having a semester break. For the rest of the eight weeks, she taught twice a week, one
session for two and a half hours, the other, which was on the students’ day off, four and a
half hours with 20 minutes break. Two additional meetings were conducted to specifically
teach functional grammar (SFG), again, based on the students’ suggestions. This time
allocation was actually much longer than the planned schedule.
However, from a CT perspective, it was far from sufficient, as the duration of the instruction
of CT should be at least one semester, or even a year of instruction (Sternberg, 1987; see
also Beyer, 1997 and Wilks, 2004a, b, on the necessity of longer periods of time for thinking
instruction). From a CL perspective, particularly from that of critical reading, this was too
short, as critical reading skill is a developmental process and cannot be taught just in several
sessions (Varaprasad, 1997, p.12). These critical capacities, which are relatively new in
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Indonesian education (in that students are encouraged to verbalise their critical perspectives
on their context more openly) and may be a relatively radical concept in an Indonesian EFL
context like this study (see Davidson, 1995 in a Japanese context), would certainly take
much longer time to establish, as the discussion later in this chapter and Chapter 6 will
reveal. From a CP point, the time allocation was much too short, as “a pedagogical shift
from non-critical to critical may take many years, if not a life time and it should be seen as a
journey” (Degener, 1999, p. 13).
Similarly, from the point of the GBA, this program did not allow students’ comprehensive
understanding on genre as a “linguistically realized activity type” (Christie, 1991, p. 236)
due to lack of provision for students to practise writing and reading different genres that
students should master for their success in their academic and future life. The program also
did not allow students to learn functional grammar comprehensively, which could contribute
to their capacity in language use for various purposes and audiences (Cope and Kalantzis,
1993a; Rothery, 1989; Kress, 1993; Hyon, 1996; Gibbons, 2002). This is one of the
limitations of the study relating to the limited time available.
After each session, students were invited to write a journal to express about “what they
thought they had learnt” (DSP, 1989, p. 19) from the teacher and from friends (see
Appendix 7.3-4). However, in hindsight the researcher should also have asked the students
to express their feeling, particularly when they approached a particular text in the journal, to
help develop students’ self esteem as their feelings (and experiences) are valued (Ada, 1988,
cited in Cummins, 1999, p.7).
4.3.1. The Teaching of CT and Introduction to CL
At the beginning of the teaching program, the researcher elicited the students’ knowledge
about CT to initiate dialogic education and thus to create “a thoughtful classroom” (Beyer,
1997), or “a thinking environment”, to use Wilks’(2004, p. ix) term. She emphasised that the
students should not hesitate to answer and to raise questions, as knowledge begins with
questions (Freire and Faundes, 1989, Gee, 1990; Nickerson, Perkins and Smith, 1985;
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Wilks, 2004). The theatre-style seating that typifies the university classroom was rearranged
in clusters or a U-shape to increase the possibilities of student-student and student-teacher
interactions (Beyer, 1997, p. 66). The teaching of CT will be described in four steps: (i)
explicit teaching on CT-related aspects; (ii) application of CT in social context; (iii) dealing
with texts on arguments – introduction to CL; and (iv) comparing two different texts on the
same topic.
4.3.1.1 Step 1: Explicit Teaching on CT-Related Features
This step was commenced with a direct instruction of CT (Costa, 2003, p. 59, see also
Perkins, 1987; Eichhorn, http://www.amsc.belvoir.army.mil/roy.html; De Bono, 1991), with
an explanation of the word critical, derived from the Greek word “kritikos”, meaning
discerning judgment, and “criterion” meaning standards (see Chapter 2, Section 2.2). It was
also explained that the word “kritikos” means to question, to make sense of, to be able to
analyse, and is related to the word “criticise”, which means to question and evaluate
(Chaffee, 2000, p. 45). Several definitions of CT were then given, as discussed in Chapter 2,
Section 2.2.
Explicit teaching about CT-related aspects was conducted (Paul, 1990, p. 217; Perkins,
1987b, p. 85; Costa, 2003, p. 59), to make it easier for students to acquire the knowledge and
skills (Delpit, 1988, cited in Gibbons, 2002, p. 59) and to make sure that “all students could
acquire them” (Martin, 1993 cited in Christie and Unsworth, 2000, p. 19-20, see also
Chapter 6, Section 6.2). Aspects of CT taught were based on the discussion in Chapter 2,
Section 2.2, including:
• essential components and notions of CT: argument, the issue, reason (including
faulty reasonigs), facts and opinion;
• CT standards (including aspects contributing to the soundness of arguments);
• skills of CT, dispositions and abilities involved in CT (including capacity to identify
fallacies in reasoning)
• activities that make up CT;
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• the relationship between CT and CL (writing and reading), and how CT can be
sharpened through reading, writing and collaboration in group work, as will be
shown later.
After the teaching of each feature of CT, exercises were given to the students to consolidate
their understanding about what they had learnt. Regarding CT standards and faulty
reasonings, exercises regarding ambiguous language from Chaffee (2000, 2002) were given,
and the students were asked to think of two meanings of some sentences such as the
following:
• He fed her dog biscuits
• The duck is ready to eat.
• Flying canes can be dangerous.
• The shooting of the hunter disturbed him.
Students were also asked to recognize vague words in a sentence and to add some specificity
to make a clear and distinct meaning. The sentences were also taken from Chaffee (2002, p.
174-175), such as:
• I had a nice time yesterday.
• This is an interesting book.
From these exercises, students then moved on to higher level of exercises which involved
more cognition. Students were invited to identify stereotypes in sentences and to restate the
statements to avoid stereotypes. The sentences were also from Chaffee (2000), such as:
• Women are very emotional.
• Politicians are corrupt.
• Teenagers are wild and irresponsible.
• Men are thoughtless and insensitive.
Regarding this exercise, the researcher stressed the importance of the use of some deictic in
the nominal groups of each sentence, modality (of possibility, such as may and possibly),
circumstances of frequency (sometimes, often), and relational processes (appear, and seem).
The aim was to help students recognise absolute facts and help students to make credible
arguments (DSP, 1989, p. 75), to show humility about their claim and care not to claim more
than is warranted (Reichenbach, 2001, p. 98). However, the researcher further reminded the
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students that “continued use of the above expressions can lead the reader or listener to
wonder why you are communicating about the topic if you are unsure of anything you say”
(Ibid). Therefore it was advised that these expressions should be combined with modality of
certainty or “strengthening words”, (Reichenbach, 2001, p. 98), like certainly, surely, in fact
to show confidence in opinions. These expressions were further discussed in the teaching of
functional grammar and the Modeling stage later.
In addition, exercises on “dispositions and abilities involved in CT” and “activities that
make up CT” were combined in those related to CT as a social practice below. In doing all
the exercises, the researcher always first guided or “coached” (Antonacci and Colassaco,
1995) the students to do the tasks and sometimes did the first task together with the students
to show them how to do the rest of the tasks. Most exercises were done in groups to
encourage the students to share with and learn from friends and thus to develop their CT.
From the perspective of EFL, this aimed to offer opportunities for cooperative learning and
real English language practice (Hyland, 1991, cited in Lunt, 2001, p. 18) with consequent
gains in language proficiency (Bejarano, 1987, cited in Lunt, 2001, p. 18; see also Nunan
and Lamb, 1996).
4.3.1.2 Step 2: Application of CT in Social Context
At this stage, the researcher started to infuse CT in the teaching of content (Eichhorn,
http://www. amsc.belvoir.army.mil/roy.html; Ennis, 1992, p. 23). As CT is “a social
practice” (Atkinson, 1997; Chaffee, 2000; Canagarajah, 2002), to enable students to see how
CT takes place in a social context, students were invited to do a role play, based on two
dialogues regarding abortion (see Appendix 4) taken from Chaffee (2000, p. 69-71). They
subsequently evaluated the dynamic of the two dialogues, considering whether the people in
the dialogues were discussing, in that whether they were really:
• Listening to each other;
• Supporting their views with reasons and evidence;
• Responding to the points being made;
• Asking and trying to answer important questions;
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• Trying to increase their understanding rather than simply winning the argument
(Chaffee, 2000, p. 70-73).
The researcher also asked the students several questions, some of which were made related
to their experience (Reid, http://www.asia-
u.acjp/english/cele/articles/Reid_Critical_Thinking.htm; see also Nosich, 2001). The
questions were:
- What do you think of people in dialogue 1 and 2? Do they apply some suggestions
from Chaffee in dealing with discussion (above)?
Can you identify some aspects of CT in dialogue 1 and dialogue 2, such as CT
standards (Are the arguments clear, accurate, relevant to the topic? Is the idea easily
understood?), CT dispositions; and activities that make up CT?
- Have you ever experienced a conversation as in dialogue 1? In dialogue 2?
- What was your feeling when you had it?
- Why do you think person B in dialogue 1 thinks that abortion is a murder?
- Do you think it is right?
- Does he support his arguments with reasons and evidence?
- Is there any faulty reasoning in the two dialogues?
- Which dialogue do you think has more sound arguments?
- Why?
Based on the students’ answers to the last two questions, the researcher, together with the
students tried to evaluate the strengths and accuracy of reasons and evidence identified in
each dialogue, based on several aspects, including:
• authorities;
• references;
• factual evidence;
• personal experience (Chaffee, 2000, p. 58-59; 2002; Toulmin et al, 1984; Nosich,
2001).
Finally, in terms of the relationship between CT and writing, emphasis was given to the
advice “don’t tell your readers, show them. Good writers show by providing specific details
and relevant examples” (Chaffee et al, 2002, p. 79). This was followed by an exercise,
drawn from Chaffee et al (2002, see the hand out, Appendix 4), for example:
Telling: Michael Jordan is a great basketball player
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Showing: During the 1995-1996 seasons, Michael Jordan led the NBA with a
scoring average of 30.4 points per game.
That same season he ranked second on the Bulls for rebounding and
assists.
He was chosen for the NBA All-Star team in his first nine seasons.
He has won four league MVP awards and two Olympic medals.
Some suggestions in implementing activities that make up CT in writing, especially
“viewing situations from different perspectives” and “supporting diverse viewpoints with
reasons and evidence” (Chaffee et al, 2002, see also Diestler, 2001; 1991, 2003) were given,
as this capacity would constitute a critical capital for them in writing a more convincing
Discussion genre in the later stages. Models of some types of essays to avoid were offered
(Moore and Parker, 1995, p. 53), such as the windy preamble, the stream-of-consciousness
ramble, the knee-jerk reaction, the glancing blow, let the reader do the work (see Appendix
11). All these activities were then followed by dealing with texts on arguments, including
introduction to CL, which will be discussed subsequently.
4.3.1.3 Step 3: Dealing with Texts on Arguments – Introduction to CL
This activity aimed to engage students in extended discussion about issues, which is a very
effective means for developing the CT dispositions and the CT strategies and tactics (Norris
and Ennis, 1990, p. 150; see also Perkins, 1987b), to introduce students to CL and to
encourage them to have diverse opinions without fear of being judged wrong. In this
discussion (and later throughout the program), students were encouraged to speak in English
(Feez, 2002) to allow them to practise English, as there is a belief among ESL (EFL)
students that they should use their English as much as possible in an ESL (EFL) setting
(Storch and Wigglesworth, 2003, p. 760). The researcher did not make any corrections if
students made grammatical mistakes, and when they found difficulty in expressing ideas in
English, they were allowed to speak mixed Indonesian-English (Pari, 1999; Cummins, 1996,
Moore, 1999). This aimed to allow students to express ideas without taking risk of being
judged wrong in terms of English as well as ideas (Janks, 2001, see also Pari, 1999, p. 110).
Finally, this was intended to promote students’ linguistic and cognitive development,
because “the fact that bilinguals (like the students of this study) have two words for the same
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idea or object and two ways of expressing the same thought may lead them to objectify or
become aware of their linguistic operations” (Vygotsky, cited in Cummins, 1996, p. 105).
As mentioned above, most texts critically interrogated in this program were in English to
provide the students with an opportunity to learn not only the content but also the language
of the texts. At this stage, the researcher, in consultation with the students, examined one
text on arguments, taken from Mc Gregor (2002, p. 4) on “Why own a 4WD”. It was chosen
because of its familiarity of the topic and language appropriateness to the students and the
fact that the writer’s stance is not stated and thus useful to foster students’ critical reading
skills (Perkins, 1998, see also Gibbons, 2002, p. 82). It also allowed the students “to debate,
to weigh and judge the writer’s stance from linguistic structure of the text” (Luke, O’Brien
and Comber, 1994), which was crucial for students’ CL development. The text and activities
can be described as follows.
Why Own a 4WD
Intelligent people know there are several good reasons why everybody should own a
four-wheel drive. They are:
• You pay less tax.
• You can see further down the road, but those behind you can’t see ahead at all.
• You can feel you are really someone when you are up above everybody else.
• If you crash into an ordinary car, you are less likely to be hurt.
• You can pretend that you are actually going somewhere on weekends when
you’re just going to the shops.
• You can show you despise greenies and energy-conservers, by using twice as
much fuel as they do.
• Although there are no bulls or roos in the area, you can have a grate attached to
the front of your Urban Assault Vehicle for protection against pedestrians.
• Everyone knows they cost a lot.
• If you reverse over someone, you won’t notice (cited from McGregor, 2002, p.
04).
To help students understand the text more easily, scaffolding regarding cultural background
knowledge was provided by the researcher, to build up students’ knowledge that are relevant
to the text (Gibbons, 2002, p. 83), particularly on Australians, regarding the point “You can
pretend that you are actually going somewhere on weekends when you’re just going to the
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shops”. The researcher described what Australians do over the weekend or holiday time and
how they generally consider “going out over the weekend or holiday”. In addition, some
words such as roos and a grate were also explained. (This scaffolding on cultural aspects
was also provided prior to the discussion of each text in later stages).
Questions regarding CL, included in pre- and while-reading phases, as suggested by Wallace
(1992a,b, as discussed in Chapter 2, Section 2.4) were raised. Because it was the first time
for students to answer questions related to CL, the researcher guided them in answering the
questions, especially questions to do with "Why was this text created?” and “What other
ways of writing about the topic are there?”
Then the discussion dealt with questions taken from Mc Gregor (2002, p. 4) as follows:
1. What do you think is the writer’s contention or stance on the issue of 4 WDs?
2. In what ways does the letter support this stance?
3. According to the writer, what attitude do 4WD owners have to other people?
Which statement suggests this attitude?
4. Imagine you are a 4WD owner. Would this argument annoy or upset you? Why or
why not?
5. If you think it would annoy you, which particular statements, words, or phrases,
would have this effect. Why?
6. Why do you think the writer uses the phrase ‘Urban Assault Vehicle”?
7. Is the use of this phrase a hyperbole or irony?
8. This letter is an example of an implied point of view which readers gather from
reading the piece. The writer’s stance is not stated. Why do you think the writer
chose to present the argument in this form?
Basically the students could answer all the questions, but regarding the question on the
writer’s contention, tension emerged as students’ opinions were divided into two. This can
be seen in the excerpt below:
T : What do you think of the stance of the writer on 4 WD?
Wati : (high achiever and articulate): I think he agrees with 4 WD and he
mentions the benefits of 4WD for the owner.
T : Ok, Wati thinks that the writer supports 4 WD. Any other opinion?
Candra : I don’t think so. I think he doesn’t agree with 4WD.
Wati : But that’s what he says, (mentioning what the writer says in the text).
Candra : Yes, but actually the writer doesn’t agree with 4WD. He says it in a cynical
way.
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This occurrence seems to justify that “there are multiple interpretations of a text and there is
a wrong interpretation” (Gee, 1990, p. 111). In this case, this seemed to have occurred due to
the students’ lack of cultural knowledge of the text, which led to a wrong interpretation. This
also seems to indicate scaffolding regarding cultural background of a text prior to the
reading activity should be more grounded.
Regarding this, tension emerged in the researcher, whether she should determine which one
was correct. On the one hand, students seemed to demand that she determine which one was
correct, but on the other hand, the researcher realized if it was she who said which one was
correct, it would silence the students (Frye, 1997). So, the researcher did not mention which
one was correct and wrong. Instead she gave a clue by asking a question as follows:
What do you think is my stance toward civil servants in Indonesia if I say ‘being a civil servant is
very nice. We can come to work late, no one will fire us, we still have the same salary, etc… .
Then Wati said, ”Oh ya, he says it in an opposite way” (nodding her head). Wati also
seemed to realize that she gained an important lesson from friends, which also shows a
disposition of CT, that is her “willingness to admit that she was wrong and the others were
right” (Zechmeister and Johnson, 1992, p. 7; Wilks, 2004a). This was indicated in her
journal below:
When we discussed the ‘4WD’ article, I thought that the writer of the article had a positive opinion
about 4WD. But Candra said that it was just a cynical word used by the writer. The writer actually
doesn’t like 4WD. And I learned it from Candra (Wati, Journal 10th
Feb, 2003).
Meanwhile, Candra wrote in her journal, which shows her emerging awareness of reading
and writing as social activities, that there is no neutral position from which a text can be read
or written (Luke and Freebody, 1997, p. 193). She wrote:
Again, I read a remarkable writing on 4WD. The writer’s technique is different from the usual ones.
Although some of us, as readers, had different perceptions towards it, generally, the text is
comprehensible. … There is no neutral writing. Every writer inserts certain purpose to his/her writing.
There is unspoken belief. A writer’s position toward a topic can be stated implicitly (Candra, Journal
10th
Feb, 2003).
The fact that even high student achievers interpreted the text only from the surface level was
also probably due to the teaching of reading in EFL so far, which is often considered as
“unproblematic” (Wallace, 1992b; see also Pennycook, 2001, p. 76 on literacy in applied
linguistics and TESOL). The students should have known that the writer uses irony, the
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intertextual nature of which, is that “it echoes someone else’s utterance” (Sperber and
Wilson, 1986, cited in Fairclough, 1992b, p. 123) and “that words can imply more than is
being said, and the actual intent can be expressed in words which carry the opposite
meaning” (Saxby, 1993, p. 70) as this kind of playful language also exists in bahasa
Indonesia and they must have learned it.
Questions regarding CT as described above were also raised, and at this time the students
seemed to be able to recognize that most of the arguments were only opinions. They could
also recognize some faulty reasonings, such as overgeneralizations in the expressions:
“Everyone knows”, “Intelligent people…”. This may suggest an emerging feature of a
critical thinker who attempts to think thoughtfully and tries to avoid stereotypes or
overgeneralizations on an issue (Chaffee, 2000; see also Diestler, 2001). This may also
indicate students’ emerging consciousness of not believing everything they read, a feature
of critical reading skill (Varaprasad, 1997).
The next step taken was compliant with a suggestion from CL in post-reading phase
(Wallace, 1992a,b; Luke and Freebody, 1997 and see Chapter 2, Section 2.4), in heightening
students’ awareness of various ways in which a topic can be written about, that is comparing
different texts on the same topic. Because the researcher could not find another text about
“4WD”, she decided to select another topic, that is “Junk Mail”.
4.3.1.4 Step 4: Comparing Different Texts on the Same Topic
In this activity, two texts which present explicitly opposing arguments on the same issue
were approached (Perkins, 1998), to introduce the students to what they would go through
before writing a Discussion genre later. The texts, as mentioned above, were about junk
mail, taken from Mc Gregor (2002, p. 5, see in Appendix 8). They were chosen as they
involved “personal experience”, “evidence or factual data”, “appeal to an expert or an
authority”, from which CT-related aspects could be traced. This was also expected to show
the students how their CT knowledge could be applied in writing and affect the soundness of
arguments and thus make their writing more convincing to the readers. Added to this, was
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the fact the language of the texts was relevant to the students’ linguistic capacity and the
students were familiar with the topic.
The discussion, again started with questions of pre-and while- reading phases as suggested
by Wallace (1992a,b; see also Chapter 2, Section 2.4), followed by inviting students to
answer the questions from McGregor (2002, p. 5) as follows:
1. Why does the writer of Argument 1 use so many short sentences? What does this
suggest about how the writer feels – calm, peaceful, angry, and aggressive?
2. Why does the writer use personal experience in the opening of the piece. What
effects might this have on readers?
3. Writers of arguments often choose words that have connotations or associations-
positive or negative. What is the meaning of “perpetrators”?
As used by the writer, is it positive or negative term? With what kinds of actions is
this word usually associated? What does the use of this word suggest about the
writer’s opinion of junk mail distributors?
4. Writers of arguments often redefine their terms to suit the argument or stance they
are expressing. What term does the writer of Argument 2 redefine? How does it help
the argument advanced in the piece?
5. Identify an appeal to an expert or an authority in argument 2. Why do you think this
is used?
Some other questions as suggested by Thompson, 1998 (see also Love et al, 2001) were also
asked, such as:
1. How does the writer position him/herself in relation to the readers (e.g. as an
authority, as a friend, as opponent, as someone to persuade, or someone who
agrees with the readers’ views about the issue).
2. Who would feel left out in this text, who is missing, or silenced and why?
3. Will the text have the same impact on different readers?
4. How do you find this issue in Indonesia?
5. Is advertising mail a problem?
To consolidate students’ understanding of all aspects they had learned, questions related to
CT were raised, as described above. Moreover, throughout the discussion, the researcher,
again, encouraged the students to voice an opinion.
At this stage, it seemed that students started to have emerging awareness of their capacity in
interrogating texts critically, and their sensitivity to context, as written in the journal below.
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… I learnt that in every text we can analyse who the writer is, to whom the writer writes, why the
writer writes, what the text is about, when the text was written, and perhaps the answers can be more
than one … (Ina, Journal entry, Jan, 30th
, 2003).
Although initially slow, the students at this stage also seemed to begin to make use and to
realize the importance of the freedom and courage to express ideas and to answer the
questions. Candra, for instance wrote in her journal that:
Learning needs courage. It won’t do to have plenty of ideas in your head but no courage to speak up
(Candra, 31st
Jan, 2003; see also her response in the interview, Chapter 6, Section 6.2).
Moreover, the students appeared to try to apply their CT knowledge in their outside
classroom activities, as revealed in a journal below:
Outside we talked about movies, etc. and since we learned how to be a critical thinker, we tried to
respond to what was being discussed from several points of view and to appreciate others’ opinion
(Nuri, 31st
Jan, 2003).
From the discussion above, it appears that at this stage students were at least aware of some
of the features of CT and CL concerned with in this study.
4.3.1.5 Summary of the Teaching of CT – Introduction to CL
This section has presented one stage of the teaching program, that is the teaching of CT, and
introduction to CL. From the classroom interactions and journals presented, students seemed
to have developed emerging CT skills and CL concerned with in this study, compliant with
the need for the development of critical capacity in Indonesian education today, as discussed
in Chapter 1, Section 1.5. The discussion in this section also indicates that scaffolding
regarding cultural background knowledge of a text is relevant to an ESL/EFL context to help
students to think and to read critically.
4.3.2 Teaching the Discussion Genre – Implementation of the GBA and Consolidation
of Critical Capacities
This section will describe the implementation of the GBA in teaching the Discussion genre.
At this stage students’ critical capacities were further developed and applied through the
classroom interactions and writing practices. The teaching program can be described in two
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main stages: (i) introduction to the GBA and SFL; and (ii) implementation of two teaching
cycles: teaching cycles one and two.
4.3.2.1 Introduction to the GBA and Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL)
At this stage the researcher introduced to the students in brief some aspects of SFL and SFG,
based on the discussion in Chapter 2, Section 2.5. This aimed to enable the researcher and
the students in the stage of Building Knowledge of the Field, to interrogate texts, to debate,
to weigh, to judge and to critique texts from linguistic structures, which was a crucial part of
text analysis (Luke, O'Brien and Comber, 1994, p. 141). Functional grammar, as Wallace
suggests:
is part of the resources that students can put to use in the scrutiny of particular texts, more
specifically in making judgments regarding the manner in which and the degree to which choices in
texts, ideationally, interpersonally, or textually, challenge or confirm prevailing ideologies (2001, p.
216).
The teaching of SFL and SFG was also intended to make the Modelling stage in the teaching
cycle of the GBA not “so complicated and not too challenging” (DSP, 1989, p. 11),
especially when the researcher and the students interrogated texts in terms of its SFG-based
linguistic features.
The role of the researcher at this stage was mostly as the one who directed the teaching
learning process (Butt et al, 2000) and who gave assistance in the form of “direct telling”
(Callaghan and Rothery, 1988, p. 50). The researcher introduced briefly to the students the
following aspects:
• The term genre.
The researcher explained that the term genre in English here referred to “particular
text types, not to traditional varieties of literature” (Derewianka, 1990, p. 18; Johns,
1997, p. 21) as the students had learnt in English literature subjects. A hand out on
various genres and differences between genres in terms of stages and the social
contexts was given, taken from Macken-Horarik (2002, p. 21-21, see Appendix 10).
• The GBA, including its stages (at a glance);
• SFL-related aspects, such as:
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- metafunctions of language;
- the concepts of text and context, context of situation and context of culture;
- texture, cohesion, coherence; and
- SFG, including aspects related to Theme, Transitivity, Mood, and
grammatical metaphor.
In terms of the teaching of SFG, the researcher tried to relate functional grammar to
traditional grammar that the students had known and how SFG differs from traditional
grammar. The researcher, to follow Threadgold explained:
Traditional or structural grammar concerns itself with the naming of parts, and with the structure of
clauses and sentences. … SFG, on the other hand, is an attempt to describe the structure of English
and the way it typically means in context ( Threadgold, 1994, p. 21-22).
To quote Butt, et al (2000), the researcher also added that:
Functional grammarians do not reject, or discard, the terminology of traditional grammar, but to
capture what goes on in language, build on and refine the notions of traditional grammar in several
ways. The first way is to recognize that words have functions as well as class and that how a word
functions can tell us much more than any description of words in terms of class can about the piece of
language, where it occurs, the person who chose to use it in that function, and the culture that
surrounds the person and the message … (Butt, et al, 2000, p. 29).
Then, the researcher gave an example of how to analyse a clause in both traditional and
functional grammar, to indicate how the grammar realises experiential, interpersonal and
textual meaning. The example, adapted from Unsworth
(http://www.edfac.usyd.edu.au/staff/unsworth/IntroductionFunctinal_Mo.html) can be
illustrated in Table 4.1 below.
Table 4. 1 Examples of Clause Analysis in Traditional Grammar and SFG
Rina is a diligent student
Trad. Grammar: Word class: Pronoun Verb Article Adjective Noun
Sentence element Subject Verb Complement
SFG: Experiential meaning: Carrier Rel. Process Attribute
Interpersonal meaning Subject Finite Complement
Mood Residue
Textual meaning Theme Rheme
Regarding Theme in particular, the researcher explained in brief and gave quotes as
follows:
Theme is what the message is concerned with: the point of departure for what the speaker is going to
say (Halliday, 1994a, p. 38).
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What comes first in a clause (Theme) expresses an important kind of meaning. English speakers and
writers use the first position in the clause to signal to their audience what the message is about. … we
call the first element as Theme and the rest of the clause Rheme (Butt, et a., 2000, p. 135)
Some examples of how a text progresses based on the Thematic development were given to
show the contribution that Thematic organization makes to the cohesive development of the
text (Eggins, 1994, p. 271). Examples and exercises on how to analyse clauses or sentences
based on the three systems of grammar were also given to consolidate students’
understanding on how grammar reflects different purposes of the language users.
In terms of interpersonal metafunction, the researcher related the mood of clauses or
sentences to sentence types in traditional grammar that the students had learnt, including
statement (positive and negative), interrogative, command (imperative) and exclamation.
She also mentioned tenor, drawn from the work of Love et al (2002, unit 4a:84of 91),
showing that the relationship between the writer and reader or the speaker/listener could be
seen from the mood of the sentences of the text. If the text uses imperatives it might be
believed that the writer had the authority to give instructions to those with less expertise.
However, the researcher also reminded the students to what they had learnt that a statement
can have a meaning of a command, especially by using modality, “low (may), medium
(should) and high modality (must)” (Eggins, 1994, p. 189). Regarding the concept of text,
texture, cohesion and coherence, students were given exercises from Eggins (1994, p. 84-94)
on the property of texture: from non-text to text, from which students could see texture
creating resources (see Appendix 9).
In relation to all aspects taught at this stage, students seemed to find most information new,
especially the concepts of “metafunctions of language”, “Theme”, “text and context” and
“functional grammar”. One of the students wrote in her journal as follows:
It was excited to learn a lot of new information... Mrs Emi taught how to choose Themes in order to
build the cohesion of the text…. And we also learn what a text is. At first I thought text had
something to do with length in written form. But then I know that every kind of spoken or written
language which has meaning is considered as a text (Ira).
In addition, regarding SFG, as the researcher expected, all students found it difficult.
However, most of them also found it interesting and realized the importance of
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understanding functional grammar to improve their writing as reflected in the journals
below.
SFG is difficult actually. But we are eager to learn it since we realize its importance in improving our
writing. What we’ve learnt is the Transitivity system: material, mental, behavioural, verbal, existential
and relational processes. Honestly, I still can’t differentiate them clearly. But I’ll try hard to get them.
Besides, I learnt many things from the texts given, such as the writer, purpose, reader, intention, etc.
… (No name, Journal entry, Feb, 2003).
… I found it interesting to learn this new concept of grammar, since from the beginning I studied
English, it was always about subject, object, etc. … (Elli., Feb, 5th
, 2003).
Upon the brief introduction to the GBA, and SFL-related aspects, two teaching cycles of the
GBA were applied, which will be discussed below.
4.3.2.2 Implementation of the Teaching Cycle
This section will be structured to describe in detail each stage of the teaching cycle under the
GBA, generally following the model of Rothery (1996), which can be described in Figure
4.2 below. The model from Rothery (1996), which covers Building Knowledge of the Field
(Negotiating Field); Modelling (Deconstruction); Joint Construction; and Independent
Construction, was used as it incorporates CL into the teaching cycle, which is one of the
study’s main concern. Moreover, it includes the stage Negotiating Field, or Building
Knowledge of the Field, which is important for the students’ CT and CL development. It
also includes Deconstruction (initially conceptualized as Modelling), which is critical for the
students’ CL for it involves analysis and discussions about how and why examples of a
particular genre are organized to make meaning. Deconstruction allows students to analyse
the representations of a text, as suggested by a critical social theory of literacy (see Chapter
2, Section 2.4). From a CP perspective, Deconstruction is a critical element of a radical
pedagogy (Giroux, 1977) to enable students to understand the world, as suggested in one of
the principles of CP adopted in this study (see Chapter 2, Section 2.3). Finally, the Joint and
Independent constructions were expected to provide a chance to practise the CT and CL
skills students had grasped from the two previous stages.
132

Figure 4. 1 The Teaching Cycle (cited from Rothery, 1996, p. 102)
However, all the stages did not go in a linear way, to meet the students’ need and contextual
condition. In the first teaching cycle, Building Knowledge of the Field was conducted twice,
prior to the Joint Construction and Independent Construction respectively. This aimed to
allow the students not only to gain the content of what they were reading but also to develop
their CT skills and CL. In the second cycle, however, only two stages were conducted,
hich were Building Knowledge of the Field and Independent Construction. Modeling and
eaching cycle does not work as a lockstep sequence for the whole
w
Joint Construction were skipped (Feez, 2002, p. 67) as the students seemed to have a
relatively good control of the Discussion genre, based on the jointly and independently
constructed texts in the first cycle (see Chapter 5, Section 5.3 particularly, on analyses of
text produced in the Joint Construction). This may coincide with the flexibility of the GBA,
and the idea that “the t
133

class” (Callaghan and Rothery, 1988, p. 48) and “there is no right way to sequence teaching
used, particularly in the stage Building Knowledge
f the Field, to make sure that students had enough background knowledge of the topic to
addition, the model provided by Smith et.al (1995), Davison
(2001), Feez (2002), and Gibbons (2002) was involved as its context is ESL, similar to this
nre with other text types, comparing purpose and context, staging
nd language features.
folding was weakened (Feez, 2002) and was
gra dependent
con u
the lea em to take over ( Feez, 2002). The two
tea n
.3.2.2.1 Teaching Cycle 1
learning activities” (Macken-Horarik, 2002, p. 26).
In the conduct of each stage, some modifications were made, drawn from the work of
Callaghan and Rothery (1988); DSP (1989); Feez (2002); Macken-Horarik (2002); Smith et
al (1995); Gibbons (2002). The model from the DSP, Feez and Macken-Horarik was
involved especially in the teaching of CL. The model from DSP (1989); Smith et.al (1995);
Davison (2001) and Gibbons (2002) was
o
be able to write about it. In
study.
From the teaching cycle employed, however, there was one planned activity which was not
done, but in retrospect would be very beneficial. This was “linking related texts” (Feez and
Joyce, 1998a; Feez, 2002). Due to the limited time, we did not discuss, contrast and compare
texts in a Discussion ge
a
In various stages of the teaching cycle, the directive role of the researcher was obvious and
scaffolding was very strong, especially in some part of Building Knowledge of the Field
and Modeling phases. Then the strong scaf
dually removed (Antonacci and Colassaco, 1995) in the Joint and In
str ction stages, when the researcher began to relinquish responsibility to the learners as
rners’ expanding knowledge allowed th
chi g cycles can be described below.
4
Prior to the stage of Building Knowledge of the Field, the researcher, first of all, reinformed
the students of the activities and the stages of the GBA they would go through to make them
134

“understand the purpose for what they were learning” (DSP, 1989, p. 19), and “those things
that underlie the learning task and the thing to be learned” (Lankshear, 1998, p. 122). This
also aimed to make students aware of the merit of each stage to promote their writing skills
and critical capacities.
The materials regarding the first topic, the Miss Universe Contest, were then given,
classified into those consisting of arguments against and for (Smith et al, 1995). Students
were asked to read the materials with the guiding questions to scaffold the readings or the
search (Rothery, 1996, p. 104) as follows:
st?
• What are the main objections of the Indonesian government and society (and other
95; Feez and Joyce, 1998a; Feez, 2002)
bout all arguments against and for the contest. This was intended to make them not have to
intended to build up background knowledge, and so
e focus was primarily on the “content” of the topic (Gibbons, 2002, p. 61; Rothery, 1996).
re
• What is (are) the benefit (s) of participating in the Miss Universe Conte
societies) to the Miss Universe Contest?
• What is the motivation behind spending the large amount of money on the Miss
Universe Contest?
As the materials were ample, the students were also reminded to take notes (Rothery and
Callaghan, 1988, Rothery, 1996: Smith et al, 19
a
read the articles again when writing a jointly-constructed text later and thus to save their
time. From the CT point, as discussed in Chapter 2, Section 2.2, taking notes is also
important to promote students’ metacognition, which is the awareness and control of their
own thinking (Flavell, 1976, cited in Baron, 1987, p. 229; Costa, 2003, p. 61). However, as
will be discussed later, it was found that some students did not take notes while reading the
materials. Activities involved in teaching cycle one included four broad stages of the
teaching cycle, which were: (i) Building Knowledge of the Field – the teaching of CL; (ii)
Modelling; (iii) Joint Construction; and (iv) Independent Construction.
This stage, as the name indicates, was
th
135

What the researcher and students did was cooperatively build up a shared knowledge of the
field, while students also learned the language of the field since “we cannot know the field
unless we know the language of the field” (Rothery, 1996, p. 103; Feez and Joyce, 1998a, p.
33). Activities involved will be discussed below:
Firs f students, based on
their re ut the supports, reasons
and soundness and accuracy.
Then a f nominalizations was
enc r of nominalizations
howed one dimension of “mature writing” (Martin, 1985, p. 31; Halliday, 1994a, p. 342)
f money business
point/perspective
cultural,
udents, and the teacher’s role
as a co
to enable the r
01). The texts approached can be found in Appendix 13.1, and were among others:
t o all, the arguments for and against the contest articulated by the
ading, were black boarded. The students were also asked abo
evidence given by the writer to each argument, to promote its
semantic web was made (Gibbons, 2002) when the use o
ou aged. The researcher informed the students that successful use
s
and they also omit agency, causality and responsibility (Kress, 2003; Kamler, 2001), which
makes it difficult for the reader to challenge the text. The vocabularies related to the topic
were, among others, listed below:
Participation, host sex objects ambassador tourist promotion eastern country feminist
rate of rapes revenue charity physical beauty swim suit parade a waste o
commodity arguments Brain, beauty and behaviour. contestant business
religious value and moral value
This stage was then followed by a critical interrogation of several texts, in consultation with
the students (Wallace, 2001). Dialogical relationship with the st
participant were sustained, to encourage students to speak and express their ideas and
esearcher to learn from them (Freire and Shor, 1987, see also Wallace, 1992b,
20
• Arranging Beauty Contest by Habibur Rahman Bhuiyan, Dhaka
(http://www.dailystarnews.com/200206/07/n2060711.htm);
• SpecialIinterview with Alya Rohali (Miss Indonesia 1996)
(http://ferondi.tripod.com/missindonesiaunofficial/idl5.html);
• Miss World and The Press (Missworld.terra.com, Nov 25, 2000).
Each text was interrogated, based on the questions raised in the stage of the teaching of CT
and introduction to CL above. In discussing the first and second texts, the students seemed
136

to be able to answer the questions easily. Regarding the text on the Interview with Alya
Rohali, they could see that if the interviewee was not Alya, the response might be different.
ome students could see a bias in Alya Rohali’s statement, and said:
nesia. But it didn’t work (observer’s and researcher’s note).
his seems to suggest that students had had emerging capacity to challenge “the perceived
text Miss World and the Press, which was explicitly
tated to have been written by a journalist, some students said that “the text was neutral as it
alent among other Indonesians and
soci reporting should be factual, neutral,
and free 997, p. 106-107 on the voice
of th
rom a CT and critical reading perspective, this seemed to suggest that students’ CT and
had learnt
S
Alya Rohali considered the contest as a positive event because she herself gained benefit from that
activity. But it was just for her own personal benefit (observer’s and researcher’s notes).
Asked about Alya Rohali’s opinion that Indonesia’s participation in the Miss Universe
Contest can promote Indonesia’s tourism, students responded:
Ss: I don’t think so.
Homsi: We can see what Gus Dur (a former Indonesian President) did in the past. He visited so many
countries and the aim was to invite people and to convince people to invest their money and
to come to Indo
T
authority of text” (Wallace, 1992b, p. 63). This may also reflect their awareness that
different people have a different perspective on an issue. In addition, by referring to what a
former Indonesian president did, students seemed to use their background knowledge to
respond to the text (Varaprasad, 1999) or they could link their experience with the text
(Shor, 1992, cited in Boyce, 1996). This may constitute one signal of their awareness of the
social realities and of reading which poses widely as “making sense of the world around me”
(Kress, 2003, p. 140) or their ability to read the word and the world (Freire and Macedo,
1987).
However, when discussing the third
s
was written by a journalist.” This did not seem to be surprising as the students were
probably used to the assumption (which may also be prev
eties) about media texts, that the language of news
of subjectivity or impartial and objective (see White, 1
e hard news reporter).
F
reading still needed further development, and this coincides with the suggestion that
“learning to think takes time and practice” (Costa, 2003, p. 54). Although students
137

about t be aware that “all texts,
however aut
are pos
be conscio d and therefore open to either imitation or
he relationship between text and context, they did not seem to
horitative they appear, represent a particular view of the world and that readers
itioned in a certain way when they read it” (Gibbons, 2002, p. 82). They did not seem
us that “written texts are constructe
to
challenge” (Veel and Coffin, 1996, p. 225, see also Rothery, 1996). This is relevant to the
idea that critical reading skill is a developmental process and it cannot be taught just in one
or two sessions (Varaprasad, 1997).
The researcher and the students also approached two texts on the same issue, to show how
different people see an issue differently. The texts were:
• India, Beauty Superpower, Is Becoming Jaded
(http://biharnews.hypermart.net/priyankanyt.htm) and
• The Opposition to Miss World Seems to Me to Be a Symbol of Sickness in Our
Society (http:www.rediff.com/news/1996/0611vir.htm, see Appendix 17.1).
Particularly interesting was one moment of tension happening in discussing these texts
specifically about the soundness of arguments, as shown in the following excerpt.
T: What do you think
Ira: The text ‘The op
of the soundness of the arguments in each text?
position to Miss World …’ is not sound. The writer of this text is also not
sure about what she is writing because she uses a lot of ‘seems’ (mentioning some sentences
using ’seem’ referring to the text).
han one time of explicit teaching about some learning
aterials (Callaghan and Rothery, 1988; Derewianka, 1990; Feez and Joyce, 1998a). In
terms of ESL learning, this seemed to be consistent with the idea that the relationship
between teaching and learning is not identical to that of complementary transactions such as
Riya: But … remember the use of the verb ‘seem’ indicates CT, …that the writer is careful in saying
something (Researcher’s notes, Feb, 2003).
The excerpt seems to show a different level of understanding between Riya and Ira in terms
of the use of the relational process seem to promote the soundness of arguments. Ira did not
seem to be fully aware of the effect of the use of the process “seem” or “appear”, which on
the one hand may indicate the writer’s doubt, but may show the writer’s care in making
judgment, on the other – one feature of a critical thinker. Apart from suggesting that CT is a
long developmental process, this also seems to coincide with the advice that some students
may need more assistance and more t
m
138

giving and taking, buying and selling. When someone does some buying this means that
some selling also occurs. When learning occurs, teaching may or may not be in attendance.
When teaching occurs, learning may or may not take place (van Lier, 1988, p. 217, to follow
Widdo
Accord
avoid absolute facts (Callaghan and
othery, 1988, p. 75) which were “accessible to debate” (Martin, 1985, p. 31) and “to make
ty (“certainly”, “obviously”, “in fact”,
etc.) to
Moreover, asked further about the fact some final statements that the writer of the article
India, Beauty Superpower, Is Becoming Jaded. Some students said that what is
t, the more opportunity for her to become the winner. So, what is said in the
true that the fact that Indians contestants have won the Miss Universe Contest several
From a
the con
possibl
ut their
e Miss Universe Contest, and there seemed to be changes in students’ views
about the contest, as represented by a journal below:
wson, 1981, 1983).
ingly, bearing in mind that she should not silent Ira, and the possibility that other
students did not yet fully understand about this matter, the researcher explained again about
the importance of the relational processes “seem” and “appear” and some circumstances
such as “usually”, “generally” “sometimes” to
R
the opinions or arguments sound more objective” (Feez and Joyce, 1998b, p. 142). She also
reminded the students that the use of these expressions should be combined with
strengthening expressions such as modality of certain
make convincing arguments.
entitled
stated in the text may be true. Wati said
I once read an article about the Miss Universe Contest. It is said in the article that a lot of Indians are
involved in the contest, from the committee up to the audiences. The more the audience who give
support to contestan
article may be
times does not mean that Indian women are beautiful, and bright … (Researcher’s note, Feb, 2003).
CL point, this seems to suggest students’ critical engagement with the issue about
test and her awareness that “the state of the existing affairs does not exhaust what is
e” (Fairclough and Chouliaraki, 1999, p. 35).
At the end of the Building Knowledge of the Field, students were invited to write abo
ideas on th
…before I get the materials about the Miss Universe and discussed it with my friends, my stance was
that Miss Universe Contest just brought bad effects for contestants and society rather than
advantages. But then after we discussed it, I realize that sending an envoy to the contest has some
advantages (Sila, no date).
139

Moreover, the discussion had led to the students’ CT development, especially to do with
reasoning skills, and clear understanding regarding the issue as the students knew not only
arguments for and against the contest but also the reasons for these arguments, as written in
a journal below:
I was not really familiar w
nothing about it. Then I w
ith this topic. I have never watched any kind of this show. So, I knew
as given a huge pile of materials about the Miss Universe Contest …
Basically, before and after reading the materials, I oppose the contest. The difference was that before
reading them I couldn’t exactly explain why I disagreed; I had no evidence to back me up. But, after
nderstandings of the purpose, overall structure, and language features of the
enre. Activities involved in this stage were: (i) Familiarising students with the function and
social context of the Discussion genre; (ii) Presenting the schematic structure of the
iv) Presenting other
wo or more sides of an issue enabled the
udents to practise “the concept of decision making and conflict resolution through rational
debate rse of action” (DSP,
1989,
reading them, I know the arguments, I know people who are not on my side, and why they disagree. I
also know those who agree and what their arguments are (Candra, no date).
This Building Knowledge of the field was followed by the Modelling stage below.
4.3.2.2.1.2 Stage 2: Modelling (Deconstruction)
This stage was designed to introduce and to familiarize the students with the Discussion
genre, so they could read it and deconstruct it (Rothery, 1996). It was also aimed at building
up students’ u
g
Discussion genre; (iii) Presenting a model text of a Discussion genre; (
texts in the Discussion genre.
Step 1: Familiarising the Students with the Function and Social Context of the
Discussion Genre
The first step was familiarizing the students with “the power of the Discussion genre” (DSP,
1989, p. 12) in the social context (Feez and Rothery, 1998a) of English (which takes a
similar form in Indonesian) and in the current Indonesian context. The researcher stressed
that the Discussion genre, which weighs up t
st
, i.e. arguments for,
p. 13).
guments again commended cou
ar st and re
140

Step 2: Presenting the Schematic Structure of the Discussion Genre
The s prese pli of a
Discussion genre on an overhead transparenc 2002;
allaghan and Rothery, 1988; p. 40; DSP, 1989, p. 19; Gibbons, 2002, p. 64). This aimed to
opy which they could use for their own
ference on future occasions when they wrote a Discussion genre (Callaghan and Rothery,
1988, p. 40). The transparency on the schematic structure of a Discussion genre with the
econd step was nting and ex citly explaining the schematic structure
Nov,
y (Christie in personal consultation,
C
allow the researcher and the students to share comments and to talk about the text as a class
more easily. Each student was also given a c
re
function of each stage can be seen in Table 4.2.
Table 4. 2 Schematic Structure of a Discussion Genre
Elements of structure/
stages of a Discussion
genre
Function
Thesis Tells the reader the problem and what will be
argued about it.
Gives information about the issue and how it is
to be framed.
Arguments for Topic sentence Tells the reader points to be developed
Arguments against Topic sentence Tells the reader points to be developed
R eader the position held by the writer. It
ssue.
ecommendation Tells the r
is also presented as the most logical conclusion.
Recommends a final position on the i
During this stage, students its
social purpose through the s stage.
Step 3: Presenting a Mod
The model text of a Discus
an Joyce, 1998a; Callagh 9 ). The text, as
me tioned above, was take ,
an 8, p. 142 example
of ssays to the following q
Too much education is u in
their job, it only breed audience for or against the
above (Sahanaya, Lind
’ attention was drawn to learn how
unction of it
the genre works to achieve
f
el Text of a Discussion Genre
sion genre was then presented as
an and Rothery, 1988; DSP, 198
n from IELTS Preparation and P
a whole (Butt, et al, 2000; Feez
Gibbons, 2002
d ;
n ractice by Sahanaya, Lindeck
d Stewart, (199 -143). The text, as can be seen in
uestion:
dangerous. If people receive more ed
s dissatisfaction. Write a report for an
eck and Stewart, 1998, p. 141).
Table 4.3 below, is an
e
cation than they need to function
educated
141

Table 4. 3 An Example o Genre
tructural features
tatement (question about the
sue)
Arguments for
Arguments against
alistic ambitions; the law of the
me and money.
Another argument against education would be
that students tend to be a disruptive influence on
society. Once you encourage people to think for
themselves it is difficult to control what they are
thinking. It is hardly surprising that students are
often found at the forefront of radical
organisations.
In spite of the problems of over-education, most
countries need a high standard of human
resources in order to compete in the world
market. Constantly changing technology means
that the workforce has to be flexible and
receptive to new ideas in order to be of value to
employers. When a person is only trained to
perform one job, it is not realistic to expect him
or her to adapt to a change in circumstances or
an unexpected problem. All this is not to
mention the moral questions involved in
limiting education. Who has the right to say
how much education a person is entitled to?
a greater level of education
tends to make people more radical. However, if
society is not going to become static, it must be
prepared to accept new ideas. Therefore, the
ecting
an and
has, etc.
for themselves;
ver
education
connection: make; disruptive influence
Use of references: it must be …
Passive voice: When a person is only
surprising; it may be true; It is not
realistic
Various material, mental, and
Embeddings to form complex nominal
group structure: involved in limiting
education; the right to say how much
Rhetorical questions: Who has the
right…? What criteria…?
Various non-finite dependent clauses:
The use of modality in recommendation:
may and strong modality: must
f Schematic Structure and Linguistic F
Should people receive more education than
they need to function in their job?
Some people may say that education gives
people unre
eatures of a Discussion
Linguistic features
S
S
is
Opening statement using a proj
verbal process: say with modality may
Focus on generalised hum
nonhuman
The use of present simple tense: may
say, believe, gives, must be, is, need,
means, has to be,
Congruently realised causal
connection: therefore, so, in order to.
Incongruently realised conjunctive
adjunct: what is more.
Nominalisations: Another argument, a
waste of time and money
Use of textual Themes to shift
arguments forward: therefore
Marked topical Themes: in spite of the
problems over-education; once to
encourage people to think
When a person is trained to perform only
one job;
Concession construed as a
circumstance with a prepositional
phrase: in spite of problems of o
market place decrees that not every one can be a
managing director
In fact for every boss there must be many more
employees, so some countries believe there is
very little point in training people for a level of
job that they can never hope to achieve. What is
more, education is expensive. Therefore over
education is a waste of ti
Recommendation
What criteria could be used to decide a level of
schooling?
It may be true that
Incongruently realised causal
degree of radicalism caused by a high level of
education can only serve to make the country
more adaptable and better able to withstand
social change in the long run.
trained to perform one job; What criteria
could be used?
Interpersonal metaphors: it is hardly
relational processes:
education a person is entitled to; that they
can never hope to achieve
training people…, to be of …, to decide a
level …
142

The researcher created the title of the text, t Should people receive more education
generic participants, tense, the patterns of process choices (i.e. action, mental, verbal,
he researcher and the students then collaboratively highlighted the significance of each
tudents were presented with the second and third Discussion texts, which were Logging in
1998b, p. 140) and Should we use animals for
entertainment (Christie, 2002a, p. 62) (see Appendix 12). In terms of the content, these texts
hat is:
than they need to function in their job?
The researcher and the students collaboratively identified the purpose, the schematic
structure, the function of each stage in the model text and the linguistic features, as
displayed at the right side of the text, including:
•
relational);
• mood of sentences (i.e. statements, questions, or commands); modality (may must,
should);
• conjunctions; references; patterns in Themes;
• grammatical metaphors (especially interpersonal metaphors such as “it is…”
expressions and nominalisations); and
• passive voice.
T
linguistic feature to the text, to show how the grammar aspects previously learned
functioned in “the context of language use” (Gibbons, 2002, p. 65). The text was also
interrogated using questions regarding CT and CL, to make the critical interrogation of texts
a “routine” (Perkins, 1998) for them. The directive role of the researcher in this discussion
was limited to allow dialogue with the students.
Step 4: Presenting Other Texts in the Discussion Genre
S
Old Growth Forests (Feez and Joyce,
were rather too easy for students at the tertiary level. However, they were used mainly to
strengthen students’ understanding of the schematic structure and to show the students
various linguistic features and expressions that could be employed in their writing later.
143

Students in pairs identified the schematic structure and linguistic features (as listed above) of
each text. Then with the whole class, the texts were critically interrogated in the same way
s mentioned earlier. At the end of this stage, a hand out on “What language of arguments
genre was given, based on the work of mainly DSP (1989) and Derewianka (1990) (see
ch group
t the start of the Joint Construction; (iii) observing students’ development in CT and control
udents to make groups of threes, the members of which
ere entirely decided by them. Then she informed the students that activities conducted in
, 1996) or references.
ake up CT,
particularly “seeing an issue from various perspectives” “discussing ideas in an organised
way”, which can best be nurtured by communicating with others and engaging in dialogue
(Chaffee, 2000, p. 154; Norris and Ennis,1989, see also Reid, 2002). Writing in groups was
a
does” (Joyce and Feez, 1998b, p. 142) and expressions used in each stage of the Discussion
Appendix 14). This was intended to help students strengthen their understanding of the
power of language in persuasive writing, and to enrich expressions that they could use in
writing a Discussion genre in the Joint and Independent constructions below.
4.3.2.2.1.3 Stage 3: Joint Construction
There were five steps conducted in this stage, including: (i) grouping the students into threes
and familiarizing them with the task they would do in the stage; (ii) approaching ea
a
of the Discussion genre; (iv) Observing students’ perceptions of the Joint Construction; (v)
consultation with each group on their draft.
Step 1: Grouping the Students into Threes and Familiarizing Them with the Task They
Would Do in this Stage
The researcher first of all asked the st
w
this stage would be different from that they were used to, in that they would write a whole
text (not only paragraphs as they were used to), in groups, in several sessions, during which
consultations with the researcher was made. Moreover, they were also reminded about the
importance of note taking (Callaghan and Rothery, 1988; Rothery, 1996) and some research
strategies, such as locating sources of information (Rothery
Writing in groups also aimed to allow the students to practice activities that m
144

also intended to lead the students to exchange and to examine ideas in an open and
organised way to foster some CT dispositions, such as “being open-minded” and to receive
differences in ideas between friends.
Alt
entered
began a Discussion genre in groups. The strong scaffolding
of the r g Knowledge of the Field and Modeling stages
was a
asked some guiding
que o
y do you use this reference?
The e nical terms or language
rele n
(DSP, 1989, p. 60).
hough in this stage the researcher was still a guide (Gibbons, 2002, p. 67), the students
into a more active participation in learning to write the Discussion genre. They
to contribute to the creation of
esearcher in some part of the Buildin
gr dually weakened in this phase (Feez, 2002, p. 66).
Step 2: Approaching Each Group at the Start of the Joint Construction
At this step, the researcher approached each group to see if they had any difficulty in
starting their writing. To those who seemingly had difficulty, she
sti ns, such as:
• What will you start with?
• How many arguments or points will be included in the arguments for and against? In
this case, the researcher stressed that the arguments for and against should be
balanced (Smith et al, 1995).
• Why will you take those arguments?
• Do you have enough data/evidence to support the arguments?
When the students were half way through their writing, the researcher approached each
group, to make sure which group had gained what (Gee, 1992) and which groups needed
more assistance (Derewianka, 1990; Callaghan and Rothery, 1988; Feez and Joyce, 1998a).
Over the consultation, the researcher reminded the students about aspects of CT they had
learned. Regarding references, the researcher asked questions such as:
• Wh
• Is what the writer says accurate?
r searcher also encouraged the students to use some tech
va t to the issue, as a way “to develop students’ vocabulary in a meaningful context”
145

Each consultation with each group was conducted in a context of shared experience (Painter,
1985; Rothery, 1996; Martin, Christie, and Rothery, 1994) with the researcher playing an
authoritative role (Derewianka, 1990; Feez and Joyce, 1998a). Assistance in constructing
texts was of two kinds (Callaghan and Rothery, 1988, p. 50). One might be a direct telling of
what to say, such as how and when to say some distancing devices such as “it is said”, “it is
argued”, and to use references and projecting clauses maximally. The other might be
questions and comments that provided scaffolding for the students to make the text better,
such as:
• What do you mean with this statement?
• Is this already “showing” or just “ telling” the readers?
• Why do you take … say, “tourism aspect” in your arguments for the Miss Universe
Then the researcher encouraged the students to focus on all aspects of writing (Gibbons,
ding of the difference
Step 3: Ob and Control of the Discussion Genre
and the observer)
through
teach to ts’ development
om their group discussions. From the perspective of CT, this can be used to evaluate
Contest?
2002, p. 67), and assistance was given “not only to shape the genre but also to use language
that is appropriate for written text” (Callaghan and Rothery, 1988, p. 51). The researcher
reminded the students not to use contractions, such as don’t, aren’t, etc (Dudley-Evans,
2002, p. 230) or colloquial words that they found from some of the articles they read, to
create students’ awareness that their writing was a formal piece, for readers with distant
social relationship. This also aimed to bring about students’ understan
in ways of formulating meanings that are usual in speech to those that are common in
writing (Ibid, see also Callaghan and Rothery, 1988; McCarthy and Carter, 1994 for a
similar observation).
serving Students’ Development in CT
Monitoring students’ progress was actually made by the researcher (
out the teaching learning process. However, because at this stage she did not need to
the whole class, the researcher could more closely observe studen
fr
whether lessons specifically designed to encourage students’ CT abilities and dispositions
are meeting their immediate goals (Norris and Ennis, 1989, p. 150).
146

Regarding CT, the researcher could notice that all students seemed to try to apply CT
knowledge in their writing. In one group the researcher noticed students’ awareness of the
ecessity of data to support arguments – an instance of their development in reasoning skills
another group, the researcher could hear a discussion as follows:
Riya : esearcher’s note, Feb, 7th
, 2003).
ich is “a classic case of faulty analogy”
(Diestl l not necessarily work
in Indo
is
roup:
onesia participates in
y, a traditional costume
(The researcher’s note, Feb, 1o , 2003).
conjunctions without doing repetition (Ira, Journal entry, Feb, 10th
,
n
(Lipman, 2003, p. 170), as represented by Ari to his group:
Ari: Don’t take a social aspect of the Miss Universe Contest, because we don’t have a lot of data to
support it (Researcher’s note, Feb 7th, 2003).
Then in
Cinta: What if we say that participating in the Miss Universe Contest, Indonesia will be famous like
Botswana and Venezuela.
No, … That’s not a fact, that’s opinion (R
Riya’s response, apart from showing her consciousness of the difference between facts and
opinions, seems to evidence her capacity to recognize situational differences and sensitivity
to context and to recognize a faulty reasoning, wh
er, 2001, p. 185), that what works in Botswana, does not or wil
nesia. These constitute instances of inquiry skills, as described by Lipman (2003).
In some other cases the researcher noticed students’ discussion which may reveal their
control of the “logic” (Martin, 1985) of the Discussion genre and thus their improvement in
information-organisation skills (Lipman, 2003), as represented by Mugi’s statement to h
g
Mugi: In the conclusion there should be a recommendation or a solution. If Ind
the Miss Universe Contest, the swimsuit should be changed with, sa
th
Moreover, students’ control of the linguistic features of a Discussion genre can be seen from
their awareness of various verbal processes and conjunctions that can be employed in their
text, as represented in student’s statements below:
Don’t use the verb “argue” all the time (Researcher’s note, Feb, 7th
, 2003).
We were confused to use the
2003).
147

During the Joint Construction, the researcher could notice that the hand out on some
expressions usually used in a Discussion genre was very useful for students as a guide to
write v
ught they learnt best” (DSP, 1989, p.
) at this stage. The researcher asked for the students’ perceptions of the Joint
ult even to write a
struction should be abandoned, the researcher made
bservations and reflection on several possible problems which may have caused students’
llace, 1992a, p.
96). A
about t
arious expressions they could maximally employ in their texts (see Appendix 14).
Step 4: Observing Students’ Perceptions of the Joint Construction
As the Joint Construction was new to the students, particularly in learning to write, “it was
profitable to discuss with the students the ways they tho
19
Construction, and from conversations and students’ journals, it appeared that initially the
Joint Construction, was not uniformly welcomed by all students. Some students did find the
stage useful, as reflected below:
It is important to discuss with my friends about how to arrange an essay. It seems easier if we work in
groups. … Having a Joint Construction is a nice activity, because we can join our ideas to construct a
good essay … discussing our ideas, rearranging an essay with friends are fun … (Puri, Journal entry,
Feb, 10th
, 2003).
Other students, however complained that the stage was time consuming, as represented by a
journal below:
The Joint Construction took a longer time than writing alone. It was very diffic
statement of issue (Elli Feb, 10th
, 2003).
Rather than viewing instances of resistance to the Joint Construction as a failure and an
indication that the Joint Con
o
resistance to the stage. These will be discussed below.
The first one was the grouping, which can be problematic (see Nunan and Lamb, 1996, Leki,
2001 in an ESL context) and require more extended treatment than is possible in this study.
One potential problem of group discussion task is that “quieter or less confident students
may contribute nothing” as reported by Doughty and Pica (1986, cited in Wa
s the students will also have their own views on who is clever, students’ perception
heir respective abilities is likely to affect the kind of contribution they make to the
148

task (F
a journ
I felt that Joint Construction is helping but not helping too much. We didn’t really discuss something
isation to “the traditional one-off
riting task, when they were expected to write a single and final copy at one sitting”
portant data before. We were
Feb 5th
, 2003).
003
isher, 1994, p. 160-161). This seems to be the case in this research, as represented by
al by a student whose diagnostic writing was categorized as high:
… when I said something, they only said “yes, that’s good”… (Ina, Feb, 13th
, 2003).
This may suggest that grouping should be done very carefully to allow all students’ active
participation in the group tasks.
The second possible problem was students’ accustom
w
(Gibbons, 2002, p. 67). This may have led to their lack of research strategies, especially
note-taking (despite the researcher’s emphasis, as illustrated earlier), which contributed to
their assumption of the Joint Construction as time consuming. The mistake that they did not
take notes was admitted by some students, as stated in some journals below:
My group discussed what to include in our text about “Should Indonesia send an envoy to the Miss
Universe Contest?”. … We found difficulty because we didn’t pick im
busy looking up the texts. Next time we should pick up the data first (Ina.
Today we did the Joint Construction. Wati, Candra and I, each expressed our ideas. We were a little
bit confused because every time we wrote we had to open and open the articles. It was because we did
not take notes when we read them at home. It’s the first mistake…(Puri. Feb, 13th
, 2 )
Accordingly, the researcher stressed once more the importance of note-taking, to record the
main points about the materials they read, to lead them to understand the concepts
contained in the materials and then to write a Discussion genre more quickly (DSP, 1989, p.
52). The researcher also mentioned that note-taking was important to enhance the students’
metacognition, as mentioned in Chapter 2, Section 2.2.
Another possible problem was related to the Indonesian education system so far, which to
some degree “has fostered passivity for a long time” (Shor and Freire, 1987; Shor, 1992,
cited in Boyce, 2003). This may have created the students’ assumption that learning is
information gathering from the teacher ‘‘who knows it all” (Frye, 1999; Boyce, 1996) and
thus students’ resistance to practices that required engagement, and listening to classmates
(Boyce, 1996; Auerbach, 1996), as represented by a journal below:
149

I know that we should share ideas and listen to others. But it’s hard for me to listen (to friends) more
than speak up until now. Anyway I hope it will chang
because in this class we are learning to discuss and correct
e as time goes by while I am joining this class,
each other (Nuri, Feb, 13th
, 2003).
To enc tudents had a question,
the res
udents if there was any of them who could answer the question (Field, 1999). In doing so,
dded to the problems above was that students’ CT was still developing. Some students
e
of the importance of discussing and sharing ideas with friends as one of the best ways to
n on the stage seemed to
radually change, as represented by journals below:
onstruction, interview
ata, as discussed in Chapter 6, Section 6.2.2, reveal that students’ resistance to the Joint
ourage students to trust peers and listen to each other, when s
earcher tried not to answer the questions directly, but always referred back to the
st
the researcher expected that the students could see that their peers were capable of solving
their problem (see also the discussion in Chapter 6, Section 6.2.2. regarding this matter).
A
were not seemingly able to identify meaningful activity for them (Boyce, 1996) and awar
become a critical thinker. Accordingly, the researcher asserted that CT needed practice
(Atkinson, 1997, p. 73; Beyer, 1997; Costa, 2003), and discussion in the Joint Construction,
could lead them to have abilities and dispositions involved in CT.
After several sessions of the Joint Construction, students’ perceptio
g
Together we laughed and frowned, that was fun. … The ideas coming from different head are
th
surprising although we read the same materials (Candra, Feb, 10 , 2003).
It was rather difficult to write an essay in group, there were a lot of ideas to write. But it was fun,
when we could join our ideas into a good sentence/appropriate statement (Cinta, Feb, 13th
, 2003).
However, although all students had realized the merit of the Joint C
d
Construction seemed to still exist.
Step 5: Consultation with Each Group on Their Draft
In this consultation, the researcher focused first of all on the strengths of the students’
writing (Feez and Joyce, 1998a). This aimed to encourage and reinforce students’ first
attempt at approximating the genre, even though the text produced may not contain all
150

languag
consult
nts to create a better
text” (C
student
rocess of writing, when she would cross out, amend and add words.
cher it was “an
appeali
nd to elp promote
ents to promote
eir understanding about grammar, as reflected in the journal below:
I got a lot of information about arranging sentences in this Joint Construction… . I think we should
sentence. The consultation helped us
to comprehend more about grammar (Nia, Journal entry, Feb, 12th
, 2003).
process showed that
to compose a good writing we had to go through a long process (Elli, Feb 17 , 2003).
text and then
consulted again with the researcher just in case there were still some expressions which were
e features or show full control of the generic structure (DSP, 1989, p. 60). Then the
ation was focused on things that still needed improvement.
Over the consultation, again assistance was made available in both “direct telling on what to
say or comments or questions that provided scaffolding for the stude
allaghan and Rothery, 1988, p. 50). At this stage, the researcher encouraged the
s to focus on all aspects of writing, including CT-related aspects, and modeled the
p
This consultation was found useful by the teacher and students. For the tea
ng way to respond to the students’ work” (Celce-Murcia and Olshtain, 2000, p. 160),
find out clearly “which group had gained what” (Gee, 1990), and “to h
a
students’ thinking” (Baron, 1987, p. 232). From a perspective of writing process, it provided
many opportunities “to teach drafting, editing and proofreading skills” (DSP, 1989, p. 60)
which might not be possible to teach in a discrete way. For the students, it appeared to allow
them to get clear guidance and to express their difficulty based on small group or individual
bases (see also Chapter 6, Section 6.2.1 on this matter), as represented by a journal below:
Having finished our Joint Construction last Monday, we consulted it with Mrs Emi. There were some
mistakes in our writing, for example, we didn’t always write the expression such as “it is said”… .
Mrs Emi then showed us what should be done. She also reminded us not to forget to mention the
reference. I found her guidance very useful … ( Sila, Feb 17th
, 2003).
Some grammatical matters focused in the consultation also could help stud
th
learn more about grammar, since we still consider a phrase as a
Moreover, the consultation also led to the students’ understanding that to compose a good
writing, they had to go through a long process, as written in a journal below.
The teacher read our writing. She gave us some recommendations on how to write appropriate
expressions. …we should use various reporting verbs (verbal processes)…, this
th
Pursuant to the consultation, the students rewrote the jointly-constructed
151

not clear. The purpose of this revision was twofold: to show them that “writing is a process”
(Gibbons, 2002, p. 67, see also Butt, et al, 2000, p. 267; Bizzell, 1992), that it was not
unusual for a writer to write several drafts before she/he came to the neat, finished one, as
mentioned above, and to enhance their metacognition (Marzano et al, 1988). When no
student needed further assistance, the move to the Independent Construction was the next
step d at this stage were
collecte
4.3 the Text
As me
interac Working Women and the issue was Should Women Work out side the
ome? or Should Women Become Homemakers? The steps taken in this stage included:
irst Building Knowledge of the Field, this step aimed to build up the students’
knowledge about the content of the topic and to critical capacities.
Apart from
materials about the topic along with e
such as:
• What are the benefits of women
the children? the family life? the women themselves? the economy of the family? and
, which will be described in the subsequent section. Texts produce
d and one sample will be closely analysed in Chapter 5, Section 5.3.
.2.2.1.4 Stage 4: Independent Construction of
ntioned earlier, the topic discussed at this stage arouse from students-teacher
tions, which was
H
Building Knowledge of the Field and the Independent Construction itself.
Step 1: Building Knowledge of the Field – Consolidation of CT and CL
As in the f
consolidate the students’
being encouraged to find their own materials, the students were also given the
mphasis on note taking and some guiding questions,
working outside the house for:
the society?
• What are the risks of working women for:
the women themselves? the children? the family life? the economy of the family?
• What are arguments for and against working women from feminist and religious
points of view?
152

After the students read and understood the content of all the materials, the researcher and the
students brainstormed and created a vocabulary web, when use of nominalizations was again
emphasized, such as self actualization, children rearing, risks, benefits, advantages. To
consolidate students’ critical capacities, again some texts were critically interrogated,
including:
• Women in Islam: Sharing the Work Load (Ahlul Bayt Magazine,
http://members.ozemail.com.au/~azma/WomeninIslam.htm); and
• Tips to Look after Your Husband (Extract from -1960 Home Economic Book, taken
from Love et al, 200, see Appendix 13.2).
The first text was chosen because it was about women in Islam, which was relevant to the
students’ religion and gender (Creighton, 1997). This aimed to enable students to bring their
knowledge regarding Islam to the text, and thus to read the text more easily. The second text
“Tips to Look after Your Husband” was chosen because it could arouse students’ critical
reading capacity, especially in relating the text to the realities around them. Although it was
not directly related to the topic on working women, it was dealing with what women should
do at home.
In the discussions of the two texts, there were three particular points of interest. The first
happened when the students were asked about the accuracy of the arguments in the text
Women in Islam and whether they agreed with the writer’s statement. The students said that
the accuracy of the first part of the text was questionable and was not related to their belief
because the writer uses AS (Alaihissalaam) for the narrator of Muhammad’s (peace be upon
im) saying or doing (tradition). This indicates, they said, that the writer was a syi’ah, to
h
which they did not belong, and therefore they said that some of the content of the text was
not relevant to them. This really surprised the researcher and made her “embarrassed” as she
should have been more careful in choosing a text to discuss. The second point of interest
occurred over the discussion of recommendations of the text, and some students said that
“the writer positioned as an authority to the readers, because she used a command and
modality should and must.” However, one student, Cinta said “the writer also positioned as a
friend to the readers, as she used we in the last recommendation”. When asked further about
153

how western (non Moslem) women or readers may respond to the text, the students said that
western (non Moslem) women or readers may not agree with the writer’s opinions,
especially regarding “the husband‘s right to grant or refuse permission to work, the use of
make up or cloths, and non mehram men (men with whom a woman can get married in
Islam)”. They said that western women are more independent and free to decide what they
want to do. The third point of interest occurred when discussing Tips to Look after Your
Husband, and all students seemed to realise that the “texts are not timeless” (Luke and
Walton, 1994, p. 1195; Shor, 1999), in that the text was not relevant to the current social life
of Indonesia today, especially in urban areas where a lot of women also had a job outside the
ouse.
istant reading (Gerot, 2000) or tactical
is also suggests students’ emerging understanding that
the writer’s background does influence the way a text is constructed and that “writing is
d
f sentences or the use of modality and pronouns on power relations between the writer and
Independent Construction, presented subsequently.
h
The first case may suggest students’ consciousness of the impact of a text on different
groups of readers and their capacity to develop res
reading (Martin and Rose, 2003). Th
relative to particular groups and contexts, and can be seen as one among many practices,
which are open to scrutiny and contestation” (Hyland, 2002, p. 48). Moreover, the second
case seemed to evidence students’ awareness of the impact of grammar, specifically moo
o
readers and thus their awareness that “nearly all aspects of language serve to express the
power relations between participants in an interaction” (Kress, 1985b, p. 146). Finally, the
third occurrence seemed to suggest the students’ capacity to relate the text with their reality
(Varaprasad, 1997), and “to make sense of the world around me” (Kress, 2003, p. 140).
From a CT perspective, the third occurrence may suggest the students’ capacity “to note
discrepancies between present situation and seemingly similar past situations” (Lipman,
2003, p. 225), a characterization indicating their acquisition of “sensitivity to context”
(Ibid).
After the discussions, when students had sufficient background knowledge about the topic
and were ready to write independently, based on students’ agreement, we moved on to the
154

Step 2: Independent Construction
This was the final stage of the GBA when students wrote their own texts. The researcher at
this stage acted as a facilitator, and the scaffolding she provided in previous stages was
s conducted with each student, but only when it was needed.
ith content
appropriate to the text at hand. Less obviously, the peer silently but no less effectively
ble” (Kamler,
study, it was a current issue in Indonesia as six defendants were
aiting for their execution, as President Megawati was not willing to give them clemency.
Thus, the stages of the second teaching cycle only involved: Building Knowledge of the
Field and the Independent Construction, each of which will be described below.
taken away. Consultation wa
While students were writing their draft, they were reminded about aspects of CT, such as
clarity, precision, accuracy, supports and evidence for each argument, how to write
references, nominalisations, and other grammatical metaphors that they already learnt and
applied in the jointly-constructed text. After they finished their first draft, consultation with
each student was offered, particularly with those who felt they needed it. The students were
also encouraged to discuss their writing with peers, to nurture their trust with friends and to
practise listening to and discussing with friends, which was important for their CT
development. Moreover, from the learning of writing, the presence of peer can give two
benefits to the learner writer. Most obviously the peer asks questions, w
represents the needs of an audience and makes “the concept of audience visi
cited in Cazden, 1988, p. 132). Texts produced in this stage, in the interest of space, will not
be closely analysed in Chapter 5, but some samples can be found in Appendix 17.
4.3.2.2.2 Teaching Cycle 2
As indicated earlier, the topic discussed in this cycle was Capital Punishment and the issue
was “Should Capital Punishment Be Implemented in Indonesia?” This topic was chosen
because at the time of the
w
Also as outlined above, in this cycle only two stages were conducted: Building Knowledge
of the Field and Independent Construction. Modelling and the Joint Construction stages
were skipped because the students seemed to have had relatively good control of the
Discussion genre, as shown in their Joint and Independent Constructions in the first cycle.
155

Activities conducted in this st
Knowle exts
bahasa Indonesia, about Asih and her son Sugi (Pseudonyms), who were going to
ed to be aware that text is not innocent and does not necessarily
present
researc
punishm
ily has also
treated them unfairly … . (Cinta, Riya, The researcher’s and her colleage’s notes, March, 2003).
During my 22 years in public service, I have heard the pros and cons of capital punishment expressed
with special intensity. As a district leader, councilman, congressman, and mayor, I have represented
age were again similar to those in previous Building
dge stages. With respect to the teaching of CL, four texts were examined. Two t
were in
be executed for sadistic murders to five members of an army family. Asih and Sugi were not
given clemency by President Megawati Soekarno Poetri. Two texts were in English, entitled
Death and Justice by Edward Koch and Capital Punishment, the Question of Justification
by David Hoekema. These were taken from Axelrod and Cooper (1987). All the texts can be
found in Appendix 13.3.
In discussing the texts, students seemed to find it easier to answer questions such as what is
the topic, who is the writer, to whom, how does the writer position himself to the readers.
Some students also seem
what should be. In discussing text about Asih and Sugi, in responding to the
her’s idea regarding whether or not Asih and Sugi deserved to get capital
ent, some students said:
We should see first of all why they killed the family sadistically. I heard that the army fam
From a CT perspective, the students’ statement “we should see first of all why they killed
the family sadistically” suggests an instance of their attempt “to inquire in an impartial
manner” (see Lipman, 2003, p. 50). From a CL perspective, this may suggest students’
emerging capacity to challenge authority, including the perceived authority in texts and
teacher’s judgment and interpretations (Wallace, 1992, p. 63; see also Cummins, 1996).
In discussing the text Death and Justice, in particular the students could see how the writer
of the text positioned him/herself to the readers. Some of them referred to paragraph five of
the text:
constituencies generally thought of as liberal. Because I support the death penalty for heinous crimes
of murder, I have sometimes been the subject of emotional and outraged attacks by voters who find
my position reprehensible or worse. I have listened to their ideas. I have weighed their objections
156

carefully. I still support the death penalty. The reasons I maintain my position can be best understood
by examining the arguments most frequently heard in opposition … (see Appendix 13.3).
Then they said that “by saying all these, the writer implicitly positioned himself as an
authority.” Some of them said, “Look, I have been working as … for 22 years, listen to me.”
The students could also identify some aspects of CT standards, such as precision, relevance
and activities that make up CT, especially “seeing an issue from various perspectives”
(Chaffee, 2000). One of them said: By saying arguments in opposition, he also sees the issue
from various perspectives, not only from his perspective. Regarding clarity, some students
said that the structure of the text is not easy to understand. Some of them said “We have to
e very careful in reading this text. If not, we will think that the writer is opposing the death
r of capital punishment.”
hese seem to suggest several points. First, students’ ability to recognize the writer’s
positioning to the readers may suggest their capacity to identify some aspects of register, i.e.
e tenor of the text from linguistic patterns (Gerot, 2000), their awareness that the surface
g of a command (Martin, 1985; Halliday,
1994a; DSP, 1995; Christie, 1998). This may also suggest their critical capacity to read
ollowing the Building Knowledge of the Field, then each student wrote individually, in the
b
penalty.” Then another student asked “Why didn’t he write in a Discussion genre, where he
could present arguments against and then his arguments in favou
T
th
structure of declarative mood can have a meanin
under “the surface level of the text” (Shor, 1999; see also Degener, 1999). Moreover, from a
CT point, their ability to evaluate the clarity of the organization of the text, may suggest an
instance of self-correction behaviour and information-organising skills as well as their grasp
of CT standards. The student’s question “why doesn’t he write in a Discussion genre” may
also demonstrate their emerging awareness of the power of the Discussion genre to fulfill
the social purpose of persuasion.
F
Independent Construction stage which will be described below.
157

4.3.2.2.2.2 Stage 2: Independent Construction
What was done in the second Independent Construction was similar to that in the first one,
when the teacher, again, acted as a facilitator. When the students had finished their writing,
consultation with each student was made. Sharing writing with peers was again, encouraged
before consultation with the teacher. All texts produced in this stage were also collected and
two samples will be analysed in Chapter 5, Section 5.4. At the end of the teaching program,
as indicated in Chapter 3, Section 3.2.5, two types of interviews, individual and focus group,
were conducted. The data from these interviews will be discussed in Chapter 6.
l, there were situations in which it did
ot happen as expected, particularly in the Joint Construction stage. This was not necessarily
or the Joint Construction itself has inadequacies, for the students were
aware of the merits they could get from the stage. The problems may stem from several
4.3.2.3 Summary of the Teaching of the Discussion Genre – Implementation of the
GBA and Consolidation of Critical Capacities
This section has offered an illustration of the application of the GBA, synthesized with
classroom practices from theories reviewed in Chapter 2, related to CT, CP and CL. It has
shown how the stages of the GBA, including Building Knowledge of the Field, Modelling,
Joint Construction and Independent Construction can help improve students’ critical
capacity and writing skills, which are of vital importance and main concern in the
development of Indonesian education today, of the teaching of EFL in particular. From the
two teaching cycles, students seemed to have gained good control of the Discussion genre,
as well as features of CT and CL investigated in this study, as shown in the texts they
produced (analysed in Chapter 5, Sections 5.3 and 5.4) and classroom interactions shown in
previous sections. This may give hope that critical capacities, especially CT, can be taught to
people from any background (Davidson, 1995) including Indonesian students.
However, although most of the attempts to implement the GBA (synthesised with classroom
practices suggested by CT, CP and CL) were successfu
n
because the GBA
factors that affect the classroom significantly and thus should be taken into account. The
first was to do with the students’ previous learning experience in which they were not used
158

to being involved in discussions in which they take active participation in their learning,
which then can lead to the development of their CT and CL. Students’ were used to the
classroom in which the teacher acts as the transmitter of knowledge. The second problem
was to do with the groupings in the Joint Construction, which suggests that the teacher
should strive to group students in such a way that each student can take active participation
in the group work. Additional studies should also be made in a wider scope of Indonesian
contexts to find out the best way to do the Joint Construction and to observe how other
students perceive it. The third problem was related to the nature of CT and CL, which is a
nce in the current EFL teaching in particular and across the
curriculum in Indonesian m can be summarized in
Tabl at the stages involved in teaching cycles one
and two re that the GBA is not a lockstep (Callaghan and
Rothery 9 m is not linear. The GBA can start from
any s g it.
Furth e description in the , it can also be seen that the
students see ed some developmen ills and critical capacities
conc d i
(text analys vely). From a CT perspective, this supports the
findings from previous research conducted by Excley (2002) about Indonesian students’ CT
(see also maradivelu, 2003 about Asian students’ CT) and this
gives ho nesian students. The findings in this chapter also
developmental process. This suggests that longer teaching of CT should be conducted to
help students develop and apply their CT in their life.
4.4. Conclusion
This chapter has presented the teaching program conducted in this study. It has illustrated
activities prior to and throughout the teaching program, in which attempts were made to
promote students’ argumentative writing skills and critical capacities. These, as mentioned
earlier, are of essential importa
education in general. The teaching progra
e 4. be
4 low, from which it can be noted th
a not the same. This suggests
, 1 88) and its application in the classroo
tage, depending on the students’ need and capacity. There is not one way of doin
ermore, from th previous sections
med to have gain t in writing sk
ern w
ed ith in this study, as evidence
is and interview data respecti
n the f dings in this chapter, Chapters 5 and 6
in
Canagarajah, 2002 and Ku
pe that CT can be taught to Indo
159

show the e knowledge about a text to help students think and
read critical
y of the Teaching Program
The ac
res;
•
troduction to CL;
e topic.
n cessity of cultural background
ly about the text.
Table 4. 4 Summar
te hing of CT – Introduction to CL:
• Explicit teaching on CT-related featu
Application of CT in social context;
• Dealing with texts on arguments – In
• Comparing different texts on the sam
Tea n entation of the GBA and consolidation of critical
capa ti
e: Teaching cycles 1 and 2.
chi g the Discussion genre – Implem
ci es
• Introduction to the GBA and SFL;
• Implementation of the teaching cycl
Teac ng
Stage 1:B d –
• Grouping students into threes and
familiarizing them with the task
they would do in the stage;
• Approaching each group at the start
of the Joint Construction;
• Observing students’ development
in CT and control of the Discussion
genre;
• Observing students’ perceptions of
the Joint Construction;
• Consultation with each group on
their draft.
Stage 4: Independent Construction
• Building Knowledge of the Field –
Consolidation of CT and CL;
• Independent Construction.
Teaching cycle 2:
Stage 1: Building Knowledge of the Field – the
teaching of CL.
hi cycle 1:
el
uilding Knowledge of the Fi
the teaching of CL.
Stage 2: Modelling (Deconstruction):
• Familiarising the students with the
function and social context of the
Discussion genre;
• Presenting the schematic structure
of the Discussion genre;
• Presenting a model text of a
Discussion genre;
• Presenting other model texts in the
Discussion genre.
Stage 3: Joint Construction:
Stage 2: Independent Construction.
There were indeed some problems which deserve to be followed up, especially regarding the
students’ resistance to the Joint Construction of the GBA (despite their awareness of the
merit of the stage). As this was affected by their previous learning experience and CT which
was still developing, it follows that continuous and longer implementation of the GBA in
various contexts in Indonesia, and longer teaching of CT across the subjects should be
conducted, as will be indicated in Chapters 6 and 7.
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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF ANALYSES OF TEXTS
PRODUCED IN THE TEACHING
PROGRAM
5. 1 Introduction
Chapter 4 has provided an overview of the teaching program used in this study, indicating
how it constituted an essential element of this research. As we saw, the teaching program
fell into two parts – a first and a second teaching cycle – and the second cycle placed more
responsibility on the students, in the sense that there was no Modelling and no Joint
Construction phase. As we also saw in Chapter 4, the teaching program sought to use a CP
that would develop critical capacities (i.e. CT and CL) in the students, especially as realised
in writing Discussion genres. This chapter will now turn to offering detailed analysis and
interpretation of a sample of texts collected as part of the teaching program in the two
teaching cycles. A larger sample of texts grouped by the researcher’s colleague, Mr. Ari,
will be found in Appendix 4. 3. Of the texts to be considered here in Section 5.2, the first
two – Texts 5.1 and 5.3 – were selected as instances of diagnostic texts, written by the
students without any overt intervention or direction from the researcher. Text 5.1 – an
instance of an Expository text – was graded by Mr. Ari as a low text, written by Candra
while Text 5.3 – a Discussion genre – was rated as high, written by Wati, and Text 5.2 as a
middling text written by Nia (all names are pseudionyms). In the interests of space, the latter
text is not considered here though it will be found in Appendix 15.2. It will be argued that
although the two texts showed some grasp of their respective schematic structures, and
critical capacity, they were reasonably underdeveloped texts, suggesting there would be
merit in exposing the students to some considered teaching with a view to improving their
capacities. Hence, in Section 5.3 we will then consider Text 5.4, an instance of a Discussion
genre, written in a Joint Construction activity. Here the analysis will suggest that the
students – two of whom wrote Texts 5.1 and 5.3 (Candra and Wati) – showed considerable
improvement in their writing.
Then, in Section 5.4, we will consider Texts 5.5 and 5.7, which are independently written
texts produced by the same two students (Candra and Wati), though they are drawn from the
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conclusion of the second teaching cycle. Text 5.6, written by the writer of Text 5.2, Nia,
who was graded as a mid achiever by Mr. Ari, again, in the interest of space, will not be
considered, but it can be found in Appendix 15.6. Considerable improvement in control of
CT and CL as well as the linguistic organization of the two texts will be argued. The texts
produced by the students in the later stages of the teaching program analysed in Sections 5.3
and 5.4 later in the chapter indicate that the students had gained good control of the
Discussion genre. The schematic structure of the texts suggests that the students understood
the demands of the generic form of the Discussion genre to achieve its purpose. Moreover,
the linguistic resources drawn on by the students are enriched and extended. In learning to
control these things, it will be argued that the students also learned to develop some features
of CT and CL investigated in this study. Textually, linguistic resources seem to be
efficiently used to create texts which develop smoothly not only locally but also globally.
This, as will be shown later, is evidenced by the employment of higher-level Themes (macro
and hyper-Themes), which allow for the employment of “multiple” (Eggins, 1994) or
“derived” (Fries, 1995) Theme development. Experientially, they are employed to create
more written-like and intertextual texts, to build sound and credible arguments. This, it will
be argued, leads to the analytical feature of the texts, which entail critical writing, and
constitute a source of evidence of aspects of CT looked at in this study. Finally,
interpersonally, various linguistic resources are efficiently used to involve strategies in the
creation of effective communication with an audience or the reader, which, again, is of
essential source of evidence of sophistication in both thought and capacity in using “the
right language in the right way within particular discursive settings” (Gee, 1990, 1999), a
feature of CL.
Section 5.5 will offer a concluding discussion, bringing together the major elements of the
argument, and preparing for the analysis of the interviews with students conducted at the end
of the teaching program. The latter analysis will then be offered in Chapter 6.
In the following discussions of texts, it is planned to set out the texts first, showing the
elements of schematic structure that it is claimed are present. Subsequent grammatical
analyses with respect to each text’s elements will be used both to indicate how and in what
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ways the texts are constructed, and to evaluate the extent to which they reveal evidence of
developing critical writing. A complete analysis of Theme and Transitivity of all texts
mentioned in this chapter can be found in Appendices 15 and 16.
5.2. Analysis of Diagnostic Texts (Texts 5.1. and 5.3)
5.2.1 Analysis of Text 5.1
Text 5.1, as it was written by the student, will be presented below in Table 5.1. The text
(and other texts later) is divided into numbered clauses.
Table 5.1 Diagnostic Text (Text 5.1)
Should Government Publishes (Publish) Books?
Thesis
1.Education plays a very important role in a country.
2.That is [[why Indonesia tries its best]].
3.to improve the quality of education.
4.[[Publishing academic books]] is one of the programs [[applied by the Department of Education]].
5.In response to this, I would like to share opinions.
6.I think
7.the Government’s program [[to publish books]] is ineffective in [[improving education]].
Argument
8.At the beginning of a term students can usually borrow these books at the school libraries for free.
9.They can keep the books for a term.
10. But they don’t really use the books
11. since the teachers think
12. that the books aren’t good enough [[ to be used as a reference]] ]]
13. The books sure (surely) are thick
14. but the content is not as good as [[it seems]]
15. Eventually, they use another book
16. and this means [[that the students should buy them]].
17. This brings more burden to parents especially those of the low economy class.
Restatement of Thesis
18. If the government spends billions of their budget
19. to publish the books
20. while nobody uses them,
21. I think
22. the government should reconsider the effectiveness (it should be the effectiveness of the
program)
23. before they continue publishing them.
5.2.1.1 The Schematic Structure, Organization and Purpose of Text 5.1
Text 5.1 is an instance of an Expository genre, and the purpose of such a genre is always to
adopt a critical point of view. In fact, the object of an Exposition is “to argue for a particular
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(the writer’s) point of view on an issue” (Feez and Joyce, 1998b, p. 138; Macken- Horarik,
2002, p. 22) and to persuade the reader to think or act in particular ways (Veel, 1997;
Unsworth, 2000). It is because such a text seeks to build its case by providing arguments in
favour of a particular point of view that the writer has no obligation to consider alternative
points of view, as he or she would in writing a Discussion genre, for example. On the
contrary, CT, as constructed and expressed in this genre, requires the building of one general
point of view, and it specifically does not seek to build that point of view by reviewing a
range of possible alternative positions.
In the case of Text 5.1, the writer attempted to persuade the reader that the Indonesian
government’s program of publishing academic books was not effective, and that therefore,
before the government continued the program, it should reconsider its effectiveness. This
suggests that prior to the teaching program, the students already had “a critical insight into
social reality” (Canagarajah, 2002, p. 100), on the government’s program of publishing
books in particular. However, as the grammatical analysis will reveal, due to the limited
back ground knowledge about the issue, critical thinking skills and linguistic resources, the
verbalisation of their critical insight is less sophisticated and explicit.
As the text is displayed above, it is clear that it has the essential conventional elements
found in examples of written English Exposition, as identified by Veel (1997); Feez and
Joyce (1998b); Macken-Horarik (2002); Callaghan and Rothery (1988). These essential
elements are:
• The Thesis, which introduces the issue and the writer’s point of view;
• The Argument, which supports the Thesis, and which normally involves several
arguments;
• The Restatement of the Thesis and sometimes a Recommendation. The former
restates the point of view adopted, while the recommendation indicates the
recommended course of action.
As already indicated, the objects of the grammatical analyses to be provided below will be
(i) to demonstrate the grammatical resources in which the genre is realised, (ii) to reveal the
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extent to which the text is a successful instance of the genre, and (iii) to evaluate the
evidence of any CT or “higher level thinking skills” (Creighton 1997, p. 442) and CL
capacities.
In fact, as discussion based on the analyses will suggest, Text 5.1, written before the
teaching program, is at best a rudimentary instance of an expository genre. Thus, while it
shows some control of the overall generic structure, it is limited in terms of the knowledge
of the subject it reveals, and it is also limited in terms of the arguments the writer is able to
marshal in support of her Thesis. A mature example of an Exposition is normally one which
attempts to provide more than one argument, presented in favour of the Thesis, so that
“each argument for the thesis (tends) to form a paragraph” (Martin, 1985, p. 14). In
practice, the writer relies a great deal on personal opinion (indicated by I think used twice)
and rather little on information. It may be that, the writer has a rather limited understanding
of writing and its purposes, as Johns (2002b, p.140) reports. It may also be that the
limitations are in part due to the fact that the text was written “at one sitting” (Gibbons,
2002, p. 67). The writer might well have done better if she had had more time to research
information relevant to the genre, and to develop her opinions.
As an exercise in CT, as mentioned above, the text is limited, in that it makes little use of
significant knowledge to support perspectives with reasons and credible “sources of
support” (Norris and Ennis, 1989, p. 140) – a feature that can promote the credibility of
arguments (Chaffee, 2000, p. 44; Diestler, 2001, p. 334).
It is proposed now to move through each of the elements of Text 5.1, discussing the ways in
which each of the various metafunctions is realised. We will start with the textual
metafunction, selected because this has so much to do with the overall organization and
direction of any text. We will then move to the experiential metafunction and the logical
metafunction, and thence to the interpersonal metafunction.
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5.2.1.2 Grammatical Analyses of Elements in Text 5.1
5.2.1.2.1 Thesis Element
In the manner of most Thesis statements, this element makes use of several unmarked
topical Themes, that serve to identify the field under discussion, as in: Education plays a
very important role….; That is [[why Indonesia tries its best; [[Publishing academic
books]] is one of the programs…. The writer signals a shift in direction after these three
opening instances of topical Themes by using a marked topical Theme realised in a
Circumstance, in In response to this, I would like to share opinions. Here the writer signals
the move into the main point of view to be adopted, which is now signaled in part with an
interpersonal Theme choice, as well as an unmarked topical Theme: I think the
governments’ program to publish books is ineffective…
Looking at the experiential metafunction, as can be noted in Table 5.2 below, the element
uses three types of processes: material, mental, relational (this time and henceforth
categorised and presented in two columns: Intensive and Circ, Cause, and Possessive),
counting six, two and five respectively. Instances of material processes are used to build
aspects of the field (e.g. to improve the quality of education), some of which appear in some
embedded clauses (e.g. one of the programs [[applied by the Department of Education]].
One relational process is realised in an identifying process, establishing the significance of
education: education (Token) plays a very important role (Value) in a country. Another
identifying process is used to state an important principle in Indonesia: that (i.e. the fact that
education plays an important role) is [[why Indonesia tries its best]]…). Finally, the
element uses two mental processes, occurring in: I would like to share opinions and I think.
Given that the element is short (a not uncommon feature of a Thesis statement), this one
makes use of some material processes to build aspects of action, but its use of two
identifying processes and two mental processes of cognition show that this element is
primarily concerned to state a position, not to build important information.
Table 5.2 Process Types Employed in the Thesis Element of Text 5.1
Process types Material Mental Verbal Intensive Circ, Cause,
and Possessive
Behav Exist
Total 6 2 - 4 1 - -
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Interpersonally, the element makes one use of a modal verb in I would like to share
opinions, and as already noted, it uses the mental process of cognition in association with the
personal pronoun I in I think. It is clear that personal opinion is to be an issue in this Text.
While it is not uncommon for such an opening Thesis element to make use of personal
pronouns, and in other ways to indicate that personal opinion is involved, as we shall see,
the text is weakened by the relative absence of significant information, which would be
realised in other aspects of the grammar, in support of the overall arguments of the text.
5.2.1.2.2 Argument Element
The new element is clearly signaled with use of very different Theme choices, for both
topical themes and textual Themes are now involved. It will be noted that the linguistic
features that realise the textual metafunction also realise aspects of the logical metafunction,
and this matter will be discussed shortly. The element is opened with a marked topical
Theme and this is a common way to indicate new departures in the direction of the
discourse: at the beginning of a term students can usually borrow…. Another marked topical
Theme occurs in eventually they use another book . The other topical Themes (eight in all)
are all unmarked, and used to identify aspects of the field in construction as in: they can
keep the books…; the books sure (surely) are thick…. Textual Themes serve to link clauses
together and to carry the discourse forward in a manner that was not a feature of the Thesis
element, whose function was only to state the view adopted. Here examples of textual
Themes occur, for example in but they don’t really use the books; since the teachers think
that the books aren’t good enough…. Such items in their function as aspects of the logical
metafunction serve to make logical connectedness between the propositions expressed in
clauses. Some have a contrastive role as in two uses of but in but they don’t really use the
books or but the content is not good enough, while since is used once in a clause to suggest
reason: since the teachers think…. There is one use of an additive conjunction in and this
means that the students should buy them. Overall, it is clear that some attempt has been
made to build arguments, building connectedness between steps in the discussion. However,
while we should note the attempt, the result is nonetheless reasonably simple and lacking
elaborate detail, as the discussion of the experiential metafunction will further reveal.
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Experientially, as shown in Table 5.3, three types of processes are used in the element:
material, mental, and relational (intensive) with each counting five, one, and five. Material
processes, to build aspects of the field, can be seen in students can usually borrow these
books; they can keep the books for one term. The range of material processes is not
considerable, and three instances are realised in the same lexical verb, use. One mental
process of cognition realises an aspect of teacher behaviour: the teachers think … .
Furthermore, instances of relational processes occur in attributive processes that build
simple features of the books under discussion: the books aren’t good enough; the content is
not as good as it seems. Overall, the detail constructed in this range of process types is
limited, while the Participant roles and Circumstances do not build significant additional
information.
Table 5.3 Process Types Employed in the Argument Element of Text 5.1
Process
types
Material Mental Verbal Intensive Circ, Cause,
and Possessive
Behav Exist
Total 5 1 - 5 - - -
Interpersonally, the element uses some modality, realised in modal verbs and modal
adjuncts, to express aspects of students’ behaviours: students can usually borrow these
books; they can keep the books for a term, and in one case, modality is used to express
judgment about the books: they sure(ly) are thick and they don’t really use the books. The
presence of these modalities may suggest the writer’s emerging attempt at careful judgment
(Kress, 1985a), indicated by careful use of language, which is “a trait that a critical thinker
usually displays” (Nickerson, 1987, p. 35).
5.2.1.2.3 Restatement of Thesis Element.
Textually, this new element again commences with a marked topical Theme, signaling a
further new direction, this time realised in a dependent clause: If the government spends
billions of their budget to publish the books… . Subsequent topical Themes are all
unmarked, and the element is of interest mainly because the writer uses several Textual
Themes to direct the discourse forward in if (just discussed), and while nobody uses them;
before they continue publishing them. These linguistic items, also realising conjunctions,
help build the logical metafunction, constructing the concluding element of the Text. There
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is in addition one instance of an interpersonal Theme again realised in a use of a mental
process of cognition: I think the government…. This may indicate the writer’s attempt to
take a stance on the issue raised in the text, which is recognised as a CT disposition (Ennis,
1987) and to make her personal voice clear, which is important in writing arguments
(McCarthy and carter, 1994, p. 48). However, again, as the position is not supported by
sufficient evidence, the stance is not critical (Barnett, 1997).
Experientially, as can be seen in Table 5. 4, the element uses four material processes as in:
the government spends billions of their budget; they continue publishing them. There are
two mental processes of cognition - the instance already discussed and one example
realising an aspect of government behaviour: the government should reconsider the
effectiveness.
Table 5.4 Process Types Employed in the Restatement of Thesis Element of Text 5.1
Process
types
and Possessive
Behav Exist
Total 4 2 - - - - -
Interpersonally, the element is quite forceful in its expression of opinion, apparent in the
interpersonal Theme expressed in the mental process I think… and the use of one instance of
modulation in: the government should reconsider… . From a CT point, as mentioned above,
this interpersonal Theme indicates the presence of a standpoint (Eemeren et al, 2002, p. 6-7).
This may also suggest that the student already had a critical insight into social reality, into
the government’s publishing books, in particular. Another example of modality is used
metaphorically in the if clause: if the government spends billions of its budget, which can be
interpreted as possibly, the government spends billions of its budget (see Halliday, cited in
Bloor, 1998). While this instance of modality show the student’s emerging care in making
statements (in use of language), which is a characteristic of a critical thinker, as mentioned
above, there is one statement which indicates that the writer seems to be too certain about
what she is saying, realised in a “universal statement” (Reichenbach, 2001) or “realis”
(Fairclough, 2003; Celce-Murcia and Olshtain, 2000): nobody uses them (i.e. books). This
statement may appear to be less appropriate as it may weaken the soundness of arguments,
especially in this case as the writer does not provide sufficiently significant evidence to
support the statement.
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Overall, this discussion has served to demonstrate that the text is constructed in three
elements, each clearly differentiated through the linguistic choices in which they are
realised. The Thesis element establishes the position to be adopted; the Argument element
provides supporting argument, though no significant evidence for it; and the Restatement of
Thesis reasserts the position argued. The student thus did demonstrate some understanding
of the structure of the target genre and some sense of its social purposes. She did not,
however, provide sufficient information to develop her argument in any detailed way, and
the evidence provided was thus also very limited. Because of these linguistic limitations and
lack of background knowledge about the issue, she necessarily did not demonstrate much
evidence of aspects of CT investigated in this study, though she was willing to offer a
critical insight that revealed some views about how the government of the day should ideally
behave. In all, the student demonstrated, despite the limitations, that she had some capacities
in control of written language - an aspect of information-organisation skills (Lipman, 2003)
and would not doubt benefit from some specific tuition to improve her understanding of
Expository texts.
5.2.2 Analysis of Text 5.3
Text 5.3, as it was written by the student, will be presented in Table 5.5 below.
Table 5.5 Diagnostic Text (Text 5.3)
US Attack to Iraq, Can it Be Justified ?
Statement of issue
1. The U.S President, George Bush, has announced his plan [[to attack Iraq]] in several days [[to
come]].
2. A large number of U.S troops have been placed at some spots within the gulf areas of the Middle
East.
3. They are all set
4. to attack Iraq
5. as soon as they receive order from president Bush.
Arguments for
6. Bush declared
7. that his initiative of [[attacking Iraq]] is based on his country good will [[to promote peace trough
out the world]].
8. As we all know
9. The U.S accuses Iraq of [[possessing a huge number of mass destructive nuclear armaments, [[
which are able to destroy living creatures in a great state]] ]].
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10. Bush states
11. that this possession could be a significant threat for the wide world.
12. Therefore, he argued
13. that the ultimate reason behind this attack is [[to prevent Iraq [[from using those lethal weapons
for [[endangering human life]] ]] ]].
14. And he assumed
15. that war is the only measure [[that should be taken]]
16. to intimidate Iraq
17. to give up their weapons.
Arguments against
18. Meanwhile, Iraq president, Saddam Hussein, denied all U.S government accusation(s) of
[[possessing mass destructive nuclear weapons]].
19. He said
20. that Bush only uses this issue
21. to justify his desire [[to invade Iraq]]
22. in order to realize his hidden agenda,
23. which is [[controlling Iraq oil possession for U.S own favour]].
Recommendation
24. If we think more clearly,
25. war cannot be approved
26. or justified
27. because it will leave nothing but misery.
28. U.S. government never takes into account the misery[[ Iraq citizens have to deal with]]
29. if they persist to make their plan of [[attacking Iraq]] into practice.
30. For a long time, Iraq citizens have been suffering deeply because of the embargo [[the U.S
government sanctioned to their country over several years]].
31. So, war will just make their life much worse.
32. That is [[why I am against the U.S plan of [[attacking Iraq]] b]]a
33. because it will violate the human rights of the Iraq citizens.
34. I am strictly against war
35. whatever form it might be found
36. because it stands against humanity
37. and it is a very useless action with no good [[come (coming) of it]].
38. Besides, the argument [[which is launched by the U.S government of attacking Iraq]] is not
making any sense.
39. They said
40. that they conduct war
41. to promote peace,
42. but it is they themselves [[who create the war [[and violate the peace]] ]] by [[realizing their plan
of [[attacking Iraq ]] ]].
43. So, here, I can say
44. that it is just a part of U.S hypocrisy.
5.2.2.1 The Schematic Structure, Organisation and Purpose of Text 5.3
Text 5.3, as presented in Table 5.5, is an instance of a Discussion genre. The purpose of this
kind of genre is “to persuade the reader to accept a particular position on an issue”
(Unsworth, 2000, p. 250). In this case, the writer attempted to persuade the reader to accept
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an opposing position on the US’ attack on Iraq because the writer thinks that war will not
bring about any good thing, but more misery for the Iraqi people, who have already been
suffering so far, due to the embargo the US has sanctioned to their country.
As the social purpose of such genre is to provide more than one point of view on an issue,
the student (in spite of her limited observations) seemed to have made some effort “to see an
issue from various perspectives” (Ennis, 1987; Chaffee, 2000) and “to hear the other side of
the case” (Lipman, 2003, p. 169). This constitutes an element that makes up CL (Shor, 1992,
cited in Lankshear, 1994, Lankshear et al, 1997) and a source of evidence of the student’s
CT (Norris and Ennis, 1989, p. 140).
The text has essential elements of a Discussion genre as suggested by the DSP (1989);
Christie (1997; 2002); Feez and Joyce (1998b); Unsworth (2000); Macken-Horarik (2002);
Gibbons (2002). These include:
• Preview of issue, which introduces the issue, that is the US’ attack to Iraq;
• Arguments for, which presents arguments which support the attack;
• Arguments against, which presents opposing arguments on the attack;
• Recommendation, which presents the writer’s position and recommendation
regarding the issue discussed.
As the following discussion will reveal, Text 5.3, like Text 5.1, is a rudimentary instance of
its genre. So, while it shows some control of the overall generic structure of a Discussion
genre, it is limited in terms of the knowledge of the subject it reveals. The writer simply
presented one argument in favour and against. In addition, at a glance, the Recommendation,
which should just present the conclusion and the writer’s position, is rather too long,
compared with the other elements.
Having discussed the schematic structure, organisation and purpose of the text, the
following discussion will now deal with how each of the various metafunctions is realised in
each of the elements. As in Text 5.1, the discussion will start with the textual and logical
metafunctions, followed by the experiential, and then the interpersonal metafunction.
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5.2.2.2 Grammatical Analyses of Elements in Text 5.3
5.2.2.2.1 Preview of Issue Element
This element handles its organisation by using unmarked topical Themes to help identify the
field under discussion, as in: The US President, George Bush, has announced his plan …; A
large number of US troops have been placed at … . A reference They in They are all set is
then assigned as an unmarked topical Theme, to carry the discourse forward and “to build
cohesion of the text” ( Eggins, 1994; Martin, 2001). It is realised in an instance of the
passive voice, the typical function of which is “to make another participant (other than
subject) the Theme of the clause” (DSP, 1992, p. 206), or “to change the Theme of the
clause from actor to affected” (Kress and Hodge, 1979, p. 26). The writer also gives the text
texture by using a conjunction as soon as, “to connect the message via temporality”
(Martin, 2001, p. 38). Combined with a topical Theme, this results in the formation of a
multiple Theme, realised in as soon as they receive order from President Bush. All these, as
far as CT is concerned, may suggest the writer’s attempt to create the relevance and clarity
of the text, which also shows her emerging information-organising skill.
Experientially, the element starts with a verbal process (the only verbal process in the
element) has announced, reporting the US president’s plan to attack Iraq and introducing
who initiates the attack: The US President George Bush has announced his plan [[ to attack
Iraq]] in several days [[ to come]]. Other processes used, as can be seen in Table 5.6
below, are material processes (six out of seven), two of which are in embedded clauses
(above). Since most of the processes are material, which is “the type closest to action”
(Hasan, 1985a, p. 40), this part of the text constructs a picture of a world, describing what
has happened, which, to some extent, is in line with the function of the element - to
introduce and to build information on the issue.
Table 5.6 Process Types Employed in the Preview of Issue of Text 5.3
Process
types
and Possessive
Behav Exist
Total 6 - 1 - - - -
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As far as the Participants are concerned, the first Participant role, as mentioned above, is
that of Sayer assigned to The US President, George Bush, and the presence of such Sayers,
may constitute an emerging attempt to construe other representation, which can promote the
credibility (Diestler, 2001) and accuracy of arguments (Chaffee, 2000; Nosich, 2001). Other
Participant roles are of Goal in agentless passive clauses above, which may indicate an
emergence of the student’s capacity to create an impersonal, academic writing, as Kress
(1994, p. 111) argues, and of Actor, occurring in the last clause as soon as they receive ….
Two clauses, one occurring in an embedded clause (to attack Iraq) are non-finite, which do
not have the “-er” role (Hasan, 1985a, p. 39) or “need no Subject” (Halliday, 1994b, p. 150)
overtly assigned within the clause, to indicate the actor of the “attack” is hidden. This may
suggest emerging capacity to safe the face and avoid responsibility of the writer (Kress and
Hodge, 1979; Hasan, 1985a). In addition, some circumstances also provide further
experiential information about when the attack will be carried out, as in in several days to
come and where the US troops have been placed: at some spots in the gulf areas within the
Middle East.
Interpersonally, as can be seen in instances above, the element does not use any modality. In
fact it shows the “single modality of factuality or certainty, expressed in the present tense”
(Kress,1985a, p.91; Eggins, 1994). This also suggests that “the writer reports information
close to her own opinion” (Swales and Feak, 1994, p. 184, see also Hinkel, 2002, p. 102),
that “the writer believes” (Toulmin, 2003) and has only one single position vis-à-vis the
material, that of description and factuality, “that something is the case” (Salmon, 1989, p.
33). This seems to be in line with the function of the stage, to introduce the issue or what has
happened. In addition, the use of third persons in Subject position indicates that the text is
not “addressed”, that is, no audience seems to be envisaged or structured into the text
(Kress,1985a, p. 92). This, to some extent shows the student’s emerging awareness of her
responsibility to create a text which accommodates and considers an absent “reader-
audience” (Olshstain and Celce-Murcia, 2001, p. 718, see also Rothery, 1985).
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5.2.2.2.2 Arguments in favour Element
This element opens, again with unmarked topical Theme Bush. Of particular interest is that
this element uses more textual Themes realised by various structurals (6 out of 11), (e.g.
that [ four times], as, and) and one conjunctive therefore. The referential item he, is also
used twice, referring to Bush. This helps to promote logical relationships between clauses or
logical meaning of the stage. In terms of CT, this leads to the promotion of the “relevance”
and “clarity” of the text and shows one CT disposition, that is “to remain relevant to the
main point” (Ennis, 1987, p. 12). From the Theme choices, it is also clear that this element
establishes its perspective on its field, about the US action, under Bush’s leadership. Bush,
the US and their action are selected as Theme in seven messages, and some of them appear
in multiple Themes, together with a conjunctive, as in Therefore he argued … ; with
structurals, as in: that the ultimate reason behind this attack… ; And he assumed …. Overall
then, the main recurrent choice for Themes in this phase is realised in Bush and his action,
and these kinds of Themes, (combined with various textual Themes) help “give continuity to
the phase of the text” (Martin and Rose, 2003, p. 178). This, again, seems natural, in the
sense that this element functions to present arguments in favour of the war, which was
initiated by Bush.
Experientially, this stage uses different types of processes (see Table 5.7 below). Material
processes, used to build aspects of the field, occupy the highest number (i.e. seven). They
occur among others in: which are able to destroy living creatures in great state; some in
embedded clauses, as in that his initiative of [[attacking Iraq]]….
Table 5.7 Process Types Employed in the Arguments in favour Element of Text 5.3
Process
types
and Possessive
Behav Exist
Total 7 2 5 4 2 - -
Meanwhile, relational processes (6 in all) involve attribution, as in That this possession
could be a significant threat; or identification, as in that war is the only measure [[that
should be taken]] and possessing process, as in … of [[possessing a huge number of mass
destructive nuclear armaments]]. Of particular interest is that apart from using material
and relational processes, the element uses more verbal and mental processes (five and two
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respectively), occurring in Bush declared; Bush states; he argued; as we all know; he
assumed. These may signal that the writer had some emerging capacity to project “meta
representation (the second-order representation) of experience” (Williams, 1993, p. 220),
which gives some analytical feature to the text. This signals a movement from the here-and-
now situation to a wider social world, toward CL, particularly critical writing (Cruddas and
Watson, 2001, p. 194-195). Moreover, this emerging capacity to build representations of
other people’s (in this case Bush and the US) thoughts and beliefs, may lead the writer “to
see an issue from various perspectives” (Chaffee, 2000). However, as the writer seemed to
lack information and time, she could not support the perspective with sufficient reasons and
evidence, suggesting that further opportunities for teaching these aspects of CT (see Chapter
4, Section 4. 3) are available.
Turning to the Participant roles, since more clauses have a verbal or mental process, the
roles of Sayer and Senser frequently appear, mostly assigned to Bush and one Senser to We
(above). The role of Carrier occurs in that his initiative of attacking Iraq is based on his
country good will …; that this possession could be a significant threat for the wide world.
These Carriers, realised in nominalisations, may show the emergence of the writer’s
capacity to create a more written-like text and attempt to move from the here-and-now
situation. This stage, however, does not use considerable Circumstances to add significant
experiential information.
Interpersonally, unlike the first element of the text, this element uses some instances of
modality, to reflect possibility, as in which are able to destroy living creatures in a great
state; that this possession could be a significant threat for the wide world, and one lexical
metaphor for modality, to conjecture (hypothetical modality) as in And he assumed … . This,
although infrequent, reflects the writer’s emerging capacity to make “careful judgment”
(Kress, 1985a, p. 93) which is also one aspect of typicality of a critical thinker
(Reichenbach, 2001; Nickerson, 1987). In terms of the relationship with the reader, unlike
the first element, although this part is not very close, it addresses the reader in a personalised
and familiar way (Schirato and Yell, 1996, p. 64), through the use of “we” (above).
However, as this stage serves to present arguments for the issue, as stated by its supporters,
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the employment of the first person seems less appropriate. Moreover, as far as CT is
concerned, the expression As we all know could be considered as a universal statement,
showing some fallacy in reasoning, which is called a hasty conclusion or generalisation (see
Chapter 2, Section 2.2).
5.2.2.2.3 Arguments against Element
This element commences with a different choice of Theme, a textual Theme, realised in a
“conjunctive Theme” or “discourse Adjunct” (Halliday, 1994a, p. 49-50) Meanwhile, to
indicate a new stage and build logical relationship between stages in the text. This is in line
with the function of the element – to discuss arguments against the issue. A structural
Theme that, which functions to set up a relationship with what precedes is then used in that
Bush only uses this issue. Other Themes are topical (four in six messages), e.g. He said; two
of them occur in multiple Themes, e.g. Meanwhile, Iraq president, Saddam Hussein, denied
…; that Bush only uses this issue), and one in an elaborating clause which is [[controlling
Iraq oil possession for US own favour]]. Again, other sources of cohesion and
connectedness between clauses are also used, realised in referential items, such as he
referring to Saddam: He said, and his (twice) to Bush, e.g. his desire, his hidden agenda.
Experientially, as can be seen in Table 5.8 below, the element uses three verbal processes,
occurring in … Iraq President, Saddam Hussein, denied all US government’s accusation(s)
…; He said. One verbal process is realised in a non-finite clause: to justify his desire[[to
invade Iraq]]. As indicated earlier, this type of process reflects the student’s effort to
construe both sides of opposing groups’ representations of experience through what they say
(Williams, 1993, p. 223).
Table 5.8 Process Types Employed in the Arguments against Element of Text 5.3
Process
types
and Possessive
Behav Exist
Total 4 - 3 1 - - -
Other processes employed are: four material processes, as in that Bush only uses this issue;
in order to realise his hidden agenda, and one relational process to build a feature of the
US’ hidden agenda behind its attack to Iraq: Which is [[controlling Iraq oil possession for
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US own favour]]. In terms of Participants, conspicuous by its presence is nominalisations:
all US government’s accusation, Iraq oil possession. The significance of these
nominalisations, apart from that mentioned above, is that they help create more sound
arguments as “once they function as actors, affected, etc., the readers are less likely to
attempt to interpret” (Kress and Hodge, 1979, p. 27). Overall, as this part is short, the range
of process types employed is limited and it does not employ any Circumstances which can
help clarify the meaning.
Interpersonally, the text does not use any modality. All the clauses are in realis (Celce-
Murcia and Olshtain, 2000; Fairclough, 2003) statements, realised in the present and simple
past tenses, which indicates and that the writer was concerned with facts and had the single
modality of certainty, as mentioned above. This, to some extent, is in line with the function
of the stage, to present arguments against the issue, to describe some act that has taken place
in the past, realised in the past tense and the sense of something “habitual” or “routine” in
the present tense (Hasan, 1985a, p.34-35). However, again, as the stage is very short, and the
writer did not give further illustrations for the statement, the writer’s certainty “may lead the
reader to begin to wonder whether things really are so certain as the writer made out”
(Reichenbach, 2001, p. 98). In addition, the relationship between the reader and the writer in
this stage is a distant one, as it does not address the audience in a personalised way,
indicated by the absence of first and second person pronouns. This seems to be appropriate,
in line with the function of the stage. From a CL point, that the presence of Saddam
Hussein’s statement on Bush’s “hidden agenda” for attacking Iraq may suggest students’
emerging critical engagement with the issue, recognizing that “the state of the existing
affairs does not exhaust what is possible” (Fairclough and Chouliaraki, 1999, p. 35).
5.2.2.2.4 Recommendation Element
As shown in Table 5.5, the stage uses varying types of Themes, topical (marked and
unmarked) and textual. It opens with a marked topical Theme, “to signal a new phase in the
text” (Martin and Rose, 2003, p. 179), realised in a dependent clause If we think more
clearly. Other marked topical Themes occur twice “to signal a shift in participants” (Ibid) as
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in For a long time, Iraq citizens have been suffering deeply because of the embargo; and So,
here I can say. Other topical Themes are mostly unmarked, as in war cannot be approved; I
am strictly against war…., which indicates the writer’s ability to verbalise her critical insight
more explicitly (Canagarajah, 2002). Of particular interest is the presence of various textual
Themes (13 in all 19 Themes). These are realised in different structural and conjunctive
Themes. Structurals are realised in because, in because it will leave nothing but misery; and
so (twice) in So, war will just make their life much worse; So, here I can say; while
conjunctive Themes in among others besides in Besides, the argument [[which is launched
by the US government of attacking Iraq]]… . The effect of all these structural and
conjunctive Themes is “to sustain and develop the expression of an opinion” (Christie, 1986,
p. 231) and hence the relevance of arguments. Moreover, the use of structurals, such as
because, so and if (above) indicate a movement away from the here-and-now everyday life
towards more abstract discourse (Veel, 1997, p. 186). Abstraction, involved in such a
discourse (which is also a feature of later texts) is recognised as “one component of CT”
(Paul, 1990, p. 7). Particularly interesting is the occurrence of a predicated Theme, which
did not appear in Text 5.1, in but it is they themselves [[who create the war [[and violate
the peace]] …. This indicates the writer’s emphasis and evaluation that it is the United
States who creates the war and violates the peace, not Iraq, or any body else (see Halliday,
1994a).
Turning to the experiential metafunction, Table 5.9 below shows that the last stage of the
text uses varying types of processes.
Table 5.9 Process Types Employed in the Recommendation Element of Text 5.3
Process
types
and Possessive
Behav Exist
Total 16 4 4 7 2 - -
The element starts with a mental process of cognition: if we think more clearly. Other mental
processes (four in all) are used to build the United States’ internal beliefs about war, as in
US government never takes into account the misery [[Iraq citizens have to deal with]]; to
describe Iraqi citizens’ feeling or affection, as in Iraq citizens have been suffering deeply…,
and the writer’s stance on war: war cannot be approved. Meanwhile, verbal processes
(counting four) are used to build up the US’ ideas about war, as in: They said …, and the
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writer’s position regarding war (relevant to the function of the stage): war cannot be
justified. Some relational processes are used to attribute or evaluate the qualities of war to
support the writer’s position. They occur in it is a very useless action…; it is just a part of
U.S. hypocrisy. Striking by their presence are the material processes, highlighted by the 16
occurrences out of 33, as Table 5.9 reveals. This seems to be normal, as this stage functions
to present the writer’s stance, supported by reasons with examples and illustrations
describing what the US did or has done related to the attack, as in they conduct war; to
promote peace. Some material processes are also used to describe the impact of the war, as
in because it will leave nothing but misery; it will violate the human rights of the Iraq
citizens. In terms of Participants, it is also normal in this stage that the writer (realised in I
and one first person we as mentioned above) appears to be the entity to whom some -er roles
are assigned. Some instances are: Carrier: I am strictly against war; I am against the US
plan …; Sayer: Here, I can say…. However, the fact that this element is longer than the
others, as mentioned above, seems to be unnatural. It would be more appropriate if the
writer expressed more ideas or arguments in the previous stages to make a critical position
based on arguments previously stated.
Interpersonally, the element uses a variety of interpersonal devices “which express an
awareness of audience either directly or indirectly” (Peters, 1986, p. 174). Devices which
allow the writer to intrude in the communication of the message directly can be seen from,
among others, the use of first and second person pronouns (I and we) above. This makes the
stage more personalised or “personalised individualised” (Schirato and Yell, 1996, p. 64)
than the previous ones. The use of we constitutes an effective rhetorical, and ideological
device used by the writer to represent every one “as being in the same boat” (Fairclough,
1989, p. 182, see also Travers, 2001, p. 125), and assimilates, in this case, the reader to the
writer, that “the writer speaks on behalf of us all” (Halliday, 1994b, p. 150). The writer also
exploits a Circumstance of place here at the end of the text, suggesting “the here and now
notionally shared” (Peters, 1986, p. 174). This is normal, as stated above, that it is in this
stage that the writer “took a position” and thus shows her emerging ability in written
argumentation (Ennis, 1987, p. 12) and spelled out recommendations regarding the issue.
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Meanwhile, devices employed to assert an indirect relationship with the reader are among
others, a few modal finites to express the probability of propositions, such as: will in
because it will leave nothing but misery (see also above examples); can in So, here, I can
say; might in Whatever form it might be found. Some instances of modalities are also
realised in modal adjuncts, to express “the writer’s attitude towards what she is saying”
(Eggins, 1994, p. 180), i.e. resistance towards war: I am strictly against war. One modal
verb can in negative polarity is used to express the writer’s assessment of the social
obligation inherent in the information, occurring in: war cannot be approved. These
instances of modalities again may indicate the writer’s emerging capacity in argumentation,
and her capacity to express her “critical and oppositional insight” (Canagarajah, 2002,
p.100) into social reality more explicitly and openly (compared with the writer of Text 5.1).
However, there is still one instance of modality which suggests the writer’s tendency to
write “universal statements” (Reichenbach, 2001, p. 99; Chaffee, 2000; Chaffee, et al,
2002), as in US government never takes into account the misery [[…]] (see also the hasty
conclusion above). As far as CT is concerned, it seems less acceptable to use such modality
as the writer does not provide sufficient evidence to prove her statement is true.
Overall, the discussion above has demonstrated that the text is constructed in four elements:
The Preview of issue; Arguments in favour, Arguments against, and Recommendation, as are
required for a Discussion genre. Like the writer of Text 5.1, the writer of Text 5.3
understood “the demands of generic form of a Discussion genre, and its social purpose,
which is the first and foremost task of a writer” (Kress, 1985a, p. 46). Compared with Text
5.1, despite its limitations, Text 5.3, demonstrates the writer’s superior mastery of forms of
language in the written mode. This is evidenced in the employment of some instances of
passive voice, nominalisations and extended nominal groups, the significance of which has
been mentioned earlier. Text 5.3 also shows an emerging movement from the here-and-now
situation to a more analytical piece of writing, as indicated by the presence of more verbal
and mental processes to construe other people’s representations of experience through what
they say and believe, which thus indicates an emerging capacity to build up sound, credible
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and objective arguments. Text 5.3 also shows the writer’s capacity to verbalise her critical
insight more openly than Text 5.1.
However, like Text 5.1, the text does not provide sufficient information to give detailed
support and evidence to develop arguments. This is probably due to the writer’s lack of field
knowledge and “linguistic repertoire” (Olshtain and Celce-Murcia, 2001) needed in the
genre, and also the process of writing she undertook, which was done just in one sitting..
5.2.3 Summary of Analysis of Texts 5.1 and 5.3
In summary, the analyses of the diagnostic texts have revealed that Texts 5.1 and 5.3
display, to some degree, the students’ capacity in control of written English language. The
schematic structure of both texts follows quite closely a typical structure of an Exposition
and a Discussion respectively, despite their lack of employment of linguistic resources to
overtly signal their respective elements, which hence could have promoted the clarity, and
relevance of the texts. The presence of arguments and the position taken by the writer in
both texts seems to suggest that some CT has been made evident (Atkinson, 1997). The
presence of arguments also shows, to some degree, students’ critical capacity in using
writing as a means of articulating voices (Freire and Macedo, 1987) and “critical insight into
social reality” (Canagarajah, 2002, p. 100) although it is still limited and not very detailed.
The details of the linguistic analyses using functional grammar, indicate that both texts, to
some degree, display the writer’s varying capacity to meet the demands of forms of
language in the written mode. Text 5.3, written by a high achiever, to some extent suggests
more features of good and more writerly-formed writing, relevant to the genre of the text.
However, both writers still needed improvements in terms of linguistic resources,
background knowledge about the issue, and more time to practise writing to enable them to
create a coherent, cohesive and analytical text, and to provide reasons for assertions and
sources of support needed in argumentative texts. In addition, they still needed to enhance
their competence in exploiting various interpersonal strategies involved in effectively
communicating with the reader. All these, as Norris and Ennis (1989) claim, are one of the
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best sources of evidence of CT dispositions, and thus, as it will be alluded to later, some
aspects of CL investigated in this study, the development of which are of essential
importance in Indonesian education today, as mentioned in Chapter 1.
As the following analysis of texts constructed in the Joint Construction and Independent
Construction of the teaching program will reveal, however, both students, especially the
lower group, benefited from the teaching program, as discussed in detail in Chapter 4,
Section 4.3. It can also be seen that these two students showed a similar capacity in writing a
Discussion genre, as indicated especially in the analyses of independently-constructed texts,
at the end of the teaching program.
5.3 Analysis of the Jointly-Constructed Text (Text 5.4)
Text 5.4 was composed during the Joint Construction stage in the teaching cycle to respond
to the question “Should Indonesia Send An Envoy to the Miss Universe Contest?” Unlike
the diagnostic texts, this text was written in several sessions, by a group of students who
entered into more active participation in learning to write a Discussion genre. However, at
this stage the teacher’s guidance was still available.
The text was selected for analysis as it was written by a group of three (two categorised by
the researcher’s colleague as low and one as high achiever), and two of them (Candra and
Wati) were the students whose diagnostic writing has been analysed above. Text 5.4 will be
analysed in the same way as Texts 5.1 and 5.3. Linguistic and grammatical analyses of the
text will be based on complete Theme and Transitivity analyses, which respectively can be
found in Appendices 15.4 and 16.7.
Text 5.4, as it was written by the group, is presented in Table 5.10 below.
Table 5.10 The Joint Construction Text (Text 5.4 )
Should Indonesia Send An Envoy to the Miss Universe Pageant
Statement of Issue
1. Miss Indonesia contest was banned in 1996.
2. But since 2000, the government had (has) allowed Yayasan Putri Indonesia (Puteri Indonesia
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Foundation) to re-organize the contest.
3. This means [[that the winner of this contest owns a ticket [[to participate in the Miss Universe
Pageant ]]b ]]a.
4. However, there has been a heated debate [[whether or not Indonesia sends an envoy to the
Miss Universe Pageant]].
5. This essay will discuss the arguments for and against Indonesia’s participation in the Miss
Universe Pageant.
Arguments in favour
6. Supporters of the Miss Universe Pageant claim three positions, to do with the concept of
Brain, Beauty, and Behaviour, tourism aspect, and business point of view.
7. The first argument is related to the concept of Brain, Beauty, and Behaviour.
8. The proponents of the Miss Universe Pageant claim
9. that this contest emphasises on (‘on’ should be omitted) three principles, Brain, Beauty and
Behaviour,
10. not merely on (‘on’ should be omitted) beauty and behaviour.
11. This, <<12 >>, has been proved by the fact [[that there is an interview session in the Miss
Universe Pageant]]
12. it is argued
13. where the participants were questioned about their general knowledge and [[the way they
think]] .
14. This has been justified by a participant from Egypt [[who says]],
15. “We were questioned on everything,
16. whether on the status of women over the last century,
17. or on general knowledge
18. or simply, on the way [[we think]].”
19. Besides that, the Miss Universe Pageant, <<20 >>, covers a vast spectrum of academic fields.
20. it is said
21. They are, for example, law students, aspiring journalists, would-be clinical psychologists, etc.
22. Secondly, those [[who are in favour of the Miss Universe Pageant]] argue
23. that Indonesia’s participation in the contest will be beneficial for the country, especially for the
development of tourism.
24. In this context, Alya Rohali, a contestant from Indonesia in 1996, says,
25. “We can introduce our own country to the world community
26. especially when the situation in Indonesia is not stable.
27. It is very important [[for us to heal our reputation from any media <including the Miss
Universe Pageant>]]”.
28. [[That [[participating in the Miss Universe Pageant]] can promote tourism of the participant’s
country]] has also been stated by Miss S. Marten (2000)
29. as saying,
30. “ I see my participation in the pageant as a good promotion for the island.
31. … to me the true meaning of a pageant <like this> is young women [[proudly representing
their home nations [[and inviting others to have a visit”]] ]].
32. Therefore, the proponents of the Miss Universe Pageant believe
33. that Indonesia should undoubtedly take part in the Miss Universe Pageant
34. so as to promote the country
35. in order to create a good image throughout the world,
36. which can eventually invite visitors to Indonesia.
37. The third argument [[proposed by the supporters of the Miss Universe Pageant]] is concerned
with business.
38. It is argued [[that the Miss Universe Pageant can be used as an arena [[to promote business]]
]].
39. In relation to this, Madhu Kishwar, an Indian Journalist, states,
40. “Big national and international companies spent millions of dollars of [[promoting their
products and images through association to the contest and the winner]]”.
41. A good example can be seen from the 1999 Miss Universe Pageant [[ held in Trinidad and
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Tobago]],
42. where 26 investment representatives from Europe, the United States and Latin America were
invited.
43. So, the supporters of the Miss Universe Pageant assert,
44. that participating in this contest
45. particularly if Indonesia becomes the host country,
46. Indonesia may have opportunities [[to invite investors, [[who can help to develop the business
life of the country]] ]].
Arguments against
47. Meanwhile, the opponents of Indonesia’s participation in the Miss Universe Pageant adopt
three positions related to oriental value, social aspect and feminism point of view.
48. To begin, those [[who are against Indonesia’s participation in the Miss Universe Pageant]]
highlight Indonesia’s oriental values, regarding Indonesia’s culture and religion background.
49. For Indonesia, <<50 >>, as the biggest Moslem Country in the world, [[participating in such
contest]], <<51 >>, is a disgrace.
50. they claim
51. in which each contestant should participate in a swim suit parade
52. In addition, [[that participating in the Miss Universe Pageant does not suit Islamic value]] has
also been heralded by Gamal Hesmat, a member of Egypt Muslim Brotherhood.
53. He says
54. “I believe
55. that such contests are against our values and morals,
56. that they only demean women,
57. rather than benefit them”.
58. Moreover, the Miss Universe Pageant, <<59 >>, is also inappropriate to Indonesia’s oriental
values.
59. they say
60. This is stated by the Indonesian Minister for woman’s role,
61. “Taking part in the Miss Universe Election is against our oriental values”.
62. Another argument [[put forward by the opponents of the Miss Universe Pageant]] is [[that
[[participating in the Miss Universe Pageant]] does not bring any advantages to the society ]]
63. They point out
64. that Indonesia’s participation in the Miss Universe Pageant will not give any significant effect
for Indonesia especially for [[eradicating poverty]].
65. In this context, they point to [[what has happened in India]],
66. which has won the Miss Universe title several times.
67. India’s poor people cannot get benefits from the fact [[that India’s contestant becomes the
winner of the Miss Universe Pageant]]
68. In this context, Viviek Sharma, an opponent of the Miss Universe Pageant from India, says
69. “The Miss Universe Pageant does not mean anything to the poor population…
70. But personally to me it is the absolute wastage of time and money
71. which should rather be spent on the elimination of poverty in the nation and on education
72. Moreover, the so-called beauty queens have never done anything for the nation in terms of
social service or national pride”.
73. Similarly, Javis, another opponent of the Miss Universe Pageant from India, suggests,
74. “All beauty pageants are a waste of money.
75. With that money the poor can be well supported.”
76. The last argument against the Miss Universe Pageant is revealed by feminists.
77. Feminists think
78. that the Miss Universe Pageant makes an unachievable standard for women.
79. The feminists believe
80. that “such contests, <along with the portrayal of the ideal look in the fashion world>, only
serve to perpetuate the myth [[that women are only worth something [[if they are young, long
legged and beautiful ]]
81. Regarding this, Imran Ahmad, an Indonesian opponent of beauty pageants, states,
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82. “These competitions unrealistically standardise the standard of feminine beauty.”
Recommendation
83. In summary, after looking at both arguments for and against the Miss Universe Pageant,
84. it is obvious [[that Indonesia should not send an envoy to the Miss Universe Pageant]].
85. Although Indonesia’s participation in the Miss Universe Pageant may bring advantages in
terms of women’s quality, tourism aspect and business,
86. it seems not to suit Indonesia’s religious, cultural and oriental values.
87. In addition, Indonesia’s participation in the Miss Universe Pageant will not contribute to the
attempts of poverty eradication in Indonesia.
88. Furthermore, [[participating in the Miss Universe Pageant]] may create a bad impact on
Indonesian women due to the possible emergence of women standard,
89. which emphasizes beauty.
90. Therefore, we recommend
91. Indonesia should not send an envoy to the Miss Universe Pageant.
92. It will be better
93. if Miss Indonesia concentrates on domestic social service
94. so that she can share the benefit of [[being Miss Indonesia]] with the society.
5.3.1 The Schematic Structure, Organisation and Purpose of Text 5.4
Text 5.4 functions essentially to discuss the issue whether Indonesia should send an envoy to
the Miss Universe Contest (henceforth called MUC). It attempts to persuade the audience
that Indonesia should not send an envoy to the MUC. The schematic structure of the text
suggests that the text has essential elements of a Discussion genre as mentioned above.
These are:
• Preview of issue: introduces the issue and describes the existence of the debate
about the issue. Unlike the previous texts, this introductory element can successfully
function as a “macro-Theme”, that is, “the opening generalisation in a text which
predicts its overall development” (Coffin, 1997, p. 218) or “a sentence or group of
sentences (possibly a paragraph) which predicts a set of hyper-Themes; … the
introductory paragraph of school rhetoric ” (Martin, 1992, p. 437). This is done by
explicitly stating: This essay will discuss the arguments for and against Indonesia’s
participation in the Miss Universe Pageant. From this statement, it is clear that what
is to come in the text is the discussion on the arguments for and against Indonesia’s
participation in the MUC. As the hyper-Themes, or the topic sentence of the
subsequent elements (the first layers) of the text can successfully function as macro-
Theme in their own right (Martin, 1992, p. 443), which will be called macro-Theme
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i, this macro-Theme, happening in the second layer of the discourse, can be called
macro-Theme ii (see Martin and Rose, 2003).
• Arguments in favour: presents three arguments in favour of the MUC. It is
introduced by the topic sentence of the first paragraph of the stage: Supporters of the
Miss Universe Pageant claim three positions, to do with the concept of Brain, Beauty
and Behaviour, tourism aspect and business points of view. This topic sentence can
function effectively as the opening generalisation in the element. It predicts the
element’s overall development, and therefore it can function as macro-Theme for the
element (Martin, 1992, p. 443). As this macro-Theme occurs in the first layer of the
discourse, as mentioned above, it can be called macro-Theme i.
• Arguments against: presents three arguments against the MUC, introduced by the
topic sentence in the first paragraph of the element: Meanwhile, the opponents of
Indonesia’s participation in the Miss Universe Pageant adopt three positions related
to oriental value, social aspect and feminism point of view. As in the preceding stage,
the topic sentence of this element functions effectively as the opening generalisation
in the element, predicting the element’s overall development, and therefore it can
function as macro-Theme for the element. Again, it is called macro-Theme i.
• Recommendation: presents the writers’ critical stance or position as it is based on
the arguments for and against the issue (Barnett, 1997), and recommendation. This is
explicitly stated in the topic sentence of the element: In summary, after looking at
both arguments for and against the Miss Universe Pageant, it is obvious [[that
Indonesia should not send an envoy to the Miss Universe pageant]]. This topic
sentence indicates that the stage refers back to, and reviews the points amassed as
well as draws conclusions from what has been described in the previous stages, i.e.
the possible advantages and negative impacts of Indonesia’s participation in the
MUC. Accordingly, the stage seems to successfully function as “macro-New”
(Martin, 1992, p. 455-458; 2002, p. 106-108), which looks back, gathering up the
meanings which have accumulated to elaborate a text’s field (see Chapter 3, Section
3.3.1.4).
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From the schematic structure above, Text 5.4, compared with the previous texts, shows
considerable improvement in students’ understanding and mastery of the demands of generic
form of a Discussion genre, to achieve the purpose and the function of the genre. In terms of
CL, this relates closely to the students’ awareness of “why the text was written – that is its
communicative function” (Wallace, 1992a, p. 34). The schematic structure indicates that the
text is “interactive”, involving the management of the flow of information and thus serves to
guide readers through the content of the text (Thompson, 2001, p. 59), with the elements of
the schematic structure overtly marked by appropriate Themes (as the detailed grammatical
analyses will also reveal). As indicated above, and will be shown later, the text projects
forward through the employment of macro-, hyper- and clause-Themes. It also projects back
through the use of macro-New, as they unfold. This results in a “textured sandwich”
(Martin, 1992, p. 456), which suggests real improvement in writing and an instance of
indications of good writing (Ibid, p. 397; Thompson, 2001), relevant to the genre (Coe,
2002). Over all, the schematic structure of Text 5.4 suggests that the text is now on its way
to becoming an effective piece of a Discussion genre.
As far as CT is concerned, it will be argued that the schematic structure shows more obvious
clarity, precision and relevance at text level. This also indicates the students’ capacity in
“discussing ideas in an organised way” (Chaffee, 2000) or “information-organizing skill”
(Lipman, 2003) taught in the teaching program. The presence of the arguments for and
against, revealing various arguments from different perspectives also suggests sufficiency
and breadth – two key aspects of CT standards (see Chapter 2, Section 2.2), as well as the
writer’s capacity to cluster information in terms of their similarities and thus their grasp of
the concept (Lipman, 2003, p. 180-181) of the MUC. In addition, because of the text’s
genre, the text signals the writers’ willingness “to listen to other people’s ideas” (Ennis,
1987; Lipman, 2003) and the writers’ awareness of multiple perspectives or “multiple
interpretation” (Gee, 1990) on the MUC – a signal of a movement toward CL. The balanced
arguments also signal the writers’ endeavour to provide “a fair presentation” (Norris and
Ennis, 1989, p. 140), “to treat various arguments as equal” (McPeck, 1990). This suggests
objectivity or “impartiality” (Lipman, 2003, p. 58) – one aspect of a good disposition, with
which a good critical thinker would have strived to think about an issue (Langrehr, 1994, p.
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76). Finally, the presence of a recommendation (see also later texts) suggests students’
ability in CT, regarding deciding on an action, particularly “tentatively decide what to do”
(Ennis, 1987, p. 15; see also Nickerson, 1987 on characteristics of a critical thinker).
5.3.2 Grammatical Analyses of Elements in Text 5.4
5.3.2.1 Preview of Issue Element
The element commences with an opening “topic-based Theme” (McCarthy and Carter,
1994, p. 71) Miss Indonesia contest, which is foregrounded by using a passive voice.
Subsequent Themes in the element are mainly categorised into “microstructural devices”,
that is textual devices which work at the local level (Peters, 1986, p. 174). These are realised
in a textual device But combined with a circumstantial marked topical Theme: since 2000 to
construe a temporal succession. Other textual strategies used to maintain the connectedness
of the messages are: a referential item this to provide anaphoric cohesion, in This means [[
that the winner…]], and a conjunctive Theme, However, combined with a topical Theme
there, in However, there has been a heated debate [[ …]] to indicate a contrast that despite
the government’s permission to reorganise the Miss Indonesia Contest, there is a heated
debate whether or not the winner of this contest should participate in the MUC. Finally, the
last message, This essay will discuss the arguments for and against Indonesia’s
participation in the Miss Universe Pageant, helps the element to function as a macro-Theme
(or introductory paragraph) for the text (see Chapter 3, Section 3.3.1 on higher level
Theme). This, as mentioned above, functions as “the opening generalisation in a text which
can predict its overall development” (Coffin, 1997, p. 218). As alluded to earlier, this macro-
Theme is called macro-Theme ii (to follow Martin and Rose, 2003), which is the highest
level of macro-Theme or the highest “hierarchy of periodicity” (Martin and Rose, 2003, p.
193) in the text as a whole. This opening macro-Theme is very crucial as it serves to signal
and establish for the kind of text that will unfold. This coincides with the suggestion from
McCarthy and Carter (1994, p. 63) that “genres become quickly established in their opening
phases.” Another interesting feature is the absence of thematised first and second person
pronouns, which shows a development to clearer accent of written usage (Martin, 1992),
related to their awareness of to whom the text has been constructed (Wallace, 1992a, b).
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Experientially the phase mainly uses material processes to build aspects of the field (four in
all eight, as revealed in Table 5. 11).
Table 5.11 Process Types Employed in the Preview of Issue Element of Text 5.4
and Possessive
Behav Exist
Total 4 - 1 1 1 - 1
One material process gives an account of what happened to the Miss Indonesia Contest:
Miss Indonesia Contest was banned in 1996. Another describes the Indonesian
government’s action regarding the contest: But since 2000 the government has (had)
allowed Yayasan Puteri Indonesia (Puteri Indonesia Foundation) to re-organise the contest.
The other two appear in embedded clauses (e.g. … a ticket[[ to participate in the Miss
Universe pageant]]; … a heated debate [[whether or not Indonesia sends an envoy to the
Miss Universe Pageant]]. Other process types involved are: one relational process involving
identification of the government’s permission to reorganise the Miss Indonesia Contest (This
means [[that the winner of this contest owns a ticket [[…]]…); one existential process
stating the existence of a debate whether or not Indonesia sends an envoy to the Miss
Universe Pageant, in However, there has been a heated debate …, and finally one verbal
process will discuss in the last message, establishing the field of the whole text. The use of
these processes is appropriate for the stage, relevant to its function to contextualise the
issue. Meanwhile, Participant roles occurring are relevant to the processes employed, such
as Goal, Actor, Token, Sayer, Existent (instances discussed above). In addition,
Circumstances, despite their infrequent occurrences, help to give additional precise
experiential information regarding the issue, as in in 1996; since 2000; in the Miss Universe
Pageant.
Interpersonally, the element does not exploit any interpersonal strategies or devices. The
element does not use first and second person pronouns as Subjects nor does it use any
modality. The writers indeed used will as mentioned above, but it does not express modality,
but the future tense. Only one phrase this is used, which, while serving as a textual device,
can also function as an interpersonal device. This indicates that the writers had only the
single position towards the material, that of description (Kress, 1985a, p. 92) and factuality
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(Eggins, 1994, p. 191; Hinkel, 2002). This seems quite relevant to the function of the stage –
to introduce the issue and the background of the emergence of the debate about the issue.
5.3.2.2 Arguments in favour Element
The stage opens with significantly different textual strategies, through the use of higher
level-Themes, realised in macro- and hyper-Themes. The first higher level Theme is
expressed in Supporters of the Miss Universe Pageant claim three positions, to do with the
concept of brain, Beauty and Behaviour, tourism aspect and business point of view. This
higher level Theme, as mentioned above, provides explicit organisational signal of how the
stage is to be read. It can also efficiently predict a set of hyper-Themes (clauses 7, 22 and 37
below) in the element, which are “the opening generalisation in a paragraph which predicts
the pattern of clause-Themes and elaboration” (Coffin, 1997, p. 218; see also Chapter 3,
Section 3.3.1). Accordingly, it can efficiently function as macro-Theme in this layer of
discourse, and as mentioned above, to follow Martin and Rose (2003, p. 185), it is called
macro-Theme i. With this macro-Theme, the stage develops efficiently by using “a multiple-
Theme pattern” (Eggins, 1994), or “Derived Theme” (Fries, 1995, p. 321). This happens
when the Theme of the first clause of the stage introduces a number of different pieces of
information (in this case three different arguments related to the issue), each of which is then
picked up and made Theme in the first clause of subsequent paragraphs. This indicates that
the method of development of this stage is clearly “planned” (Eggins, 1994, p. 305) and thus
shows the writer’s investigation strategy conducted prior to the writing activity, typical of a
critical thinker (McPeck, 1981). Planning and research also constitute important processes
which can enhance sttudents’ metacognition (Marzano et al, 1988). The multiple-Theme
pattern in this stage can be described below:
6. Supporters of the Miss Universe pageant claim Three positions, to do with the concept of
Brain, Beauty, and Behaviour, tourism aspect, and business point of view.
7. The first argument is related to the concept of Brain, Beauty, and Behaviour
22. Secondly, those [[ who are in favour of the Miss Universe Pageant ]] argue…
37. The third argument [[proposed by the supporters of the Miss Universe Pageant is
concerned with business]].
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From the macro- and hyper-Themes above, it is clear that at this stage, the students had
started to employ enumerations (three, first, secondly and third), one of textual strategies
which work at the global level, which are called “macrostructural devices” (Peters, 1986, p.
173-174). However, despite the writer’s considerable improvement in structuring the
element, with the clauses explicitly signaling organisational structure of the stage, the use of
continuity marker secondly (clause 22) seems less appropriate. Clause 22 would be more
clearly highlighted as a hyper-Theme if it used a metaphorical internal conjunction (i.e. The
second argument …). This is because conjunction and the interaction of lexical relations and
Theme selection are not reinforcing each other, as Martin (1992, p. 438) argues.
Equally interesting, as in the previous stage, is the absence of first personal pronouns
indicating the writers’ positioning and plural personal pronouns as Themes, or what is called
“collective interactional Themes” (McCarthy and Carter, 1994, p. 73), such as you; we.
These are replaced by nouns and nominal groups, many of which are of abstract nature,
which, as mentioned above, makes the text “more-written like” (Eggins, 1994, p. 301) and
signals an element of CT (Paul, 1990, p.7). These among others, are: The first argument;
Indonesia’s participation in the Miss Universe Contest; Big national and international
companies; A good example. Some first personal pronouns are indeed used (examples to
follow) but they are just in quotations, as examples or illustrations to support arguments.
This is quite normal, because although the basic function of the stage is that of arguments,
which tend to be distant (Celce-Murcia, 2001; McCarthy and Carter, 1994), as is often the
case with arguments, the arguments in this stage are supported by examples which in turn
depend on narrative patterns (McCarthy and Carter, 1994, p. 62). This can be seen in
instances of expressions: We were questioned on everything; I see my participation in the
pageant as a good promotion for the island. This combination in discourse of different
genres (narrative in argumentation) indicates that the text (see also later ones) involves
another level of intertextuality, called “interdiscursivity” (Fairclough and Chouliaraki, 1999,
p. 49). From a CT point, this may show the writers’ attempt to apply a suggestion learnt in
the teaching program that a critical thinker does not only tell the reader, but also show the
reader and to support arguments with factual evidence (Chaffee, 2000; Chaffee et al 2002) –
an instance of enhancement in reasoning skills (Lipman, 2003, p. 170)
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Also of particular interest is the frequency of long nominal groups and dependent clauses
assigned as Themes, which rarely occurred in the diagnostic texts, especially in Text 5.1.
These are expressed in: Supporters of the Miss Universe pageant; Secondly, those [[who are
in favour of the Miss Universe pageant]] …; The third argument [[proposed by the
supporters of the Miss Universe Pageant]] …; [[that [[participating in the Miss Universe
Pageant]] can promote tourism of the participant’s country]] …. Most striking is the
exploitation of it in impersonals such as It is argued (clause 12) It is said (clause 20); It is
very important…, which suggests that the writers strived to foreground their objectivity in
presenting the propositions, which is also another typicality of a critical thinker. The last
significant feature of Theme selection is the presence of nominalisations, which open up the
possibility of a process, made into a concept, which is informationally denser, to be the
starting point for the message. This can be seen, for example, in Indonesia’s participation in
the MUC, a concept which is informationally denser than Indonesia participates in the
MUC.
Over all, Theme choices suggest that the stage is much more writerly as it “foregrounds
items more specifically to do with the topic under consideration” (McCarthy and Carter,
1994, p. 75). This is evidenced by the topic-based Theme choices above, which apart from
showing the CT standards mentioned above, also indicates a CT disposition, that is “to try to
remain relevant to the main point and keep in mind the original and basic concern” (Ennis,
1987, p. 12; Reichenbach, 2001). Moreover, it uses micro and macrostructural devices (as
mentioned above) and higher-level Themes, which allow the stage to develop efficiently not
only locally, but also globally. From a CT point, this suggests the writers’ capacity to
organize thoughts and articulate them coherently (Lipman, 2003, p. 59; Nickerson, 1987) – a
feature which is not present in diagnostic texts.
Experientially, the element uses various process types, as can be noted in Table 5.12 below
(see also Appendix 16.8 on the whole set of processes employed in Text 5.4).
Table 5.12 Process Types Employed in the Arguments in favour Element of Text 5.4
Process
Type
Material Mental Verbal Intensi
ve
Circ, Cause, and
Possessive
Behav Exist
Total 21 3 19 7 3 - -
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The process types displayed in Table 5.12 indicate that the material processes count the
highest number (21 out of 53), followed by verbal (19), and relational processes (10).
Moreover, mental and behavioural processes only count two and one respectively. This
distribution of processes was not a feature of diagnostic texts. The high frequency of verbal
processes (and the presence of two mental processes) at this stage suggests, as the nature of
the text’s genre, that the text is not only one of “action and being, but also of reflection and
analysis” (Williams, 1993, p. 223) and that the text is dialogic (Halliday and Mathiessen,
2004, p. 252). Instances of verbal processes occur in: Supporters of the Miss Universe
Pageant claim three positions …; In this context, Alya Rohali, a contestant from Indonesia
in 1996, says …, while mental processes in: Therefore the proponents of the Miss Universe
believe. The employment of such reporting or projecting clauses signals the presence of
“discourse representation” (Fairclough, 1992b, p. 107), which is a form of intertextuality
(see the literature review, Section 2.5.3). From a CT point, as mentioned above, this shows
the writers’ attempt to consider seriously other points of view than their own, which also
indicates dialogical thinking (Ennis, 1987). Moreover, as “a dimension of social practice”
(Fairclough, 1992b, p.107), discourse representation also reflects the writers’ capacity “to
generate stories from a wide range of communities” (Cruddas and Watson, 2001, p. 194),
which is extremely important in contributing to the building of arguments, to make the text
not too narrowly focused on the ahistorica, on the here and now, but on the analytical.
Meanwhile, the other frequently appearing processes - relational processes – involve
attribution, as in especially when the situation in Indonesian is not stable and identification,
as in They are, for example, law students,….
Conspicuous in this stage (and the subsequent phase) is the presence of impersonal verbal
and mental processes as in it is argued (clause 12); it is said (clause 20), which implies that
the writers were situated above their own discourse, and were in position to control and
manipulate it (Fairclough, 1992b, p.122). Another striking feature is the presence of
projected embedded clauses whose status is simply that of “fact” (Halliday, 1994a, p. 264-
266): [[That participating in the Miss Universe Pageant]] can promote tourism of the
participants’ country]] has also been stated by Miss St. Marten (2000)…. Other facts are
projected impersonally either by a relational process, realised in a non finite clause: It is very
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important [[ for us to heal our reputation from any media <including the Miss Universe
Pageant.]] or by impersonal verbal processes: It is argued [[ that the Miss Universe
Pageant can be used as an arena [[ to promote business]] ]]. These facts help promote the
credibility, accuracy and soundness of arguments (Chaffee, 2000; Ennis, 1987; Toulmin et
al, 1984). Moreover, by presenting these facts, the writers showed themselves to be
thoroughly prepared, knowledgeable, and good researchers. All these may indicate the
writers are worth attending to or persuaded by (Mulholland, 1994, p. 25).
In terms of Participants, the frequently appearing roles of Sayer and Senser, assigned to the
entity supporters of the miss Universe, including proper nouns: Alya Rohali, Madu Kishwar
(above), indicate the writers’ attempt to spell out “what the authorities say” (Nosich, 2001;
Chaffee, 2000; 2002; Diestler, 2001) about the contest. These, along with other Participants
(e.g.26 investment representatives; The concept of Brain, Beauty and Behaviour; a
participant from Egypt …) also help to enhance the precision of arguments. The presence of
non-animate agents ([[That [[participating in the Miss Universe can promote tourism of the
participant’s country]]]]), and instances of expanded nominal groups and nominalisations
(mentioned above) also show a considerable control on the writers’ part on both sense and
structure and of more writerly presentation (McCarthy and Carter, 1994, p. 49).
Similarly, Circumstances appearing in the stage are relevant to the process types employed.
They, among others, are those of Matter, which are “frequent with both verbal and cognitive
mental processes” (Halliday, 1994a, p. 158) and of Angle, which “are related also to verbal
processes, but in this case, to the Sayer” (Ibid). Circumstances of Matter occur in: to do with
the concept of Brain, Beauty and Behaviour,…; about their general knowledge and…, while
those of Angle in: to me (clause 31). Occasionally circumstances of Matter are used to give
prominence to a Theme, e.g. In this context (clause 24), In relation to this (clause 39) and
by being first introduced circumstantially, they become a marked-Theme (Halliday, 1994a,
p. 158). Other Circumstances also help strengthen the clarity of information, to set events in
an exact place, as in the Miss Universe Pageant; in Trinidad and Tobago. Such
Circumstances may have an influential impact on the reader, as they can give “occasions for
narrative remembering” (Linde, 2001, p. 527).
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Interpersonally, the element employs various instances of modalities, both modalisation
(epistemic modality) and modulation (deontic modality) (Halliday, 1994a; Fairclough, 2003,
see also Chapter 3, Section 3.3.3.). These modalities are achieved grammatically in a
number of ways: internally through the use of modal verbs and modal adjunct in the main
clause or externally by adding the pseudo-clause which may be phrased “subjectively or
objectively” (Eggins, 1994, p. 191). Some modal verbs are used in modalisations to construe
possibility or potential, like will, can and may. The modality will occurs in that Indonesia’s
participation in the contest will be beneficial for the country, especially for the development
of tourism; while can in which can eventually invite visitors; and may in Indonesia may
have opportunities [[to invite investors,… . Moreover, the modality of potentiality, realised
in can also frequently appears in quotations, but because the writers used them, they are also
part of the writers’ thinking (see the discussion on citation below). This can be seen in:[[that
[[participating in the miss Universe Pageant can promote tourism of the participant’s
country]. One modalisation of definiteness undoubtedly, which is also called “strengthening
word" (Reichenbach, 2001, p. 98) indicates the writers’ improving competence to make the
persuasive communication work best by showing that “they had something to say” (Ibid).
Moreover, combined with a sense of obligation, expressed in should, it creates a much more
forceful statement: That Indonesia should undoubtedly take part in the Miss Universe
Pageant. Other modulations are construed externally in a pseudo clause, phrased
objectively, as in: It is very important [[for us to heal our reputation from any media,…]].
The use of different examples of modality above, the significance of which has been
mentioned earlier, also shows the writers’ ability in CT, particularly in argumentation, that is
“presenting a position, oral or written” (Ennis, 1987, p. 15). This is also shown by the
greater sense of obligations should which can be compared with the greater sense of
possibility conveyed by will, and promise and potential by can, which is “necessary to the
act of persuasion” (McCarthy and Carter, 1994, p. 75), central to the text. Furthermore, the
use of these instances of modality (as is the case in subsequent elements and other texts to
follow) may portray the emerging progression “from knowing what is true to contemplating
what may be true – which is a monumental one” (Kuhn, 1991, p. 297) in the development of
the skill of arguments.
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Moreover, the stage is more impersonal, which is evidenced by the frequent use of third
person pronouns which is normal in an argumentative writing, where “impersonal uses of
language are apparent” (McCarthy and Carter, 1994, p. 48). A shift to a more written text
can be seen in the more distant, “less inclusive” (Schirato and Yell, 1996, p. 137) phrases
such as Supporters of the Miss Universe Contest; They; and even more distant those [[who
are in favour of the miss Universe pageant]]. Moreover, the distant feature can be seen from
distancing devices or “metadiscourse” (Fairclough, 1992b) or “impersonal projections”
(Halliday, 1994a, p. 271), or “agentless passive” (Kress, 2003, p. 18) where the process is
not really a process at all, but simply a way of turning a fact into a clause. Examples are: it is
believed; it is argued; it is claimed; or projecting clauses: they say; they claim. All these
third person statements indicate that the writers attempted to state arguments in objective
orientation (Fairclough, 2003) – one characteristic of a critical thinker, as mentioned above.
5.3.2.3 Arguments against Element
Textually, this stage opens with a contrasting conjunctive Theme Meanwhile. Combined
with an unmarked topical Theme the opponents of Indonesia’s participation in the Miss
Universe Pageant, it overtly signals another phase of the text. Subsequent Themes in this
stage frequently refer to the opponents of the Miss Universe Pageant, relevant to the
function of the element, to contrast arguments in this stage with those in the preceding one.
This is also relevant to the suggestion that “the experiential content of the Themes in a text
is sensitive to different genres” (Fries, 1995, p. 325). As in the preceding stage, the striking
feature of Themes in this stage is the presence of a macro-Theme (also called macro-Theme
i), which serves to reflect the group’s consistent capacity in building a scaffold for the
arguments, and hence is an important aspect of texture (Coffin, 1997, p. 218). This is
expressed in clause 47: Meanwhile, the opponents of Indonesia’s participation in the Miss
Universe Pageant adopt three positions related to oriental value, social aspect and feminism
point of view. With this macro-Theme, followed by hyper-Themes (clauses 48, 62, 76
below), the stage employs a multiple-Theme development, the significance of which, apart
from those mentioned above is that it can “provide the underlying organising principle for a
text” (Eggins, 1994, p. 305). Thus, the structure of the stage can be described as follows:
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47. Meanwhile, the opponents of Indonesia’ s participation in the Miss Universe Pageant
adopt three positions related to oriental value, social aspect and feminism point of
view
48. To begin, those [[who are against Indonesia’s participation in the Miss Universe
Pageant]] highlight Indonesia’s oriental values, regarding Indonesia’s culture and
religion background.
62. Another argument [[put forward by the opponents of the Miss Universe Pageant]] is
[[that [[participating in the Miss Universe Pageant]] does not bring any advantages
to the society.
76. The last argument against the Miss Universe Pageant is revealed by feminists.
From the hyper-Themes above, the group seemed to successfully scaffold the arguments, as
they appear, by efficiently and confidently manipulating “incongruently-realised logical
linkers” (Martin and Rose, 2003, p. 193), such as the process to begin, to replace the internal
conjunction firstly; a cohesive device another, and last in replacement of secondly and
lastly. This indicates students’ development in creating connectedness in the messages and,
again, the CT standard relevance in a richer experience (rather than conjunctions) – again,
an instance of enhancement of information-organising skill (Lipman, 2003). Moreover, the
presence of three opposing arguments (as in the Arguments in favour stage), apart from
revealing the significance mentioned above, shows a balance in arguments presented (Smith
et al, 1995) and the writers’ reasoning skills (Lipman, 2003).
Equally interesting is the localised development in this phase, (also the case in the preceding
stage) through the use of textual strategies which work at the local level, called as
“microstructural devices” (Peters, 1986, p. 174) assigned as Themes. These are realised in:
• text references: This (e.g. clause 60) to comment on a preceding clause: This is stated
by the Indonesian Minister for women’s role; They (clause 56) referring to an
element in the previous clause: that they only demean women; which (clause 66) to
introduce an elaborating clause: which has won the miss universe title several times.
• conjunctions, to construct the logic of arguments: continuity marker: Moreover:
Moreover, the Miss Universe << >> is also inappropriate to Indonesia’s oriental
values; internal comparison similarly which is “one of the rich resources of written
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text” (Martin and Rose, 2003, p. 123): Similarly, Javis, another opponent of the Miss
Universe Pageant from India, suggests… .
• ellipsis as “a tracking device” (Martin and Rose, 2003, p. 167): … rather than
benefits them (clause 57).
All these devices help strengthen the unity and connectedness of the messages in the stage.
Another striking feature in terms of Theme choices is again, the presence of Themes
realised in long nominal groups, such as The opponents of Indonesia’s participation in the
Miss Universe Pageant; another argument [[put forward by the opponents of the Miss
Universe Pageant]] and dependent clauses, such as: [[that participating in the Miss
Universe Pageant does not suit Islamic value]]… . The long nominal groups above, with
nominalisations referring to abstract entities and concept, also show one aspect of the
students’ skill in deploying the resources of written language. Over all, the stage, like the
preceding one, shows a demonstration of a logical progression of ideas with a clear focus.
Experientially, the element opens with a material process with the opponents of the Miss
Universe Pageant as an Actor and three positions related to oriental value, social aspect
and feminism point of view as a Goal. As in the preceding element, the total set of processes
in this stage, as can be seen in Table 5.13 below, indicates that material processes occupy
the highest number (21 out of 49), followed by verbal processes (13), and relational and
mental processes (12 and 3 respectively).
Table 5.13 Process Types Employed in the Arguments Against Element of Text 5.4
Process
types
and Possessive
Behav Exist
Total 21 3 13 12 - - -
Instances of material processes, apart from the above-mentioned, are: in which each
contestant should participate in a swim suit parade; which has won the Miss Universe title
several times; while verbal processes in: he says, they point out; …, Imran Ahmad,… states.
Occasionally, as in the preceding stage, these verbal processes fall in enclosed clauses
(clause 50 and 59) which are not “down-ranked within another entity: Instead, they are
dependent clauses that are redeployed from their usual or unmarked position, to achieve
some particular linguistic effect” (Christie, 2002a, p. 57). In addition, most relational
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processes involve attribution, and help characterise the features of the contest, as in that
such contests are against our values and morals; All beauty pageants are a waste of money;
and identification: … it is the absolute wastage of time and money [[which should rather be
spent on …]]. Moreover, mental processes are all cognitive, occurring in: I believe;
Feminists think . Another striking feature, again is the presence of projected embedded
clauses, whose status is simply that of “fact”, the significance and feature of which has been
mentioned above. These clauses occasionally functions as “qualifier to the noun fact”
(Halliday, 1994a, p. 266), as in the fact [[that India’s contestant becomes the winner of the
Miss Universe Pageant]]… .
As in the preceding stage, an interesting feature is the presence of citations, the significance
of which, apart from those mentioned above, is that they signal “the writer’s reading
position, and hence the writers’ capacity in selecting which materials (of all available to
them) had a relationship of relevance to the particular text which was to be constructed”
(Kress, 1985a, p. 49). Citation also constitutes a feature of CL, especially critical reading,
that evaluation of the materials read had been done by the writers (Gerot, 2000; see also
Varaprasad, 1997, p. 2). As a technique for introducing other voices into a text, citations,
also demonstrate intertextuality in action, or show that the text expects the readers to draw
on intertextuality to make sense of the text (Bazerman, 1988, see also Chapter 2, Section
2.5.3). This intertextuality also reflects the writers’ effort “to employ their knowledge of
other texts to make sense of what they saw, read and wrote, which is a typicality of literate
members of a culture” (Shrirato and Yell, 1996, p. 92). Another significance of citations,
from the point of the process of writing, needs to be mentioned: citations (or verbal
processes) reveal “that the writers were aware they were reporting on matters read about and
researched” (Christie, 2002a, p. 61) to create sound arguments – a CT ability and an activity
which they did not conduct in the previous writing. Moreover, in terms of the students’
writing ability, citations show the students’ capacity to meet one of the demands of
academic writing features typical in the university level (Dudley-Evans, 2002). This, as
indicated by the students in the interview, discussed later in Chapter 6, is one of the
achievements the students thought the most meaningful from the teaching program.
However, in terms of CT, as the discussion on interpersonal metafunction will reveal below,
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the students’ care in selecting the materials still needed further improvement as there are still
citations containing universal statements, which are less appropriate to create sound
arguments.
Regarding Participant roles, as in the preceding stage, apart from Actors, other frequently
appearing roles are: Sayer, in: Viviek Sharma, an opponent of the Miss Universe Pageant
from India, says; Similarly, Javis, another opponent of the Miss Universe Pageant from
India, says (see also above); Carrier, in: that India’s contestant becomes the winner of the
Miss Universe Pageant; The Miss Universe Pageant does not mean anything to the poor
population; Token (twice), in Another argument [[put forwad by the opponents of the Miss
Universe pageant is [[that …]]; …[[participating in such contests]] is a disgrace; and
Senser in: I believe; Feminists think; the feminists believe. The exploitation of the proper
names (above) and pronouns (I in clause 54) strengthens the CT standards clarity and
precision in information and arguments, as “names and pronouns have enough information
to identify a participant, … so, the name and pronouns can stand on its own” (Martin and
Rose, 2003, p. 109). Moreover, some Participants realised in expanded nominal groups
involve clause embedding and build abstraction (e.g. Another argument [[put forwad by the
opponents of the Miss Universe Pageant). This abstraction is “the very essence of symbolic
analysis,…and a new way to represent reality which will be more compelling or
revealing…” (Reich, cited in Paul, 1993, p. 7). It also shows control in the conventions of
written argument and in presenting ideas, “to pack in information in the nominal group
structure, in a manner particularly characteristic of written language” (Christie, 2002a, p.
55). Finally, conspicuous in terms of Participants, as also mentioned in Theme selection, is
the good use of nominalisations, like: Another argument, the absolute wastage of time and
money; the portrayal of the ideal look in the fashion world. Nominalisations, “as the single
most powerful resource for grammatical metaphor, it emerges as the most significant feature
of students’ development from more oral language to a more academic register” (Collombi,
2002, p. 77). Nominalisations also enable the writers to generalise about social processes,
and to describe, classify and evaluate them (Martin and Rose, 2003, p. 107), and shows a
movement from the here-and now, toward CL (see McCarthy and Carter, 1994 and
discussion above).
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Moreover, Circumstances help build significant experiential information, and as in the
preceding stage, those of Matter frequently appear, as in: regarding Indonesia’s culture and
religion background; in terms of social service and national pride. Circumstances of Angle
also appear in, among others, to Indonesia’s oriental values; to the poor population, and
some are related to the Sayer, as in But personally to me (clause 70). Moreover, other
Circumstances which help enrich the information and hence strengthen the clarity and
precision of information are those of location in place, like in a swim suit parade; in the
Miss Universe Pageant; in India (in a downranked-clause); of Purpose: especially for
[[eradicating poverty]]; of Means: from the fact [[ that India’s contestant becomes the
winner of the Miss Universe pageant]].
Interpersonally, like the preceding stage, the element uses various instances of modality,
both modalisation and modulation. Instances of modalisations can be seen in the use of
modal verbs, such as will in that Indonesia’s participation in the Miss Universe Pageant
will not give any significant effect for Indonesia,…; and can in: India’s poor people cannot
get benefits …; With that money the poor can be well-supported. Meanwhile, modulations
are realised in modal verb should, in enclose and down-ranked clauses: in which each
contestant should participate in a swim suit parade; [[which should rather be spent on the
elimination of poverty in the nation and on education]]. Occasionally too, the element
exploits modal adjuncts which have significance for their roles in building judgment
expressed by the opponents of the MUC. These, among others are: personally, only (three
times). All these, to some extent, as mentioned above, can show the writers’ humility or
“modesty” (Swales, 1990a, p. 174) and care about what they claimed, again, a typical aspect
of a critical thinker.
However, despite the employment of instances of modality above, in this stage the writers
also seemed to show too much certainty about what they claimed. This is shown by
considerable use of the present and the past tenses as shown in examples above, which show
the writers’ certainty and the use of “strengthening words” (Reichenbach, 2001, p. 98), such
as absolute (clause 69), never (clause 70), all (clause 72). The impact of these expressions,
in spite of serving to convey the writers’ confidence in their opinions, is that they may “lead
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the readers to begin to wonder whether things are so certain as the writers made out”
(Reichenbach, 2001, p. 98). This goes with the suggestion regarding modalisation, that
“modalisation is a very rich area of the grammar, allowing great subtlety in the expression of
judgment of certainty and usuality. Paradoxically, however, it turns out that the more we say
something is certain, the less certain it is” (Eggins, 1994, p. 182). In addition, the
expressions like all and never indicate universal statements, as alluded to above, which seem
less appropriate in this case, as the writers did not provide all existing evidence for these
statements. It is true that all these statements are in citations, which “consist of simply what
other characters have said or thought, when the writer cannot inject a personal view, a bias,
or an opinion,” (Hasan, 1985a, p. 71). However, as citations are also part of the writers’
thinking, it would be more acceptable if they were carefully selected, to support arguments
and to make the persuasive communication work well.
Finally in terms of Subjects, the stage is distant as evidenced by the absence of first and
second person pronouns to serve to express interpersonal meanings, involving the reader
(e.g. you) or the author (We, I). Some first person pronouns are indeed present, as is the case
in the preceding stage, but they are in quotations, which are used as examples and
illustrations and references to authorities. More distant phrases occur in: The opponents of
Indonesia’s participation in the Miss Universe Pageant, and even more distant those [[who
are against Indonesia’s participation in the Miss Universe Pageant]]. At times too,
projecting clauses, as those mentioned above, are used, which show another significant
feature of the text being distant. All these indicate the writers’ understanding of their
responsibility to write for a distant reader, which also relates to their awareness of to whom
they were writing (Wallace, 1992a,b).
5.3.2.4 Recommendation Element
Textually the stage opens with a textual Theme In summary which serves “to signal closure”
(Christie, 2002a, p. 58) and “provides explicit organisational signals of how the text is to be
read” (McCarthy and Carter, 1994, p. 72). This is combined with a dependent clause in
Theme position, after looking at both arguments for and against the Miss Universe Pageant,
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whose effect is to foreground the fact that the writers spelled out their stance and position
about the issue, expressed in it is obvious [[that Indonesia should not send an envoy to the
Miss Universe pageant]]. This position is “critical” (Van Eemeren et.al, 2002) and is not
superficial (Gee, 1990) as it is based on a close observation on the arguments for and against
the issue, and thus suggests CT dispositions, particularly “to suspend judgment” (Moore and
Parker, 1995; Lipman, 2003), and “to take a position based on sufficient factual data or
when the evidence and reasons are sufficient to do so” (Ennis, 1987, p. 12, Nickerson,
1987). A significant feature of textual strategies in this stage, as in the two preceding stages,
is that the topic sentence efficiently functions as a kind of hyper-Theme which gives the
readers an orientation to what is to come (Martin and Rose, 2003, p. 181). This hyper-
Theme, as in many registers, as Martin and Rose (Ibid) argue, also involves evaluation, and
in this text is realised in evaluative attribute obvious (above). In the mean time, as mentioned
earlier, this hyper-Theme also helps the stage to successfully function as macro-New. This,
as can be shown later, is evidenced by the fact that the stage “looks back and gathers up the
meanings which have accumulated to elaborate a text’s field, as well as reviews the points
presented in the text”, a feature of macro-New, described by Martin (1992, p. 456-457, see
Chapter 3, Section 3.3.1.4).
Another marked topical Theme, realised in Circumstance of Concession Although
Indonesia’s participation in the Miss Universe Pageant may bring advantages in terms of
women’s quality tourism aspect and business indicates the writers’ awareness of the possible
benefits of participating in the contest, as suggested by the supporters of the contest,
although the writers were against the issue. This may suggest that the students, as the reader,
had started to participate in an inner dialogue with the writers of the materials they read,
which is a feature of critical reading (Paul, 1993, p. 525). This also seems to suggest the
writers’ submission or compliance apart from their resistance towards some of the materials
they read on the issue – another feature indicating that “critical” (Wallace, 1992) or “tactical
reading” (Martin and Rose, 2003, p. 270) has taken place. This also shows a CT disposition,
that is, “being open-minded” (Ennis, 1987; Lipman, 2003) and being receptive to others’
view points (Freire, cited in Elias, 1994; Degener, 1999). Moreover, it suggests the students’
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awareness that the information they read from the material is not absolute and unproblematic
or unnegotiated (Johns, 2002b), or “innocent” (Misson, 1998a,b).
The writers subsequently developed the stage by presenting some further possible negative
impacts of participating in the contest, and these messages are connected via addition, by
using textual Themes realised in continuity conjunctions in addition Indonesia’s
participation … and furthermore [[participating in the Miss Universe Pageant]] …. Several
consequential conjunctions also occur, to signal explicit connection between clause
complexes: Although (above), Therefore, and so that. These suggest, apart from the
significance mentioned above, the students’ competence to efficiently employ the range of
alternative realisations for logical relations, and logical indicators, which function like “road
signs” or “give directions to the readers” (Reichenbach, 2001, p. 158). Consequential
conjunctions also suggest that reasoning has taken place (Thompson, 1996) – one major
variety of thinking skills (Lipman, 2003, p. 179) (see also Chapter 2, Section 2.2.3). The
writers then wrapped up the text and signaled the move into the main point of the element -
Recommendation, by thematising themselves, we, combined with a causality, realised in
Therefore: Therefore we recommend. Conspicuous in Theme selection is also the presence
of the pronoun it as topical Themes (three times) realised in: It is obvious; it seems; it will be
better, which again, suggests the writers’ effort to foreground their objectivity in presenting
the propositions.
Experientially, as revealed in Table 5.14 below, this element mainly uses material processes
(nine out of 15), relational (three), mental (two) and verbal (one). The preponderance of
material processes is not surprising as it is at this stage that the writers took a position and
gave evaluation about the issue – Indonesia’s participation in the contest. This position is
supported by a description of the possible positive and negative impacts of Indonesia’s
participation in the contest, all of which are realised in processes of doing and happening.
These occur in: …Indonesia’s participation in the Miss Universe Pageant will not
contribute to the attempts of poverty eradication in Indonesia; which emphasises beauty.
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Table 5.14 Process Types Employed in the Recommendation Element of Text 5.4
and Possessive
Behav Exist
Total 9 2 1 3 - - -
In addition, relational processes deployed involve attribution, as in it is … structure in which
the Carrier is discontinuous, expressed in an embedded clause: It is obvious [[that
Indonesia should not send an envoy to the Miss Universe pageant]]. This kind of
discontinuity reflects the stress grammar undergoes to place experiential resources
(attributive processes) in the service of interpersonal ones to create explicit objectivity
(Martin et al, 1997, p. 282). Meanwhile, mental processes occur in the first message (above),
and in: if Miss Indonesia concentrates on domestic social service. Finally, verbal process
can be seen in Therefore we recommend (above).
From the details of the “-er” (Hasan, 1985a, p. 39) or Participant roles, relevant to the
process types employed, the role of Actor frequently appear, assigned to the entity
Indonesia’s participation, Indonesia, and Miss Indonesia. Other -er roles are Senser (Miss
Indonesia, clause 93) and Sayer we (the writer, above), while Carrier is in the structure It
is… (above). Meanwhile, Circumstances also help to build clearer experiential meanings,
through the expression of Circumstance of Cause: due to the possible emergence of women’s
standard; of location in place: to the Miss Universe pageant; in Indonesia; and of
Accompaniment: with the society (the last clause).
Interpersonally, the element uses a range of instances of modality, to suggest the writers’
stance towards the message communicated, from certainty, construed in unmodulated
clauses: it is obvious; which emphasises beauty; to a hypothetical modality, realised in
modal verbs: Although Indonesia’s participation in the Miss Universe Pageant may bring
advantages … ; She can share the benefit of [[being Miss Indonesia]] with the society and
lexical modals: It seems not to suit Indonesia’s religious, cultural and oriental values; and
the word possible (above). The writers also chose to express modalisation “externally” by
adding a “pseudo-clause”, phrased objectively, expressed in it is … structure, as in It is
obvious [[that …]] (above). This metaphorical expression of I think, in my opinion that …
(Eggins, 1994, p. 182), reinforced by the modal operator should, shows not only degree of
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certainty but also forceful expression of opinion, as realised in “evaluative attribute”
(Lemke, 1999) obvious. Moreover, the use of this structure allows the writer to pretend that
“the judgment they are expressing is not just their own but has some objective status”
(Eggins, 1994, p. 182). Other examples of modality indicate obligation and necessity,
expressed in modal operator should, or what Halliday describes as “modulated Finites”
(Eggins, 1994, p. 187). This modal verb is used twice, in the same expression, one in a main
clause and the other in a rank-shifted clause: [[That Indonesia should not send an envoy to
the Miss Universe Pageant]]. As the obligation is not expressed in a command, but in
“opinion” (Eggins, 1994), it reflects another aspect of the writers’ competence in
manipulating incongruently-realised grammar, and this makes the writers’ expression of
obligation has a wider impact, as it is not directed at the person implicated in the command,
but at a third person.
Another interesting matter regarding interpersonal strategies is that the writer used first
person pronoun we (above), which makes explicit the “ownership” or “source” of the
modalisation, or “gives subjective marking to the modality, i.e. explicitly marks the
commitment of the person who is speaking/writing” (Fairclough, 2003, p. 169). This is
desirable, as mentioned above, as the stage functions to spell out the writers’ opinion and
stance toward the issue. This is also consistent with the suggestion that “writing arguments
is an activity …and as its best when the writer’s personal voice is clear, … ” (McCarthy and
Carter 1994, p. 48). Furthermore, that the writers presented their strong personal opinions in
one and the last part of the text, after more impersonal and factual cases had been
established, “does not make the writers lose their personal voice, and even makes the text
more powerful”, as Mc McCarthy and Carter (1994, p. 49) further argue. From a CT point,
interpersonal strategies in this stage show that the writers had started to make efforts to state
opinions and to make judgment in an objective and careful way, which is a feature of
typicality of a critical thinker. Interpersonal strategies also show CT abilities, including
“presenting argumentation in written form” (Ennis, 1987, p.15) and “effectively
communicating with an audience” (Norris and Ennis, 1989, p. 140). The fact that the writers
took a position after presenting arguments for and against the issue entails that they began to
have a capacity to say: “I know this is my theory. I can conceive of alternative theories that
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might explain the same phenomenon …” (Kuhn, 1990, p. 28). This, Kuhn further says,
entails a high degree of metacognition, a typical feature of a skilled critical thinker.
5.3.3 Summary of Analysis of Text 5.4
This Section has presented a discussion of the jointly-constructed text. The analyses above
have served to demonstrate that the writers (three students, two of whom were Candra, the
writer of Text 5.1, and Wati, Text 5.3) at this stage had considerably developed their writing
as well as CT and CL, despite some minor weaknesses that still need further improvement.
The schematic structure indicates the writers’ successful grasp and understanding of the
demands of the generic form of a Discussion genre, to achieve the purpose and the function
of the genre. This relates to their awareness of why the text has been constructed and
indicates students’ enhancement of thinking skill, particularly information-organising skill.
The grammatical analyses indicate the writers had successfully begun to use some of the
main conventions of written language and argumentative discourse with consistency and
accuracy. Textually the writers efficiently employed linguistic devises to strengthen the
text’s coherence, and thus relevance and precision, to create local and global unity, and to
render the passage in the manner that confirms to the expectations of experienced readers.
Experientially it uses various sources which show the writers’ capacity to create a more
written-like text, to strengthen the accuracy of the arguments or to build credible and sound
arguments, which are supported by evidence. This is recognised as one source of evidence
of critical disposition and enhancement in reasoning skill, and has led to an analytical
feature of the text, which also appear to signal a movement towards CL. Finally,
interpersonally, the writers efficiently used various linguistic resources to create forceful but
objective arguments to create an effective communication with the reader, which also
signifies an instance of enhancement of inquiry skill. The position taken in the last part of
the text after conceiving arguments for and against entails another development in reasoning
skill. All these may indicate that at this stage the students benefited from the teaching
program in developing their writing skills and critical capacity which are considered urgent
in Indonesian education in the Reform era.
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The manner in which the two students in the group (Candra and Wati) further developed
their writing, CT and CL can be seen from the discussion of the independently-constructed
texts written by them at the end of the teaching program, which will be presented in the
subsequent section.
5.4. Analysis of Independently-Constructed Texts (Texts 5.5 and 5.7)
This section will discuss texts written by the students at the end of the teaching program, to
respond to the question “Should capital punishment be implemented in Indonesia?” At this
stage, the writers still wrote in several sessions, but they did it independently with the
teacher just as a facilitator.
The discussion will focus on two texts – Text 5.5, written by Candra and Text 5.7 by Wati,
respectively the writer of Texts 5.1 and 5.3, as analysed earlier. These students were also
two of three students belonging to the group whose Joint Construction text was analysed
previously. Meanwhile, the text written by a mid achiever, Nia (Text 5.6), again, in the
interest of space, will not be analysed, but can be seen in Appendices 15.6 and 16.11-12 on a
complete analysis of Theme, Transitivity, and process types respectively. As will be
presented below, in Tables 5.15 and 5.16, the texts, despite their significant improvement in
various aspects as discussed later, at a glance still have some expressions which might be
awkward or unacceptable to the majority of native speakers of English. The most obvious
one is the expression incapacitation. However, actually the students found this from one of
the materials given to them, entitled Thoughts on the death penalty
(http://www.richard.clark32.btinternet.co.uk/thoughts.html).
Table 5.15 Independent Construction Text (Text 5.5)
Should Indonesia Employ Death Penalty?
Statement of Issue
1. While 95 nations throughout the world have abolished death penalty,
2. Indonesia< along with China, Saudi Arabia, and the United States> execute criminals
[[sentenced to death]]).
3. Since 1978, Indonesia has done no less than 38 executions.
4. Since then there has been a dispute on [[ whether or not Indonesia employs death penalty]]
5. especially recently after President Megawati rejected to give clemency to six defenders [[who
are convicted to death]]
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6. Below are the arguments for and against death penalty.
Arguments in favour
7. The proponents of capital punishment state three arguments, to do with religious, particularly
Islamic point of view, incapacitation and the value of human life.
8. The first argument is concerned with Islamic point of view.
9. Islam <<10 >> regards death penalty as a form of punishment for convicting murder or
adultery.
10. they assert
11. This,<<12>>, is stated in the Qur’an, surah Al-Bakarah verse 178,
12. they say
13. that the law of Qishash is applicable for murder.
14. Furthermore, it is stated in Surah Al-Isra verse 33, [[that Allah gives authority for heir of a
victim [[to kill murderer in a proper way]] ]]
15. For adultery case, there is a hadith [[narrated by Muslim, Abu Dawud, Nasa’i and Tirmidzi
16. saying
17. that there is (was) a woman [[having an illegitimate baby in her womb]]
18. (she)came to Rasul (Muhammad, peace be upon him),
19. Admitting her sin.
20. Rasul (Muhammad, pbuh) told her parents
21. to take care of her
22. until she delivered her baby.
23. When she had given birth to her baby,
24. she was tied
25. and stoned to death.
26. After she died,
27. Rasul (Muhammad, pbuh) performed a funeral prayer,
28. then Rasul (pbuh) said
29. “She sincerely repented of [[ what she had done]],
30. that << 31>> it will be sufficient.
31. if her repentance is to be shared to 70 Madinah people
32. Have you ever found a good and honest woman like her?
33. She consciously surrendered
34. to obey the law of Allah The Glorious”
35. Secondly, the proponents of death penalty point out argument to do with incapacitation.
36. They think,
37. death penalty permanently incapacitate criminals from [[convicting (committing) another
crime]]
38. Edward Koch, a former Mayor of New York City, argues
39. that “only death can incapacitate murderers,
40. otherwise the murderers can harm prison staffs, other prisoners and even the society”
41. In relation to this, Koch presents two examples.
42. Lamuel Smith [[ who was serving six life sentences for four murders, one kidnapping and one
robbery in New York’s Green Haven Prison]]* trapped a woman officer in the chaplain’s
office
43. and choke her to death,
44. then savagely cut off her arms and legs.
45. Richard Biegenwald [[released after 18 years of imprisonment]] killed four more people after
his release.
46. The third argument [[claimed by those who are in favour of death penalty]] is concerned with
the value of human life.
47. [[Sentencing criminals to death]] <<48>> demonstrates appreciation toward the value of the
victim’s life.
48. it is said
49. The proponents of capital punishment argue
50. that “It is by [[exalting the highest penalty for the taking of human life]]
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51. that we affirm the highest value of human life”
52. It is [[to appreciate the human life]]
53. the proponents of death sentence claim,
54. law is made
55. to judge guilty people
56. and to give a chance [[to defend themselves]].
57. So, whatever the court’s finding is,
58. they assert,
59. even if it is a death sentence,
60. there is no need [[to argue about it]].
Arguments against
61. Meanwhile, the opponents of death penalty adopt three positions concerned with deterrence,
humanity and injustice.
62. The first argument [[proposed by the opponents of death penalty]] is regarding deterrence.
63. They believe
64. [[executing criminals]] cannot deter other criminals from convicting crime.
65. This can be seen <<66>> from the similar homicide rate and the same rate of policeman
[[killed by criminals in the US for the past 50 years]] regardless of the employment or
abolition of capital punishment.
66. it is argued
67. Furthermore, a comparison between the US, Singapore - <<68 >> - and Britain <<69>>
reveals
68. both employing death penalty
69. which doesn’t employ death penalty
70. that The US still had five times as many murders per head of population [[as did Britain in
1997]],
71. whilst Singapore had 15 times fewer murders per head of population [[than Britain]] ]]
72. This <<73 >> proves
73. it is claimed
74. that capital punishment has little to do with the decrease of homicide rate
75. but is greatly connected to the country’s cultural background (ibid).
76. The second argument [[highlighted by the opponents of capital punishment]] is related to
humanity.
77. They argue
78. that death penalty is barbaric
79. and that it is against the value of humanity.
80. Any form of death penalty <<81>> is painful.
81. it is claimed
82. The opponents of capital punishment point out
83. that “the gas chamber causes a slow and cruel death,
84. electrocution causes great emotional suffering [[which far outweighs the physical pain of the
actual moment of death]],
85. shooting by firing squad causes the prisoner bleeds ( to bleed) to death,
86. often whilst conscious,
87. hanging causes more physical pain and acute mental agony,
88. and lethal injection, <<89>>, is a very slow process”.
89. though may appear to be more humane to the witnesses
90. Moreover, it is stated [[that the criminal suffers a mental torture]]
91. ‘knowing
92. that he is going to die tomorrow morning at 8.am’ (ibid).
93. The last argument [[advocated by the opponents of capital punishment]] is to do with injustice.
94. They believe
95. that capital punishment has little to do with the character of the crime
96. but is highly related to race and the amount of money available
97. which will determine the skill of the legal counsel.
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98. The latter is supported by a statement from one of the opponents of capital punishment,
99. as follows
100. “the discriminatory or unequal use of the death penalty causes it to be applied mostly to the
poor and defendless
101. Its existence complicates the administration of justice,
102. lengthens trials,
103. and may lead to unjustified verdicts
104. and greatly increases the burden on appellate courts and pardon authorities”
105. [[That race highly determines [[ whether someone is to be executed or not]] ]] <<106>>,
can be seen from [[the fact that 2,066 (54%) out of 3,860 criminals [[executed in the US
from 1930 up to now]] were black]] (ibid).
106. it is stated
107. Worse, a report from the General Accounting Office in 1990 showed
108. that those [[who murdered white Americans]]a tend to be executed than those [[who
murdered black Americans]]b.
109. In relation to injustice in Indonesia, Nasution, the Chairman of Legal Assistance Body
(LBH) in North Sumatra, says
110. that law discrimination continues to happen in Indonesia.
111. So, he believes
112. that death sentence can’t be employed yet in Indonesia).
Recommendation
113. After looking at both sides of the arguments,
114. I really believe
115. that Indonesia should not employ death penalty yet.
116. Even though it can incapacitate criminals,
117. and in this way we appreciate the value of human life,
118. there are several aspects [[to be put into consideration]], such as law discrimination.
119. If law discrimination persists,
120. it is improper [[to employ capital punishment]].
121. But when the time [[when criminals are treated equally, regardless of their race or status]],
arrives,
122. I think
123. Indonesia should employ death penalty.
124. The second aspect [[ to be put into consideration]] is related to Islamic rules.
125. It is true [[that Islam does permit death penalty]]
126. but Islam is not Indonesia’s constitution.
127. Indonesia can refer to Islamic rules
128. only if Islam is Indonesia’s constitution.
129. Besides, in Islam, death penalty is the last alternative to murderer
130. when the victim’s family doesn’t forgive the murderer
131. and doesn’t approve the murderer
132. to just pay diyat (a fine for those who violate the Islamic law).
Table 5.16 Independent Construction Text (Text 5.7)
Should Capital Punishment Be Implemented in Indonesia?
Statement of Issue
1. Capital punishment is the execution of a criminal pursuant to a sentence of death [[imposed by
a competent court]].
2. It has been used for a wide variety of offences since ancient time up until now in many
countries including Indonesia.
3. However, capital punishment has been a controversy among Indonesian people [[whether
capital punishment is suitable [[and should be implemented [[or it should be abolished]] ]] ]].
(awkward expression)
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4. Below is the discussion on arguments for and against the legalization of capital punishment.
Arguments in favour
5. The proponents of capital punishment claim at least three positions.
6. The first argument [[they claim]] is [[that capital punishment is able to deter people from
[[committing crimes]] ]].
7. In this case, David R. Frances states,
8. “ Capital punishment has a unique power [[to deter people from [[committing crimes]] ]]”.
9. Although some people may find it doubtful
10. that capital punishment can deter crimes
11. the proponents of capital punishment provide a proof [[that there is actually a declining crime
rate [[found in some countries [[which implement capital punishment such as the US and
Singapore]] ]] ]].
12. In USA, for example, there has been a 26% reduction of murder rate.
13. The murder rate in USA dropped from 24, 562 in 1993 to 18, 209 in 1997,
14. which was the lowest for years during a period of increased use of the death penalty.
15. This fact, <<16 >>, also happens in Singapore.
16. it is reported
17. It is said [[that <<18 >>, <<19 >> its population knows precisely]]
18. as Singapore always carries out death sentences
19. where the appeal has been turned down
20. what will happen to them
21. if they are convicted of murder or drug trafficking.
22. The second argument [[proposed by those [[who defend capital punishment]] ]] relates to the
incapacitation of criminals.
23. They believe
24. that capital punishment is the most effective way [[to reduce crime rather than life
imprisonment]].
25. Life imprisonment, <<26>>, would expose prison staffs and fellow prisoners to dangerous
murderer,
26. it is said
27. and the risk later extends to the community,
28. since such person may escape
29. or be pardoned.
30. Therefore, the proponents of capital punishment think
31. that life imprisonment would not be equally effective with capital punishment.
32. It is also claimed [[that unexecuted criminals will be able to commit further crimes, either
within prison or after [[escaping or after [[being released]] ]] ]].
33. Regarding this, statistics from the Home Office in Britain shows
34. that in the country, between abolition in 1964-1998, the murder rate more than doubled (to
around 750 per annum).
35. and there have been 71 murders [[committed by people [[who have been released after
[[serving “life sentences” in the same period]] ]] ]].
36. So, capital punishment,<<37 >>, is aimed
37. it is asserted
38. to assure
39. that criminals cannot commit crimes anymore.
40. This has also been stated by Edward Koch, a former mayor of New York city, in his article
‘Death and Justice’
41. that “capital punishment is [[to assure ||that convicted murderers do not kill again]].
42. Only death penalty can accomplish this end.”
43. The third argument [[upheld by the advocates of capital punishment, particularly in Indonesia]]
is connected with the real condition of Indonesian prison itself.
44. Most Indonesian people, <<45>>, still prefer the implementation of capital punishment
45. it is said
46. rather than just put criminals behind bars due to the lack of public’s confidence in the
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credibility of the prison system in Indonesia.
47. This has been revealed by the Director of the YLBHI (a foundation for legal assistance in
Indonesia), Munarman,
48. saying
49. “In Indonesia, the implementation of capital punishment still receives a great deal of supports
from most Indonesian society.
50. It is [[because they do not believe in our country’s prison system]].
51. They do not believe
52. that imprisonment will be able to make bad people into good ones”
53. This lack of public confidence on the credibility of the prison system, <<54 >>, is based on the
fact [[that some criminals, [[who still serve their punishment in jail are still capable of
[[committing crimes]] ]] ]].
54. it is claimed
55. This has also been argued by Munarwan,
56. that “It is almost impossible [[for the prison system in Indonesia to gain public’s confidence]]
57. because even a convicted drug trafficker, for example, is still fully capable of [[controlling
their drug business from jail]].”
Arguments against
58. On the other hand, the opponents of capital punishment highlight three arguments.
59. The first one relates to the imperfect justice, due to the discrimination on the application of the
death penalty.
60. The opponents of capital punishment claim
61. that the discriminatory or unequal use of death penalty causes it to be applied mostly to the
poor and defenseless.
62. This, <<63>>, is mainly [[because money plays a very important role in the defense of
[[avoiding death penalty]] ]].
63. it is said
64. [[That capital punishment is convicted mainly to the poor]] has been said by David Hoekema
(1987), a former philosophy professor in St. Olaf College in Minnesota, in his article, ‘Capital
Punishment: the justification of death’,
65. as saying
66. “legal council depends in large measure on [[how much money is available for the defense]].
67. Inevitably, the death penalty has been imposed most frequently on the poor.”
68. The same thing,<<69 >>, occurs in Indonesia.
69. it is claimed by the Indonesian proponents of capital punishment
70. It is argued [[that the legal system in Indonesia is still partial]].
71. It can be seen from the case of Akbar Tanjung.
72. He was accused of doing corruption of 40 billion rupiahs,
73. but he was only charged 3 years of imprisonment for his action.
74. And worse, the sentence is never executed up until now.
75. Moreover, the imperfection of justice[[proposed by opponents of capital punishment]] is also
indicated by racism issue.
76. Race,<<77>>, is an important factor in [[determining [[who is sentenced to death]] ]].
77. it is revealed
78. In 1990, a report from the General Accounting Office in the US, concluded
79. that in 82 % of studies, those [[who murdered whites]] were more likely to be sentenced to
death [[than those [[who murdered blacks]] ]].
80. With regard to this issue, statistics in the US, also reveals
81. that of 3,860 persons executed in the US from 1930 up to now (the time of the writing of the
article), 2,066 or 54 % were black.
82. The second position [[claimed by those [[who oppose capital punishment]] ]] is regarding the
mistaken conviction,
83. which could lead to the execution of innocent people.
84. They contend
85. that innocent people can be wrongfully sentenced to death
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86. and that there is no compensation for them for this error of justice.
87. For this, David Hoekema (1987) notes
88. “Numerous cases of erroneous convictions in capital cases have been documented;
89. several of those convicted were put to death
90. before the error was discovered.
91. … A wrongful execution is a grievous injustice [[that cannot be remedied after the fact]]”
92. In relation to this mistaken conviction issue, there has been several studies [[which discover
[[that in this century (20th century
) , at least 400 innocent people have been convicted of capital
crimes [[they did not commit]] ]] ]].
93. Of those 400, 23 were executed.
94. The third strand of the opposition of capital punishment is viewed from the criminal’s human
right.
95. The protesters of capital punishment point out
96. that all lives, including the criminals’, are valuable.
97. Therefore, capital punishment, <<98>>, cheapens the value of human life.
98. it is argued
99. Regarding this, Margaret Mead (1987), an anthropologist from the US, says,
100. “… ‘a life for a life’ need not mean destructive retribution,
101. but instead the development of new forms of community,
102. in which, <<103 >>, [[what is emphasized]] is the prevention of crime…”
103. because all lives are valuable
104. In relation to the human right issue, Indonesian opponents of capital punishment say
105. that capital punishment is not relevant with the 1945 Constitution.
106. This is stated by Irham Buana Nasution, a lawyer of Ayodha Prasad Chaubey, an Indian
drug trafficker,
107. who has been sentenced to death by Indonesian court.
Recommendation
108. Thus, after looking at both sides of the arguments,
109. I consider capital punishment effective in [[deterring people [[to commit crimes]] and in
[[incapacitating criminals [[to commit further crimes]] ]]
110. Therefore, I strongly argue
111. that capital punishment needs to be implemented in Indonesia,
112. remembering the situation in our country itself,
113. where crimes have been rising sharply.
114. It especially should be focused upon drug trafficking and corruption cases
115. because those cases have a devastating impact toward society in large scale.
116. Even though I realize
117. there might be some negative excess [[coming from the imposement (imposition) of capital
punishment related to imperfect justice, mistaken conviction, and violation of criminal’s
human right ]],
118. I do believe
119. that it is still needed to be imposed in our country,
120. at least to be used as a shock therapy for those [[who have intention [[to commit crimes]] ]]
121. However, the decision of [[sentencing death penalty]] must be fair, just and adequate.
122. Therefore, we must be prepared to execute every criminal [[who commits a crime]]
irrespective of gender, status, race, and social class.
5.4.1 The Schematic Structure, Organisation and Purpose of Texts 5.5 and 5.7
Both Texts 5.5 and 5.7, like Text 5.4, represent instances of a Discussion genre, the social
purpose of which, as alluded to earlier, is to persuade readers to accept a particular position
about an issue by considering more than one perspective. In this case, Text 5.5 tries to
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convince the readers that capital punishment in Indonesia should not be implemented, due to
the existence of law discrimination in Indonesia and the fact that although Islam (which is
the religion of most Indonesian people) allows capital punishment, it is not expressed in
Indonesia’s constitution. So, Indonesia cannot refer to it. On the reverse, Text 5.7 (also see
Text 5.6 in Appendix 15.6) strives to convince the readers that capital punishment should be
implemented in Indonesia as a shock therapy, to decrease crimes in the country, despite
some possible negative impacts of its implementation. Both texts, however, explicitly state
the required condition prior to the implementation of capital punishment, to avoid some
negative impacts.
As can be noted in Tables 5.15 and 5.16, the schematic structure of all texts (including Text
5.6) is the same as Text 5.4 (the jointly constructed text) and in line with the suggestions of
genre theorists mentioned earlier. They begin with the stage of Preview of issue to be
discussed, that is about the debate on the implementation of capital punishment, followed by
the stages of Arguments in favour and Arguments against, in which arguments in favour and
against capital punishments are presented. In reference to these opposing arguments the texts
end with the writer’s recommendation.
Conspicuous is that each text, like the Joint Construction one, overtly signals its elements
with appropriate linguistic resources, to create a successfully organised text. The Preview of
issue efficiently functions to introduce the issue and to allow the readers to predict how the
text is going to read, by functioning as a macro-Theme (again, called macro-Theme ii). This
is expressed in: Below are the arguments for and against death penalty (Text 5.5); and
Below is the discussion on arguments for and against the legalisation of capital punishment
(Text 5.7). These macro-Themes, again, were not present in the diagnostic texts. While the
Arguments in favour stage is marked by an unmarked topical Theme The proponents of
capital punishmen, while Arguments against stage by a combination of a contrasting textual
Theme, expressed in a “conjunctive Theme” (Halliday, 1994a, p. 53) Meanwhile (Text 5.5)
and On the other hand (Text 5.7). Combined with an unmarked topical Theme the
opponents of capital punishment, these Themes explicitly mark that the stage is about
opposing arguments on capital punishment. It will be shown later that the topic sentence of
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the Arguments for and against stages in the two texts can function as macro-Theme, as they
can predict a set of hyper-Themes in the stages. The final stage is signposted by a marked
topical Theme after looking at both sides of the arguments to signal a new phase (Text 5.5)
and a combination of a closing textual Theme Thus and marked-topical Theme after looking
at both sides of the arguments (Text 5.7). As in the jointly-constructed text, the topic
sentence of the stage functions as hyper-Theme of the stage. At the same time, as it will be
delineated later, the stage functions as macro-New, as again, it gathers up the meanings
which have accumulated. This makes the text project not only forward, through the
employment of macro-, hyper-, and clause-Themes, but also backward, through the
exploitation of the macro-New.
As far as CT is concerned, it will be argued that the schematic structure reflects some CT
standards concerned with in this study, such as relevance, clarity and precision, at text level.
Moreover, the Recommendation stage, in the two texts, which is commenced by a marked
topical Theme after looking at both sides of the arguments, shows some CT dispositions,
that each writer took a position after carefully examining various arguments related to the
issue, and gained sufficient data to support their position. The schematic structure, as that in
the jointly-constructed text, reflects one of activities that make up CT as suggested by
Chaffee (2000), that is “to discuss ideas in an organised way” – a major thinking skills most
relevant for educational purposes, as suggested by Lipman (1991, 2003). Moreover the fact
that the two writers attempted to seek changes in the system of laws in Indonesia and
clarified obstacles (such as law discrimination) as well as possibilities for changes in
implementation of capital punishment may suggest student’ critical engagement with the
contemporary Indonesian practices of law and their capacity to interpret the social practice,
recognizing that the state of the existing affairs does not exhaust what is possible
(Fairclough and Chouliaraki, 1999, p. 35-36). This is of essential critical capacity they
performed – the role that contemporary intellectuals should play, as Fairclough and
Chouliaraki further argue.
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The recommendations and interpretations of the social practice, the practice of system of
law in particular, may suggest students’ enhanced critical capacity to use “writing as a
means of articulating their voices” (Freire and Macedo, 1987).
Overall, the schematic structure of both texts indicate the students’ consistent understanding
of “the demands” (Kress, 1985a, p. 47) and seem to have “a practical command” (Coe,
2002, p. 201) of the generic forms, the formula and the convention of a Discussion genre.
The texts can be considered as an example of effective writing, which is rhetorically
situated, and achieve situated purposes, audience and occasion. This, in terms of CL, reflects
the writer’s awareness of why and to whom the text has been created, as mentioned earlier.
5.4.2 Grammatical Analysis of Elements of Texts 5.5 and 5.7
5.4.2.1 Preview of Issue
The opening Theme of the element in Text 5.5 is a multiple one, a combination of a
contrasting textual Theme while and a topical Theme 95 nations throughout the world, to
contextualise the field about the implementation of capital punishment in other countries vis
a vis in Indonesia. In Text 5.7, it starts with a topic-based Theme Capital punishment, which
as will be noted later, is also the thematic focus for the stage and the whole text as it
consistently occupies thematic position. The next Themes in Text 5.5 are topical: Indonesia
followed by marked ones – circumstantial items: since 1978; Since then (the implementation
of capital punishment); especially recently, setting connectedness of temporal sequence as
the background of the debate on the implementation of capital punishment in Indonesia
since it was first applied in 1978 until now. Meanwhile, subsequent Themes of the stage in
Text 5.7 are, among others, a referential item it, referring to capital punishment. Particularly
interesting in Text 5.7 is that three out of four messages assign capital punishment to Theme
positions, which is in line with the topic discussed in the text, followed by a textual Theme
However to give texture to the text. Then, the last Theme in the element of both texts is a
marked one – a circumstantial item setting the debate: Below. This marked topical Theme
and the last message, Below are the arguments for and against death penalty (Text 5.5) and
Below is the discussion on arguments for and against the legalisation of capital punishment
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(Text 5.7) help the element to successfully function as a macro-Theme (again called macro-
Theme ii). Over all the textual strategies employed in both texts show the writers’ attempts
to enhance the relevance of “discourse entities and discourse representations to one another”
(Polanyi, 2001, p. 267).
Experientially, as can be seen in Table 5. 17 below, both texts do not use a variety of process
types. Text 5.5 mainly uses material processes (seven out of nine) construing happenings
regarding capital punishment, as in While 95 nations throughout the world have abolished
death penalty; Indonesia …execute criminals [[sentenced to death]]. Two existential
processes occur, with one representing that a dispute on the implementation of capital
punishment “exists or happens” (Halliday, 1994a, p. 142): Since then there has been a
dispute on … , and the other stating that arguments for and against capital punishment are
going to be presented in the text, expressed in the last message (above).
Table 5.17 Process Types Employed in the Preview of Issue Element of Texts 5.5 and 5.7
Process types Material Mental Verbal Intensive Circ, Cause, and
Possessive
Behav Exist
Text 5.5 7 - - - - - 2
Text 5.7 4 - - 3 - 1
In addition, Text 5.7 uses only four material processes, three of which are in embedded
clauses as in … a sentence of death [[imposed by a competent court]]; [[whether capital
punishment… [[and should be implemented [[or it should be abolished]] ]] ]]. Three
relational processes (intensive) are also used, two of which are realised in is, involving
attribution to assign “a quality, classification and descriptive epithet” (Eggins, 1994, p. 256)
to capital punishment: Capital punishment is the execution of a criminal pursuant to a
sentence of death…; [[whether capital punishment is suitable [[ and …]] and the other in
has been as in However, capital punishment has been a controversy among Indonesian
people. One existential process is used to state that the text will deal with a discussion on
arguments for and against capital punishment: Below is the discussion on arguments for and
against the legalisation of capital punishment. All the processes used in both texts help to
contextualise the issue of capital punishment, relevant to the function of the stage.
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As far as Participants are concerned, in line with the processes employed, Text 5.5 assigns
the role of Participants mostly as Actor, expressed in: 95 nations, Indonesia and two as
Existent: a controversy among Indonesian people, and the discussion on arguments for and
against the legalisation of capital punishment as shown above; while Text 5.7 as Token and
Carrier, assigned to the same entity: capital punishment; as Goal, assigned to a referential
item it in a passive clause: It has been used for a wide variety of offences since ancient time
up until now in many countries) and as Existent: the discussion on arguments for and
against the legalisation of capital punishment in the last message above. Meanwhile,
Circumstances, especially in Text 5.5, as discussed above help to build significant additional
information and help promote the clarity and precision of information, while Text 5.7 does
not employ considerable Circumstances at this stage as it builds information by exploiting
relational processes “underlying a defining style” (McCarthy and Carter, 1994) - this is the
way capital punishment is and what are the relevant properties.
Interpersonally, the element in Text 5.5 does not employ any instances of modality, and thus
can be considered as “unmodulated” (Kress, 1985a), which is also evidenced in the use of
the present and past tenses. This is normal as the stage particularly deals with observations
and generalisations about phenomena (Christie 1986, p. 231), and as an introductory part, it
is the place where the writer states facts (Eggins,1994) and “contextualities” (McCarthy and
Carter, 1994, p. 49) as the background of the discussion of the issue. Text 5.7 uses modality
of certainty, expressed in the universal present tense to give a definition of capital
punishment (capital punishment is the execution of criminal …), which allows the reader to
identify what capital punishment is. Text 5.7 also uses two modal verbs, expressed in should
in positive and negative polarity, expressed in … [[and should be implemented [[or it
should be abolished]], to show the reader that there is a controversy about the
implementation of capital punishment. This is again relevant to the function of the stage.
Conspicuous by its absence in the two texts is the use of first and second person pronouns,
which hence suggests that the writers had consistently developed strategies for a “reader-
based approach which continually considers and accommodates an absent reader-audience”
(Chafe, 1982, cited in McCarthy and Carter, 1994, p. 37). This, again shows a CT ability,
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especially in written argumentation as well as CL, particularly to with the writers’ awareness
of to whom the text has been written, as mentioned above.
5.4.2.2 Arguments in favour Element
The stage in both texts (see also Text 5.6 in Appendix 15.6), opens with an unmarked topical
Theme the proponents of capital punishment. This is relevant to the function of the stage, to
serve to present arguments for capital punishment. As in the Joint Construction text, the
significant feature of textual strategies in the stage can be seen from the presence of the
stage’s higher-level Theme, again called macro-Theme i. This is expressed in clause 7: The
proponents of capital punishment state three arguments, to do with religious, particularly
Islamic point of view, incapacitation and the value of human life (Text 5.5); and clause 5:
The proponents of capital punishment claim at least three positions (Text 5.7). The macro-
Theme in both texts, can predict the set of hyper-Themes in the stage, realised in clauses 8,
35, and 46 (Text 5.5) and clauses 6, 22 and 43 (Text 5.7), as can be seen below. With the
presence of macro-Theme i and hyper-Themes, the phase in the two texts, as in the Joint
Construction one, effectively develop globally, and efficiently manipulate a multiple-Theme
development, which shows a feature of written mode (Eggins, 1994). The development in
each text can be seen below:
In Text 5.5:
7. The proponents of capital punishment state three arguments.
8. The first argument is concerned with Islamic point of view … .
35. Secondly, the proponents of death penalty point out argument to do with incapacitation.
46.The third argument claimed by those who are in favour of capital punishment is
concerned with the value of human life.
In Text 5.7:
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1. The proponents of capital punishment claim at least three positions.
2. The first argument [[they claim]] is [[that capital punishment is able to deter people
from [[committing crimes]] ]].
22. The second argument [[proposed by those [[who defend capital punishment ]] ]]
relates to the incapacitation (it should be ‘incapacity’) of criminals.
43. The third argument [[upheld by the advocates of capital punishment, particularly in
Indonesia]] is connected with the real condition of Indonesian prison itself.
The description of multiple-Theme development above indicates that the scaffolding in this
stage is highly metaphorical, as it involves two types of grammatical metaphors. First is an
ideational metaphor, which involves a transference of meaning, as the process of arguing is
treated as a thing argument (see Martin and Rose, 2003, p. 104-105). Second is logical
etaphor, in which internal conjunctions first, second, and third are realised in things (noun
at clause 35 would be more clearly highlighted as a hyper-Theme if she had used a
etaphorical internal conjunction (i.e. The second argument… like that in Text 5.7) instead
of continuity marker secondly. More guidance seemed to be needed to make her aware that
m
phrases) (Martin, 1992, p. 408-409). They occur in three arguments; the first argument, the
third argument (in Text 5.5) and three positions, the first argument, the second argument,
the third argument (Text 5.7). The expressions of arguments (Text 5.5) and positions (Text
5.7) bring readers to another time, as “the first argument”, “the second argument” and “the
third argument” names and points forward to the next (Martin and Rose, 2003, p. 195). The
placement of “arguments” in macro- and hyper-Theme position also serves to build a
scaffold for arguments and hence an important aspect of texture. Moreover, the
nominalization argument, combined with internal cohesive devices first, third becomes a
“staging and ordering device” (Coffin, 1997, p. 218). This may suggest the students’
consistent capacity in promoting relevance, clarity and precision at stage level.
From the multiple Theme development above, it can be seen that the writer of Text 5.7
successfully highlighted clauses 6, 22, and 43 as hyper-Themes through making use of
metaphorical internal conjunctions (i.e. the first argument, the second argument, and the
third argument). However, the writer of Text 5.5 seemed to need more guidance to make her
aware th
m
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conjunction and the interaction of lexical relations and Theme selection are not reinforcing
each other, as mentioned above. This seems to justify the suggestion that some students
probably need more guidance and more practice to be competent writers, as alluded to in
Chapter 4.
To maintain the connectedness between clauses, the writers of both texts also seemed to
confidently choose Themes of the clauses by picking up elements from the Rhemes, which
are then used as Theme in the following clause. This is called the “zigzag” (Eggins, 1994)
or “linear” (Fries, 1995) pattern. Instances of this pattern in each text can be described
below:
In T
5.
6.
7.
8. itting
In Text 5.5:
6. The proponents of capital punishment state three arguments to do with religious,
particularly Islamic point of view, incapacitation and the value of human life.
7. The first argument is concerned with Islamic point of view.
8. Islam << they assert>> regards death penalty as a form of punishment for
convicting murder or adultery.
9. This, <they say>, is stated in the Qur’an, surah Al-Bakarah verse 178,
ext 5.7:
The proponents of capital punishment claim at least three positions.
The first argument [[they claim]] is [[that capital punishment is able to deter
people from [[committing crimes]] ]].
In this case, David R. Frances states,
“ Capital punishment has a unique power [[to deter people from [[comm
crimes]] ]]”.
rom all striking features above, other interesting features of theme choices in the
hich were not present in diagnostic writings can be delineated as follows:
Predicated Themes, especially in Text 5.5, expressed in: It is by [[exalting the
highest penalty for the taking of human life; and It is [[ to appreciate the human
Apart f
stage, w
•
223

life]]). The effect of these Themes is “to make it explicit that this (i.e. by exalting the
highest penalty for the taking of human life and “to appreciate the human life”), and
nothing else around is the news value of this particular information unit” (see
Halliday,1994, p. 59, and discussion above). Furthermore, it functions to direct the
•
•
n
pronouns, like the proponents of capital punishment, and the use of impersonal it
and nominal groups, many of which are abstract, like the first argument, the law of
reader to interpret the information structure in the intended way (Ibid).
More frequency of conjunctions as structural Themes. These structurals are seldom
used at the beginning of a sentence, which indicates that the text is “highly written
English” (Ravelli, 2000, p. 55). Instances in Text 5.5 are: that, if, until, when, and,
then, even if; and in Text 5.7 are: although, because, as, if, that, and, since. Some
of these conjunctions are also consequential (i.e: because, although, if, since), which
indicates a movement away from the here and now situation – a feature of CL as
mentioned above. Consequential conjunctions also suggest that the writer presented
reasons and conclusions (Thompson, 1996), which are essential aspects of
arguments, and instances of reasoning skills, as also mentioned earlier.
• More frequency of topical Themes, realised in proper names, such as Edward Koch;
Lanuel Smith; Rasul (Muhammad-several times) (in Text 5.5), and David R. Frances
and the result of a study: The murder rate in USA; Statistics from the Home Office in
Britain (in Text 5.7), shows the writers’ sound background knowledge about the
issue, which also relates to the writer’s awareness of “what the text is about” –
another aspect of CL taught (see Chapters 2 and 4). The presence of proper names,
defined experientially that “there exists only one, at least in the relevant body of
knowledge” (Halliday, 1994a, p. 189) also helps to strengthen the accuracy and
precision of arguments and shows some CT dispositionas and abilities, such as “try
to be well-informed”, and “use and mention credible sources”, as mentioned earlier.
The last significant feature of Themes is regarding the writers’ attempt to foreground
objectivity in their arguments through replacing first personal pronouns indicating
the writer’s positioning and collective interactional Themes, by third perso
assigned as Theme in impersonal projections, expressed in it is said, it is reported, it
is asserted. At times too, first and second person pronouns are replaced by nouns
224

qishash, her repentance, the proponents of death penalty, death penalty, law (Text
5.5) and the first argument, the murder rate, this fact, capital punishment, the risk,
life imprisonment, this lack of public confidence (Text 5.7). These indicate the
ter’ ed y loi f ode”
ess 85a, p. 4 . In ter of CT, this indicates an p t objecti y, that a
d C ould ha tried to ke in thinking ab t an issue, a entioned earlier.
wri s enhanc maturit in exp ting “the orms of langua
attem
ge in written m
(Kr , 19 7) ms t a vit
goo T w ve ma ou s m
Experientially, the stage commences with a verbal process: state (Text 5.5) and claim (Text
5.7), with the proponents of capital punishment as a Sayer. This seems appropriate as the
stage deals with arguments proposed by the proponents of capital punishment. Both texts
use various processes, as can be seen in Table 5.18 (see also Appendices 16.10 and 16.14).
Table 5.18 Processes Employed in the Arguments in favour Element of Texts 5.5 and 5.7
Process
types
and Possessive
Behav Exist
Text 5.5 28 8 21 7 3 - 2
Text 5.7 34 8 22 9 5 - 3
The most striking feature of process types is that the stage in both texts (as in the jointly-
constructed one) use considerable number of verbal and mental processes in addition to
material and relational ones. This does not only reflect an analytical feature of the texts, a
feature of critical writing, as alluded to earlier, but also suggests that the text is concerned
with “dialogue” (DSP, 1994), with the unfolding of some series of arguments, put forward
by those who support capital punishment. This seems to be consistent with the function of
the stage and the nature of a Discussion genre, as discussed in Chapter 2, Section 2.5.5.2.
Instances of verbal processes in Text 5.5 are: The proponents of capital punishment state
three arguments …; they assert. Some of them are in embedded clauses: The third
argument [[claimed by…]] and passive voice: This is stated in the Qur’an. In Text 5.7 they
occur in: In this case, David. R Frances states, and also in passive voice: it is asserted, it is
said. The presence of these verbal processes may suggest that the students could draw on
their field knowledge “to dialogue with other discourses” (Macken-Horarik, 1997, p. 88) and
to question different constructions of knowledge, which is relevant to their awareness of
what the text is about, who is the writer and to whom, as alluded to earlier. A striking feature
225

related to verbal process, (which is also the case in the subsequent stage), as the result of
research conducted prior to the writing activity, is the frequent occurrences of an
“unconscious Participant” (Eggins, 1994, p. 251) which is responsible for the verbal process,
such as hadith (Text 5.5), and statistics from the Home Office in Britain (Text 5.7).
Moreover, mental processes are mostly cognition to construe the experience of sensing –
“todenote the mental change” (Mathiessen, 1998, p. 332) as in: they think; to judge guilty
people (in Text 5..5) and although some people may find, Therefore the proponents of
capital punishment think, (in Text 5.7), or to construe a belief, as in they believe (Text 5.7).
These may indicate the writer’s attempt to enhance the breadth and sufficiency of the texts.
Other frequently appearing process types, such as material processes can be found in
illustrations or examples given by the writer to support each argument, as in she came to
sul, when she had given birth to her baby (Text 5.5); and The murder rate in USA
Ra
dropped … , what will happen to them (Text 5.7). While relational processes involving
attribution can be seen in: that the law of qishash is applicable for murder, The third
argument [[…]] is concerned with the value of human life (Text 5.5); and Life imprisonment
would not be equally effective with capital punishment; The second argument [[…]] relates
to the incapacitation of criminals (Text 5.7), those involving identification in Whatever the
court’s finding is (Text 5.5) and that capital punishment is the most effective way … (Text
5.7). The last process type – existential occurs only occasionally, and can be found in: There
as
w a woman …. (Text 5.5); and there have been 71 murders … (Text 5.7).
The use of various processes above, especially verbal and mental ones, indicates the
students’ improvement in writing capacity “which is the result of their learning to write and
research, which had enabled them to hear other voices and to incorporate them in their
writing and thinking” (Adam and Artemewa, 2002, p. 195). The presence of illustrations and
examples, realised in other process types, such as material processes may suggest that the
writer “did not only tell the readers but also showed them” (Chaffee et al, 2002), a typicality
of a critical thinker in writing, as outlined earlier.
226

To turn to Participants in the stage, the most striking feature, apart from those mentioned in
Theme selection above, is the frequency of Participants realised in long nominal groups,
some of which use clause embeddings, attached to nominalisations. Examples are: The third
argument [[claimed by those who are in favour of death penalty]]…(Text 5.5) and The first
argument they claim, the third argument [[upheld by the advocates of capital punishment,
particularly in Indonesia]] (Text 5.7). Nominalisation, which is a characteristic of all adult
discourse (Halliday, 1994a, p. 342), as alluded to earlier, also realises a more academic
register as well as the writers’ confidence and maturity in writing the text, which in turn
suggests their significant writing development (Colombi, 2002, p. 69-70). Moreover,
nominalisations, which are metaphorical expressions, play a very crucial role, especially in
persuasive texts, as is the case with these texts, to make arguments sound and “not
accessible to debate” (Martin, 1985). At the same time, the presence of embedded clauses in
nominalisations and other nominal groups, such as: Richard Biegewald [[released after 18
years of imprisonment]], … a chance[[ to defend themselves]], … no need [[ to argue about
it]] (Text 5.5), and …some countries [[which implement capital punishment]]…, …the most
ffective way [[to reduce crime rather than life imprisonment]] (Text 5.7) shows that the
imilarly, various Circumstances help to add significant experiential information. These
e
students had moved in the direction of a more “literate or written language to more formal
registers that use main clauses with embedded clauses” (Colombi, 2002, p. 84). The final
significant feature in terms of Participants is concerned with the writers’ effort to use many
ways of saying the same thing, such as how to refer to the proponents of capital punishment
by providing a range of options, like: The proponents of capital punishment; those who are
in favour of death penalty (Text 5.5) and the proponents of capital punishment; those [[who
defend capital punishment]]; the advocates of capital punishment (Text 5.7). This shows the
writers’ attempt to avoid disempowering others and positioning themselves (Ivanic and
Janks, 1992, p. 313).
S
happen in Circumstances of Location in place: in the Qur’an Surah Al Bakarah, of Manner:
in a proper way, of Cause: for the taking of human life, of Matter: about it, of Comparison:
like her (Text 5.5), and Circumstances of Location in place: in Singapore, of Manner:
precisely, of Cause: of murder or drug trafficking, of Comparison: with capital punishment,
227

of Intensity: from 24,562 in 1993 to 18,209 in 1997 (Text 5.7). The use of these
Circumstances, some of which exemplify the implementation of capital punishment, gives
more precision and clarity to the meaning of the propositions. In academic writing, this is
desirable, advisable and even necessary to clarify the writer’s meaning (Hinkel, 2002, p.
147).
Interpersonally, the stage in both texts effectively uses a range of instances of modality.
Modality of certainty, like in previous texts, is expressed in unmodulated finites in the
universal present tense, as in Islam regards death penalty as a form of punishment for
convicting murder; the law of qishash is applicable for murder (Text 5.5) and capital
punishment has a unique power, capital punishment is the most effective way … (Text 5.7).
Meanwhile, hypothetical modalities are expressed in various modal verbs, such as can, to
construe potentiality of capital punishment in “subjective implicit orientation” (Halliday,
1994a, p. 359): only death can incapacitate criminals; only death penalty can accomplish
this end (Text 5.5) and [[that capital punishment can deter crime]] (Text 5.7). In some
cases, modal verb can is used to construe the potentiality of criminals who are (are not)
sentenced to death, as in: criminals cannot commit crimes anymore; otherwise the
murderers can harm prison staffs, …(Text 5.5). Potentiality occasionally is expressed in
objective implicit orientation, as in: that imprisonment will be able to make bad people into
good ones,…[[that some criminals [[who still serve their punishment in jail]] are still
capable of [[committing crimes]] (Text 5.5); and one in objective explicit orientation, as in:
it is almost impossible [[for the prison system in Indonesia to gain public’s confidence]]
(Text 5.7). Other modal verbs also show probability, such as will (some instances discussed
above), may and would (particularly in Text 5.7), realised respectively in: Although some
eople may find; since such person may escape and Life imprisonment…would expose
p
prison staffs…, that life imprisonment would not be equally effective with capital
punishment. At times too, both texts use various Mood Adjuncts to express the writers’
judgment about the statement, such as: permanently (Text 5.5); actually, precisely (Text
5.7). All these modalities, may suggest that the writers’ confidence and “honesty, modesty,
proper caution and diplomacy in presenting arguments” (Swales’ 1990a, p. 174). This is also
evidenced by the absence of universal statements, which was a feature of the diagnostic and
228

the Joint Construction texts. This, as alluded to earlier, may entail the progression in the skill
of argument, an essential component of CT, from “knowing what is true to contemplating
what may be true” (Kuhn, 1991, p. 297).
Conspicuous by its absence is the use of the first and second person pronouns, which may
constitute the writers’ desire to keep their tenor impersonal. This is evidenced by the use of
passive forms of mental or verbal processes when the writers presented facts, as in: it is
stated in Surah Al Bakarah verse 33, [[that Allah gives authority for heir of a victim [[…]]
(Text 5.5) and it is said, that its population knows precisely (Text 5.7) and projecting clauses
eanwhile (Text 5.5)
ve information about the state of the
iscourse and the relation of discourse entities and discourse representations to one another
pponents of capital punishment, again, they have an important role in structuring the text,
unishment. In this stage, again, the writers efficiently developed the text by successfully
ext 5.7) and hyper-Themes (clauses 62, 76, and 93 in Text 5.5 and 59, 82, and 95 in Text
velopment, the significance of which has also been discussed above.
or “metadiscourse” (Fairclough, 1992b): they think; they assert (Text 5.5) and they believe
(Text 5.7). The significance of these various features of distancing devices, apart from those
mentioned earlier, is that they allow the text to be understood not only by those who possess
a shared, unspoken, implicit understanding of certain relevant features of the context, but
also those distant readers. This is because meanings are made available not only to those
who share an implicit understanding of the context (Bersntein, 1971, p. 14, see also DSP,
1994, p. 122) but also those distant readers.
5.4.2.3 Arguments against Element
The element in both texts commences with a contrasting textual Theme realised in a
conjunctive Theme or “discourse operator” (Polanyi, 2001, p. 266): m
and on the other hand (Text 5.7). These Themes, gi
d
(Ibid, p. 267; see also Martin and Rose, 2003, p. 120). Combined with a topical Theme the
o
and are in line with the function of the stage, to present opposing argumens on capital
p
exploiting higher-level Themes, including macro-Theme i (clause 61 in Text 5.5 and 58 in
T
5.7). With these higher-level Themes, again, the stage effectively exploits multiple theme
de
229

In Text 5.5 the development can be described below:
with
2. ]] is regarding
6. ent is related to
8. ent [[advocated by the opponents of capital punishment]] is to do with
criminal's
human right.
rom the description above, both texts are much more efficient in manipulating the multiple
heme development, as both writers seemed to successully stage the arguments by
incongruently-realised logical linkers which are reinforcing each other with
involving various sources, including substitutions one to different nominalisations referring
e second position, the third strand). This, as Eggins (1994, p. 303) states,
as the effect of maintaining a strong topical focus in the text, while avoiding simple
eme development, both texts also use the zig-zag pattern,
ing for short periods. For example:
1. Meanwhile the opponents of death penalty adopt three positions, concerned
6
deterence, humanity and injustice.
The first argument
6 [[proposed by the opponents of death penalty
deternece.
The second argument [[h
7 ighlighted by the opponents of capital punishm
humanity.
The last argum
9
injustice.
In Text 5.7. it can be seen as follows:
58. On the other hand, the opponents of capital punishment highlight three arguments.
59. The first one relates to the imperfect justice, due to the discrimination on the application
of the death penalty.
The second position [[claimed by those [[who oppose capital punishment]] ]] is regarding
the mistaken conviction.
94. The third strand of the opposition of capital punishment s viewed from the
F
T
manipulating
Theme selection. Text 5.7, in particular, seems to succeed in exploiting various Themes
to arguments ( th
h
repetition. Apart from multiple-Th
combined with theme reiteration, some occur
230

in Text 5.5:
punishmnet]] is related
t penalty is barbaric
and it is agaist the value of human life.
72.
73.
This pr
while T a clear focus (Eggins, 1994, p.
303).
Other
improv
mentio
These,
•
alty, law
76. The second argumment highlighted by the opponents of capital
to humanity.
77. they believe
78. Tha death
79.
While in Text 5.7,
71. It can be seen from the case of Akbar Tanjung.
He was accused of doing corruption of 40 billion rupiahs,
he was only charged 3 years of imprisonment for his action.
esence of multiple-Theme and the zig-zag patterns signals a more writtern-like text,
heme reiteration in particular, provides the text with
but
significant features of Theme selections, which indicate the writers’ considerable
ement in their capacity to organise a text, to achieve its purpose, are similar to those
ned in the preceding element, the significance of which has also been discussed.
among others are:
• The use of various conjunctions, such as that, and, but (in both texts), some are
continuatives, which tell the readers “additional steps” (Martin and Rose, 2003, p.
120), such as, furthermore,(Text 5.5) and moreover (Text 5.7) and consequential: so,
though (Text 5.5) and because, therefore (Text 5.7).
Long nominal groups and nominalisations as Themes, occurring in: The first
argument [[proposed by the opponents of capital punishment]], death penalty, any
form of death penalty, the discriminatory or unequal use of death pen
discrimination (Text 5.5) and the discriminatory or unequal use of death penalty, a
231

wrongful execution, the imperfection of justice [[proposed by the opponents of
n pronouns indicating the writers thematised
themselves by third person pronouns referring to authority (or illustration of cases);
r w he of T h a (referring to
tion, Chairm of Le Assis ce Body ), report from the
eral A unting O ice (Te .5) an e (referring to Akbar njung) f 3,860
capital punishment (in Text 5.7).
• The replacement of first perso
or prope names as ell as t result study as hemes, suc
Indonesia
s: he
Nasu the an gal tan in a
Gen cco ff xt 5 d H Ta , o
persons executed in the US from 1930 up to now (Text 5.7); or impersonal it
assigned as Theme in impersonal projections: it is reported; it is asserted.
• Frequent occurrence of the passive voice, particularly in Text 5.7, such as that
innocent people can be wrongfully sentenced to death, several of those convicted
were put to death, which allows another Participant to become Theme.
Experientially, like in the preceding element, this element in both texts use various process
types, as described in Table 5.19 below.
Table 5.19 Process Types Employed in the Arguments Against Element of Texts 5.5 and 5.7
and Possessive
Behav Exist
Text 5.5 21 5 14 8 16 2 -
Text 5.7 25 3 20 12 5 3 2
From Table 5.19 above, it is apparent that the preponderance of material processes in both
texts (21 and 25 in Texts 5.5 and 5.7 respectively) is followed by the frequent uses of
verbal processes (14 and 20 respectively), the significance of which has also been
discussed. Instances of material processes occur in: [[executing criminals]] cannot deter
criminals from convicting crime; that he is to die tomorrow (Text 5.5) and in: legal council
depends in large measure on [[how much money is available for the defense]], therefore
capital punishment cheapens the value of human life (Text 5.7). Verbal processes (some in
embedded clauses) can be seen in the proponents capital punishment point out; the second
argument [[highlighted by the opponents of capital punishment]]; the last arguments
[[advocated by the opponents of capital punishment]]…(Text 5.5), and in … statistics in the
US reveals …, the protesters of capital punishment point out, Moreover, the imperfection of
justice[[proposed by opponents of capital punishment]] is also indicated by racism issue
232

(Text 5.7). A significant feature of verbal processes, as in the preceding stage, is that the
Participants responsible for the verbal processes are frequently not conscious, as can be seen
in: a comparison between the US, Singapore and Britain reveals; a report from the General
Accounting office showed (Text 5.5) and a report from the General Accounting office
oncluded
c ; statistics in the US also reveals (Text 5.7). This, as mentioned earlier, suggests
that both writers were well-informed (Mulholland, 1994) and grasped “the concept”
(Lipman, 2003) about the topic discussed, which relates to their CL capacity, particularly
their awareness of “what is the topic of the text” (Wallace, 1992 a,b). At times too, verbal
processes are exploited in “impersonals” (Halliday, 1994a, p. 266), the significance of which
has also been mentioned above. These occur in it is stated [[that the criminal suffers a
mental torture]] (Text 5.5) and it is also claimed [[that unexecuted criminals will be able
to commit further crimes,…]] (Text 5.7). Mental processes in this stage, however, is not
used frequently, as the writer of both texts presented others’ representations through what
they say, which is still in line with the function of the stage. Mental processes are used to
construe a belief: They believe, (twice); so he believes (Text 5.5) and a change in cognition
They contend, (Text 5.7).
Conspicuous in the process types, as can be seen in Table 5.19 is the frequency of relational
processes (i.e. circumstantial, cause), especially in Text 5.5 (counting 16). These processes
do not simply indicate that the two participants are linked with each other, but there is a
sense of causality in this connection, namely that the first causes this connection with the
se are realised in
second in “rebus” (Halliday, 1994b, p. 141; 2002a, p. 174). The
circumstantial processes, as in: that the gas chamber causes a slow and cruel death, (its
xistence) may lead to unjustified verdicts (Text 5.5) and which could lead to the execution
tion of consequence between
e two participants, (ie. The gas chamber and a slow and cruel death; (its existence) (death
e
of innocent people (Text 5.7). The effect of these relational processes is that they reduce the
number of conjunctions and describe the field in a richer experience through the
employment of a logical metaphor. Logically, there is a rela
th
sentence) and unjustified verdicts and which (capital punishment) and the execution of
innocent people) which is usually expressed in “if … then” (see Martin and Rose, 2003, p.
140-141). However, in this case, they are reconstrued as a process (causes, lead to). Thus, as
233

Martin and Rose further argue, we can unpack such a sequence as that of two figures
related by conjunctions:
If the gas chamber is used, then a slow and cruel death will appear, or
If the death penalty is implemented, then innocent people will be executed.
Apart from logical metaphor, the use of relational processes above also involves
experiential metaphors, as the participants are expressed in nominalisations (a slow and
cruel death; its existence; the execution of innocent people).
Other Transitivity elements which help to build important experiential meaning are
Participants and Circumstances. In these two aspects, both writers seemed to exploit the
same strategy as that in the preceding stage, to build significant experiential information. In
e interest of space, therefore, they will not be described in detail here, except for two
discrimination. In addition, in Text 5.7 are: execution, crimes, murder rate, death penalty,
th
features. First relates to the presence of specific Circumstances of location in time and place,
which give special impact to the readers, as mentioned above, because they may give
occasions for narrative remembering, especially regular occurrences regarding capital
punishment, like tomorrow morning at 8.00 a.m., in his article 'Capital Punishment: the
justification of death'. These may function as “moral instruction in how to behave” (Linde,
2001, p. 526-527) to avoid capital punishment. Second, regarding the Participants the
writers related the arguments presented with Indonesian law conditions by mentioning
several cases, such as that stated by Nasution (Text 5.5) and the case of the chief of
Indonesian House of Representative, Akbar Tanjung (Text 5.7). This implies the writers’
evaluation on the relevance of the materials they read with the text they were constructing -
a feature of CL, discussed earlier.
The last significant feature of Transitivity resources in this stage (see also in the preceding
one) is concerned with the frequency of technical words related to capital punishment, or
crimes committed by those to whom capital punishment was imposed. Instances in Text 5.5
are: clemency, victims, death sentence, deterrence, execution, homicide rate, lethal
injection, crime, trials, unjustified verdicts, appellate courts, injustice, law
234

convicted, murder, drug trafficking, life imprisonment, that unexecuted criminals,
murders, the prison system, the discriminatory or unequal use of death penalty, legal
ouncil, accused, sentence, innocent people, criminals, the 1945 Constitution. All these
c
lead to the creation of a text which tends to be “restricted on a specialised topic” (Stubb,
2001, p. 314). This, again, may indicate that the writers were well-informed, having
relatively strong background knowledge about capital punishment – an important aspect of
metacognition (Marzano, et al, 1988, p. 13-14). From a CL perspective, as mentioned above,
this relates to students’ awareness of what is the topic of the text. This, according to Barnett
(1997, p. 70-71), constitutes a reflexive capacity, which is part of what might be termed
metacritical capacities, fundamental to higher education. All these may suggest that the
stage Building Knowledge of the Field in the teaching program, as described in Chapter 4,
contributed to the students’ confidence and competence in exploiting various technical
words relevant to the topic and genre.
Interpersonally, the stage in both texts effectively uses a range of modalities, to assert
intrusion and relationship with the reader, the significance of which, again, has been
discussed above. Conspicuous is the presence of modalities showing certainty, as in
previous texts, expressed in the universal present tense, as stated by the opponents of capital
punishment regarding the characteristics, especially the bad impacts of capital punishment.
These happen in among others: that capital punishment has little to do with the decrease of
homicide rate, that death penalty is barbaric (Text 5.5) and that legal system in Indonesia
is still partial, race is an important factor in [[determining [[who is sentenced to death]]
(Text 5.7). Modal verbs are also used, like can to construe possibility and potentiality, in
This can be seen from the similar homicide rate…, that death sentence can’t be employed
yet in Indonesia (Text 5.5) and It can be seen from the case of Akbar Tanjung, that innocent
people can be wrongfully sentenced to death (Text 5.7).Occasionally the modal verb can is
sed in negative polarity, as in [[excuting criminals]] cannot deter other criminals from
u
convicting crime; that death sentence can’t be employed in Indonesia (Text 5.5). Other
modal verbs are: may in though may appear to be more human; it may lead to unjustified
verdicts; will in which will determine the skill of the legal system (Text 5.5), while in Text
5.7 are: could in: which could lead to the execution of innocent people and likely to claim
235

explicitly that the probability is objective (Halliday,1994a, p. 362): … those [[who murdered
whites]] were more likely to be sentenced to death…. In addition, Modal Adjuncts occur in
some instances, such as: but is greatly connected to the country’s cultural background, but
is highly related to race; [[that race highly determines …]] …(Text 5.5), and Inevitably, the
eath penalty has been imposed most frequently on the poor; This <<>> is mainly
d because
capital punishment, they, and even more
forms of mental or verbal processes are also effectively
used, with some being in enclosed clauses, the impact of which has been delineated above.
… (Text 5.7).
In addition to their competence in manipulating modalities, expressed in strengthening or
intensifying expressions above, the writers also seemed to be capable of expressing the
probability in various ways. This shows their capacity in exploiting “mitigation strategy”
(Wodak and Reisigl, 2001, p. 386), which is important in persuasive text and shows their
care in presenting arguments. This, for example, can be seen in the use of modality likely in
Text 5.7, which is expressed in tend to be in Text 5.5 in the same message: … that those
[[who murdered white Americans]] tend to be executed …(Text 5.5) and … that those [[
who murdered white Americans]] are more likely to be executed …(Text 5.7).
Another significant feature of the interpersonal strategies is again related to the distancing
feature of the stage, and the manifestation of the writer’s desire to keep their tenor
impersonal. This is again revealed by replacement of first and second person pronouns, by
the use of expressions, such as the opponents of
distant pronoun those. Some passive
This can be seen in: it is claimed (clause 73, 78); it is stated (clause 106) (Text 5.5); and it is
said (clause 63); it is revealed (clause 77) (Text 5.7). These passive forms of verbal or
mental processes also occur frequently, especially when the writers presented facts, turning
it into a clause, as in: Moreover, it is stated [[ that the criminal suffers a mental torture]]
(Text 5.5) and it is argued [[ that the legal system in Indonesia is still partial]] (Text 5.7).
Both texts also use projecting clauses, verbal and mental, such as: They believe; they argue
(Text 5.5), and David Hoekema notes; the protesters of capital punishment point out (Text
5.7). All these reflect the writers’ consistent capacity in presenting arguments and organsing
information – CT skills emphasised in this study.
236

5.4.2.4 Recommendation Element
Textually the stage in Text 5.5 commences with a marked-topical Theme after looking at
both sides of the arguments, and in Text 5.7 with a closing Theme Thus, combined with a
marked topical Theme after looking at both sides of arguments (Text 5.7). The significance
of these types of Themes, apart from those mentioned above, is that they make explicit the
e discourse (Polanyi, 2001, p. 267), especially Text 5.7 which
es, especially because in the stage
tes that the writers presented reasons, while Therefore and Thus conclusions. Both are
what capital punishment is but also why capital punishment should
or should not be implemented – instances of CL and CT (particularly reasoning and inquiry
skills) the
wri ematising themselves, realised in interpersona I really believe, I think
(Te and rongly ue; I believ Even th gh I realise (Text 5.7). These
xpressions indicate that the writers “emphasised the point” (Eggins, 1994, Ravelli, 2000),
shift in the indices of th
suggests that the writer would present conclusions. The marked topical Theme in the first
message, again, suggests that the writer foregrounded that the position taken or
recommendation given is not superficial, but based on deep and thoughtful thinking. Both
writers showed the readers that they had carefully considered other perspectives, opinions or
options and that they had very good, if not decisive, reasons to think that they are
inadequate, reasons that they were willing to share (Reichenbach, 2001, p. 99). Through the
employment of these marked-topical Themes, as mentioned earlier and can be seen in the
delineation later, the stage gathers up the meanings which have accumulated. This has led
the stage in both texts to successfully function as macro-New, which can be shown to
function in parallel way to an abstract in typical texts (Martin, 1992, p. 458).
Other Theme choices in the stage are mostly topical and some occur in multiple Themes: a
combination of topical - unmarked and marked and textual, which results in a cohesive
stage. These can be seen in amog others: that Indonesia;if law discrimination; even though
it can incapacitate criminals; and in this way; Besides, in Islam… (Text 5.5) and
Therefore, I; where crimes; because those cases; Even though I realise; However, the
decision (Text 5.7). The presence of those textual Them
indica
critical aspects of arguments, essential components of CT, which also relates to the writers’
awareness of not only of
development. Conspicuous is the presence of first person pronoun I indicating
ters th l Themes,
xt 5.5) I s arg do e; ou
e
237

which is required in the Discussion genre, and “took a position” (Ennis, 1987, p.12) or a
standpoint (van Eemeren, etal, 2002) or a critical point (Barnett, 1997) – a critical thinking
disposition concerned with in this study.
Experientially the stage in both texts uses various types of processes, described in Table
5.20 below.
Table 5.20 Process Types Employed in the Recommendation Element of Texts 5.5 and 5.7
Process
Types
Material Mental Verbal Intensive Circ, Cause, and
Possessive
Behav Exist
Text 5.5 10 7 1 4 1 - 1
Text 5.7 14 5 1 1 4 - 1
Table 5.20 suggests that both texts use a considerable number of material processes, which
seems to be normal, as the stage presents reasons to support arguments or ideas, which
consist of facts on what has happened regarding the implementation of capital punishment.
All these are expressed in material processes, some of which are in embedded clauses, as in:
Even though it can incapacitate criminals; But when the time [[when criminals are treated
ardless of their race, or status]] arrives (Text 5.5) ; and where crimes have
equally, reg
been rising sharply; …some negative excess [[coming from the imposement (imposition) of
capital punishment…(Text 5.7). Moreover, it seems natural that mental processes count the
second highest number as it is in this stage the writer construed their opinions and belief
about the issue discussed, realised in: I think; I really believe (Text 5.5) and I consider; I do
believe (Text 5.7).Verbal process occurs only once, in: Indonesia can refer to Islamic rules
(Text 5.5) and Therefore I strongly argue (Text 5.7). Of particular interest regarding verbal
and mental processes, which is also related to the Theme selection above, is that the writer
becomes the entity that carries the role of a Senser, or a Sayer (especially in Text 5.7),
which makes the ownership of the arguments clear, as outlined above and will be discussed
later.
Interpersonally, both texts use a range of modalities, again, from certainty, expressed in the
present tense, as in: Islam is not Indonesia’s constitution; In Islam, death penalty is the last
alternative (Text 5.5) and those cases have a devastating impact toward society in large
scale (Text 5.7) to hypothetical modality and potential, expressed in: Even though it can
238

incapacitate criminals; Indonesia can refer to Islamic rules (Text 5.5) and there might be
some negative excess (Text 5.7). Some Modal Adjuncts are also used to intensify
expressions or attitudinal evaluation of the state of affairs, expressed in really in I really
believe (Text 5.5) and strongly and especially in I strongly argue and it especially should be
focused upon…(Text 5.7).The use of these intensifying expressions is very important in
persuasive text, as discussed above. It also shows that the writer stressed her belief “against
superficial rationality” (Gee, 1990, p. 109), as is the case in Text 5.5, or a forceful
arguments or obligations, in Text 5.7, based on and supported by arguments previously
presented.This is again, a typical characteristic of a critical thinker. Meanwhile, modality of
modulation is expressed several times in both texts, which is an interest, realised in modal
verbs, such as: should (in positive and negative polarity in Text 5.5) in: that Indonesia
should not employ death penalty yet; Indonesia should employ death penalty, and in Text
5.7 can be seen in examples above. An interesting feature of interpersonal strategies
employed by both writers is the way they construed objective modulations and their capacity
to exploit interpersonal metaphors by turning obligations from commands to statements. In
Text 5.5 the writer used a pseudo clause, or “cleft construction” (Iedema, 1997, p. 86), to
Ho v
linguis
modula
the decision of [[sentencing death penalty]] must be fair, just and adequate, corresponds to
the proposed rule or law (McCarthy and Carter, 1994, p. 130) or the social obligations
foreground objectivity and to incongruently realise a command: It is improper [[to employ
capital punishment]]. In this case, the writer’s disagreement with the implementation of
capital punishment is realised incongruently in the Attribute improper. Another case
showing objectivity in a command occurs in a non-finite passive voice: There are several
aspects [[to be put into consideration]]. This effort, to foreground objectivity of a command
is also apparent in Text 5.7, indicated by the frequent use of passive voice, as in: that capital
punishment needs to be implemented; it is still needed to be imposed… . This may suggest
both writers’ capacity in exploiting various linguistic resources to make the communication
with the reader work best, by attempting to sustain their objectivity in presenting arguments.
we er, in terms of expressing modulation, the writer of Text 5.7 seemed to have a richer
tic resources, shown by the exploitation of varying vocabularies to express
tion, or necessity, such as need (above) and must (twice). The first must in However,
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inh n
be prep
a stron
express
of whic
• he strength of the command can
be adjusted, such as in examples above, where the writer used must and need which
specified, it is more difficult to
challenge (Kress and Hodge, 1979, p. 123-124).
ctual cases had been established, as discussed above, the employment of
ul.
ere t in the information (Peters, 1986, p. 175) and the second must in Therefore we must
ared to execute criminals …is the concluding evaluation by the author and represents
g imperative. That both texts use modulated declaratives, rather than commands to
obligation, indicates the writers’ capacity in interpersonal metaphors the advantage
h are:
First, the obligation can be graded (DSP, 1992), so t
are high modulation and should median (Halliday, 1994a, p. 362; Eggins, 1994, p.
189).
• Second, declarative commands can have more than just you as the subject. This
means that responsibility for carrying out the command can be shared around, thus
cooperative action (DSP. 1992, p. 206). Moreover, declarative commands make no
claims that the speaker is the source of the command. Because it is depersonalised
and given an impersonal authority which is not
Another interesting matter regarding interpersonal strategies is that both writers used first
person pronoun I (Text 5.5) and I and we (Text 5.7), which makes explicit the “ownership”
or “source” of the modalisation. The use of these first person pronouns is desirable in this
element as it is at this stage that the writer is required to state his/her point in the Discussion
genre. As the strong personal opinions appear in one and the last part of the text, after more
impersonal and fa
the first person pronouns makes the text more powerf
Overall, the interpersonal strategies used in this stage show the writers’ endeavour to state
forceful opinions, but in an objective and careful way, which is typical of a critical thinker.
Interpersonal strategies also show the writers’ CT disposition, especially in “presenting
argumentation in written form” (Ennis, 1987, p. 15). Finally, the fact that both writers make
recommendations for action, shows that they engage in “knowledge-transformation” and
that they are “evaluating rather than reporting” (Dudley-Evans, 2002, p. 132), a feature of
critical reading.
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5.4.3. Summary of Discussion of Texts 5.5 and 5.7
This Section has presented a discussion of two independently-constructed texts. The
analyses above have served to demonstrate that the program yielded very similar quality of
the participants’ writing products and their use of strategies to compose a Discussion genre,
despite a slight variation in the patterns of progress. With their different capacity as shown
ll as global unity, which thus
otes the relevance and precision of the texts. The texts effectively developed by using
to effectively communicate with an audience or the reader. In terms of CL, the texts show
in diagnostic texts taken into account, this seems to be relevant to the principle of the GBA
as a pedagogy for inclusion and access, which “allows greater, fairer, possibly equal access
to the cultural and social resources and benefits of society” as suggested by Kress (1993, see
Chapter 2, Section 2.5.5). The discussion above has shown that the two students (especially
the lower one) had made further improvement, compared with their capacity prior to the
teaching program and even in the Joint Construction stage, not only in writing but also in CT
aspects concerned with in this study, as evidenced by the absence of some weaknesses in
CT, which were features in the diagnostic and jointly-constructed texts.
The schematic structure indicates the writers’ successful grasp and understanding of the
demands of the generic form of a Discussion genre, to achieve the purpose and the function
of the genre. This, as alluded to above, relates to their CL awareness and various aspects of
CT concerned with in this study. In addition, the grammatical analyses indicate that the
writers had successfully begun to use some of the main conventions of written language and
argumentative discourse with consistency and accuracy. Textually the writers efficiently
employed linguistic devices as well as a combination of thematic progression (the theme
reiteration, zig-zag and multiple theme progression), is a feature of more written-like texts,
to strengthen the text’s coherence and cohesion, and local as we
prom
a combination of patterns of thematic progression. Experientially the texts use various
linguistic resources, which show the writers’ capacity to create a more written-like, more
intertextual and multivoiced text. This, again, signals various aspects of CT and a movement
towards CL, the main aspects looked at in this study. Finally, interpersonally, the writers
efficiently used various linguistic resources to create forceful but objective arguments, and
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the students’ increasing awareness of what is the topic of the text, who is the writer, to
whom, and why the text has been created, as mentioned earlier.
ements are mainly the result of the students’ learning, as described in
Chapter 4, it seems to support the hypothesis claimed by Pang (2002, p. 149), “that by
to the creation of a coherent and cohesive text. Through the effective use of a combination
As these improv
learning to study the lexico-grammatical features of texts of a certain genre, learners should
be more capable of writing in that genre.” These improvements may also suggest the value
and thus the relevance of the teaching program in Indonesian education today, which
attempts to develop and enhance students’ writing skills as well as critical capacities, again
as outlined in Chapter 1.
5.5 Conclusion
This chapter has discussed samples of texts produced by the students in various stages in the
teaching program. The texts created in the Joint Construction and Independent Construction
show that students with initially differing levels of achievement (low, mid and high) seemed
to have benefited from the program. The independently constructed texts in particular seem
to suggest that the lower group benefited more from the program than the higher one, which
coincides with the “access, inclusion and equity” idea proposed by the GBA, as discussed in
Chapter 2.
The jointly- and independently-constructed texts, produced after the teacher’s intervention,
show considerable improvement in both writing skills as well as CT and CL, which are of
vital importance in the contemporary Indonesian education. The schematic structure of these
texts suggests the students’ improvement in capacity to construct a successfully organised
text, which reflects various features or aspects of CT and CL concerned with in this study.
Similarly, the grammatical analyses of each element of the texts produced in the Joint
Construction and independent construction above, despite minor weaknesses as mentioned
earlier, show the students’ enormous development in their competence to exploit various
linguistic resources. Textually, the employment of these various linguistic resources, has led
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of the patterns of Theme progression (theme reiteration, zigzag and multiple theme patterns)
the texts develop not only locally but also globally – a feature which was not present in the
iagnostic texts. Experientially it helps to build significant experiential information and to
m which implemented the GBA, supported by the suggestions
f classroom practices from the CT movement, CP and CL was effective in improving the
ching program is worth intensive
socialisation and gradual implementation in Indonesia to help develop the teaching of
English (of reading and writing in particular), which has also been considered as a means of
enhancing critical capacities.
This seems to be supported by interview data, especially regarding the students’ perceptions
about the teaching program and the developments they thought they gained from the
teaching program, which will be discussed in Chapter 6.
d
create more intertextual and multi-voiced texts with sound and credible arguments.
Moreover, interpersonally, it helps make communication with the reader work best. All
these, at the same time also reflect various CT and CL aspects, again, investigated in this
study. These may also suggest that the teaching program applied in this study seemed to be
effective in improving the students’ writing ability, particularly in the Discussion genre, as
well as some aspects of critical capacity looked at in this study.
Thus, it seems that the research question underlying this research, to some extent, is already
answered. The teaching progra
o
students’ writing ability in the Discussion genre as well as their CT and CL, which are of
main concerns in this study and of critical importance in the contemporary Indonesian
education. It is also then quite wise to say that the tea
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CHAPTER SIX: DISCUSSION OF INTERVIEW DATA
6.1.Introduction
Chapter 5 has discussed the findings from analyses of students’ texts and has shown the
students’ development in their writing skills and critical capacities investigated in this study,
despite some aspects that still needed improvement. This chapter will discuss data from
another source, that is interviews with students, which, as outlined in Chapter 3, is
recognized as a means of “checking the accuracy of – verifying or refuting – the impressions
the researcher had gained through observations” (Fraenkel and Wallen, 2000, p. 509), as
discussed in Chapter 4, and text analyses in Chapter 5.
As also outlined in Chapter 3, Section 3.2.5.3, student teachers were interviewed twice after
the teaching program. The first time, immediately after the teaching program, aimed to find
out more about their insights as learners, in both individual and focus group interviews. Two
weeks after the focus group in this stage, as indicated in Chapter 3, Section 3.2.5.3, to test
the reliability of the students’ verbalisations, two individual interviews were conducted with
a mid and a high achiever, who had been interviewed previously. These interviews were
conducted in bahasa Indonesia by a researcher’s colleague who did not participate in the
teaching program. In the interest of space and since the students’ verbalization was similar
to and confirmed evidence from the previous interviews, the data from these interviews are
not reported in this thesis
The second time, eight months later, aimed to find out students’ perceptions of the teaching
program, not only as learners, but also as student teachers. This second interview, as
mentioned in Chapter 3, Section 3.2.5.3, was deemed important as over this period of time,
the students had had subjects which require academic writing skills (like Research Project)
and critical reading (like Extensive Reading). Moreover they had enrolled in the subject
Kuliah Kerja Nyata (obligatory social action internship for advanced students), during
which they would have a chance to visit some schools and to interact with students and
teachers of primary and secondary schools. Therefore, the second stage interview aimed to
find out the students’ perceptions of the applicability of their learning in their current
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academic accomplishment as well as the likelihood and challenges in applying the teaching
program in their own teaching.
The interviews (with the researcher) were conducted in English, although the students were
allowed to speak in bahasa Indonesia when they had difficulty in expressing ideas. They
were also structured to encourage the students to offer critical comments. The focus group,
in particular, was designed to encourage a sense of divergent opinions (Krueger and
Morgan, 1993, p. 17-18) regarding the program (see Chapter 3, Section 3.2.5.3). Quite
possibly, however, students were still very polite and still telling the researcher, who was
also the teacher, what she wanted to hear, and this is a limitation of the research design that
needs to be accounted for in any future studies of this sort.
The data from the two stages of interviews, as already indicated in Chapter 3, Section 3.2.6,
were analysed in steps. The first one was to put interview questions into categories, based on
the themes in line with the purposes of the interviews. The complete range of questions in
the first and second stage interviews can be seen respectively in Appendices 18.1 and 18.4.
The data were then classified in line with the central themes and presented in a condensed
body of information (Kvale, 1996) as described respectively in Appendices 18.2 -18.4. The
interpretation of the first stage interview data will be presented in Section 6.2, and that of the
second stage in Section 6.3.
Data from the first stage interviews generally show students’ consciousness of the value of
the program in helping them as learners. Regarding students’ developments, interview data
by and large support the findings of Chapters 4 and 5. Furthermore, data from the second
stage show most students’ learning was applicable to their current academic tasks, which
may constitute an even more direct indication of the significance of the teaching program.
However, interview data also reveal some practical aspects of the teaching program which
warrant further research and improvement in EFL teaching, in the research site in particular,
and in other Indonesian contexts in general. Some students’ responses suggest their concerns
and point to challenges in further implementation of the teaching program, among others
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mainly regarding the large size of general Indonesian classes, the nature of the centralized
curriculum and the socio-cultural background of the students.
Section 6.4 will offer a concluding discussion, bringing together the major findings from the
interviews and preparing for the general conclusions of the study as a whole in Chapter 7.
Although the discussion will not cover everything that the students said, some short extracts
will be included “to give the flavour” (Travers, 2001, p. 124) of the discussion.
6.2 Discussion of Data from the First Stage Interviews: How the Program Helped
Students as Learners
As indicated in Chapter 3, Section 3.2.5.3, seven students were involved in individual
interviews, and ten in the focus group (presented using pseudonyms). Two of them, Wati
and Candra were respectively the writers of Texts 5.1 and 5.5 and Texts 5.3 and 5.7, as
discussed in Chapter 5. Another student, Nia was the writer of Texts 5.2 and 5.6, which were
mentioned, although not closely analysed in Chapter 5. Consistent with the types of
interviews employed, the discussion of data from the first stage interview will be divided
into two subsections, the first focusing on the data from individual interviews and the second
on the focus group.
6.2.1 Discussions of Data from Individual Interviews
This section will deal with two central themes: students’ perceptions of the teaching
program, including the development they thought they gained from the teaching program
and students’ suggestions for further implementation of the teaching program.
6.2.1.1 Students’ Perceptions of the Teaching Program
As can be seen in Appendix 18.2, interview data indicate that the teaching program was
perceived by students to have achieved most of its goals. All interviewees thought the
program was useful and enjoyable, although one student indicated “a heavy burden on her
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shoulder” (Ina), and another noted “the program took up a great deal of her time” (Riya),
but “it’s worth it” (Riya).
These comments suggest students’ appreciation of the necessity of the acts of teaching, of
learning, of studying, which is not only a serious and demanding task but also pleasurable
and generates satisfaction in the teacher and students (Freire, 1998, p. 88-92). These
comments also seem to support the notion that “knowing is something demanding many
things, which makes you tired, in spite of being happy. Knowing ... , is not a weekend on a
tropical beach”(Freire and Shor, 1987, p. 79-80). From the perspective of the teaching of
ESL, students’ comments seem to coincide with the notion that “instruction must evoke
intellectual effort on the part of students, i.e. be cognitively demanding, if it is to develop
academic and intellectual abilities” (Cummins, 1996, p. 72).
One student, Ira, appeared to be aware of the importance of the program for the current
Indonesian condition, to enable students to express ideas in written form, because “in recent
condition, students usually express their ideas only in spoken language, like demonstration,
but few of them try to write their ideas and send it to newspaper, perhaps” (Ira). This is
relevant to the suggestion that serious attention should be paid to the teaching of writing
(both in English and bahasa Indonesia) in Indonesia, which has been neglected so far (see
Chapter 1, Section 1.4).
Asked about the difference between the teaching program and their normal classes, all
interviewees seemed to perceive the value of explicit teaching, in which “the teacher takes
an overtly interventionist role” (Christie, 1991) and the value of student teacher interactions
in the classroom. Wati (whose diagnostic text was analysed in Chapter 5) indicated:
The most clear difference between this program and the usual class was the intensiveness of
supervision and explanation that I have never got before, especially in writing: the steps to make an
argumentative essay, particularly a discussion and also about CT that I have learnt for the first time.
The role of the teacher in guiding us was very useful to make a good writing. When we made a good
thing, you said “good”. It encouraged me to do better. When we did something wrong, you told us
what it was supposed to be so that we could make it better (Wati).
Likewise, Warda, whose diagnostic text was categorized as low, shared the significance of
explicit teaching:
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For other lessons, explicit teaching is also needed, for example, in the subjects of Structure,
Linguistics, Reading (Warda).
These comments are contrary to the criticism of the SFL GBA that “explicit teaching is not
necessary” (Freedman, 1994, p. 197-8; 1997, p. 179). Of particular interest is Riya’s
response which portrays her consciousness of a sense of equality, resulting from explicit
teaching:
Explicit teaching is necessary, because with the teacher’s explicit explanation, we can get the
information fully, and we will not have different perspectives about what is being explained. ...
Explicit teaching is important because not all students have the same level of understanding. It will
convey the message to the students efficiently and therefore students will have ... the same level of
understanding about an issue or knowledge (Riya).
Riya’s observations support the findings discussed in Chapter 5, Section 5.4, that the
students with initially different levels of achievement produced relatively similar quality
texts, in terms of their control of the genre and their critical capacities. This is a particularly
significant finding since it coincides with the educational aim of the GBA in a first language
context, that is, “to give everyone access to literacy skills and knowledge in the fullest sense,
to allow greater, fairer, possibly equal access to the cultural and social resources and
benefits of society” (Kress, 1993, p. 28). This also goes with Martin’s suggestion that:
The GBA would take nothing for granted initially, and would not count as acquired what some and
only some of the pupils had inherited, instead, the genre-based approach would do all things for all
and would be organised with the explicit aim of providing all with the means of acquiring that, which,
although apparently a natural gift, is only given to the children of the educated classes (1993, cited in
Christie and Unsworth, 2000, p. 19-20, see Chapter 2, Section 2.5.4).
The need for explicit teaching has also been considered as important in the teaching of CT
skills and abilities, as suggested by Paul (1990, p. 217; Costa, 2003). Norris and Ennis
likewise advise that “for children (students) to learn how to employ CT, they have to be
instructed in the use of the abilities and dispositions” (1990, p. 21). All these seem to
suggest that explicit teaching is critical in every educational program, in which direct
intervention by the teacher is involved (see Christie, 1989, p. 155).
All interviewees elaborated that the controversial and current topics discussed constituted
another positive feature of the program. Conspicuous was Ina’s comment, which indicates
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the significance of appropriate topic choice to challenge the students to think critically and
to find arguments to support their position. Ina said,
The topics were interesting and challenging. They made us think before we decided our position.
They made me challenged to express my ideas. For example, when I wrote about working women, I
knew the role of women and where they should be in Islam. But I thought women should be allowed
to work. Therefore I was challenged to find arguments to say that women should be allowed to work
(Ina).
Ina appeared to be aware that a decision, or a critical stance should be made carefully,
supported by other arguments. Such a stance potentially leads to the development of a CT
disposition (Ennis, 1987). Moreover, Ina’s comment seems to justify the suggestion that the
topics of writing which can trigger students’ CT should be controversial (Chaffee et al,
2002).
Further to the matter of topic choice, interviewees also indicated that the discussions about
the topic, in which CL was incorporated, allowed them to have awareness of wider social
realities. Nia, for example, said:
The discussions helped us to promote our critical awareness about how the wider social system works,
allowed for different voices about an issue, especially about capital punishment, when I could
compare the materials you gave with the legal system in Indonesia and what happens here now. …
about working women, ... the issue was very interesting because most of us are women and we could
see that the arguments against and for working women were from different perspectives … it gave us
a lot of new knowledge that I haven’t gained before (Nia).
This comment, apart from coinciding with Chaffee et al’s (2002) above, indicates that the
materials used to teach CL should be relevant to the students (i.e. students’ gender, and
cultural experiences), as suggested by Creighton (1997, p. 438).The materials, however, as
will be discussed later, should be sufficient, but carefully selected.
As far as the stages of the teaching cycle of the GBA were concerned, all interviewees
perceived they were all crucial. Building Knowledge of the Field, for example, was
considered useful to them “to have background knowledge about the topic and thus to write
sound arguments as well as to promote critical reading” (Wati). Wati’s observation was
enhanced by Candra:
Building Knowledge of the Field made us able to analyse and interrogate texts better, based on who is
the writer, to whom, why she wrote the text, what is her arguments, what data she presents, what is
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her position, and her intention in writing the text. In short, now I can read something implicit in the
text (Candra).
Candra’s response may suggest her capacity to evaluate the soundness of arguments by
seeing the arguments and the data presented in a text. It may also reflect her awareness of
the multiplicity of interpretation of a text (Gee, 1991, p. 111; Giroux, 1992b), and her
critical reading capacity as taught in the teaching program. Her ability to read something
implicit may also indicate her capacity to read “the word and the world” (Freire and
Macedo, 1987) or to read “under the surface level”(Shor, 1999), as also already shown in
observation data, discussed in Chapter 4.
To turn to the Modelling stage, all interviewees appeared to be conscious of the goal of this
stage, as represented by Warda’s and Ina’s comments below. Warda, in particular appeared
to benefit from the discussion of the model texts to further develop her critical reading.
Warda and Ina noted:
It (the Modelling stage) helped me to understand the stages, the coherence of the text and how to
make a good paragraph (text). It also helped me write the joint and Independent Construction texts
more easily. The discussion also allowed me to examine the text critically through the teacher’s
guidance (Warda).
The Modelling stage helped us because we never had something like this before. It helped us to know
what is the correct stages of a Discussion genre, what we should put first. … Previously I didn’t know
that we should use “it is said” to say an opinion that is not ours (Ina).
Particularly interesting is Candra’s comment, which shows her capacity to relate the benefit
of the Modelling stage to the theory of learning she must have learnt, which is a feature of
CL concerned with in this study. Candra explained:
The Modelling stage was very helpful. As the first thing that a learner does in learning is imitating,
having a Modelling stage, we were trying to imitate a Discussion genre (Candra).
This supports the findings of her development, shown in her text analysed in Chapter 5,
Section 5.4, in which she presented arguments, and related them to what has been said by
authorities. Moreover, this suggests the importance of the “provision of appropriate models
for students to learn” (Christie, 1989, p. 155). In the teaching of ESL/EFL, this coincides
with the principle that “with the available model, students can have a clear concept of the
desired goal, be able to compare their work with the model and to decide how to close the
gap between the two,” (Barnes, 1999, p. 263, see also Migdalek, 2002 regarding imitation
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in EFL spoken language). With respect to imitation, Candra’s comment relates to
Vygotsky’s idea that:
… to imitate, it is necessary to possess the means of stepping from something one knows to
something new … imitation and instruction play a major role. They bring out the specifically human
qualities of the mind and lead the child (student) to new developmental levels. In learning to speak, as
in learning school subjects, it is indispensable (1962, p. 103-104; see also Vygotsky, 1994, p. 55).
Above all, Candra’s response offers a challenge to the criticism of the GBA that “students
learn new genres not by imitating models”, as argued by Freedman (1997, p. 179).
Regarding the Joint Construction stage, all students were aware of the benefit of the stage
for, among others, “collaborating and cooperating with others, … a significant role in
constructing a good writing piece” (Riya). Other students seemed to be conscious of the
stage as allowing them to engage in extended discussions about an issue in groups, as
indicated by Ina:
The Joint Construction allowed me to share ideas, to listen to others’ opinions, to ask and answer
questions to each other. It could promote my CT because in CT we should listen to other’s opinion,
and we should not just say that “we don’t agree” without looking at their background of why they say
something (Ina).
This comment is relevant to the suggestion that discussion in groups is “a very effective
means for developing the CT dispositions” (Norris and Ennis, 1990, p. 150) and “the best
way to expand one’s thinking” (Chaffee, 2000, p. 69). Similarly, in the teaching of ESL, pair
and group work has been emphasized (Nunan, 1988; Nunan and Lamb, 1996, p. 142) and
seen as an essential element, in that it offers opportunities for cooperative learning and
“real” language practice (Hyland, 1991, cited in Lunt, 2001, p. 18), with consequent gains in
language proficiency (Bejarano, 1987, Ibid).
However, pair and group work can also be problematic (see Nunan and Lamb, 1996, p. 143
in ESL context and Fisher, 1994, p.160-161 in first language one), and in this study, this
was evidenced by some students’ resistance to the Joint Construction, as represented by
Nia’s comment:
The Joint Construction was very new to me. We had to combine and share our ideas. And it was not
easy. We found we always had to argue first to decide what we should write for the argument and it
spent a lot of time than individual constructions. Regarding CT, it was helpful in teaching us not to be
selfish in pouring my ideas and to help with each other, especially when someone got stuck (Nia).
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As discussed in Chapter 4, Section 4.3, students’ resistance to the Joint Construction,
however, does not mean that the stage was not important and thus should be avoided.
Rather, despite the possibility of the time consumed, it may actually constitute one impact of
the centralized curriculum, with the teacher being a central authority. This, to some extent,
may have led to students’ passivity and being unaccustomed to listening to friends. This is
consistent with the argument that chief among the difficulties of developing critical
consciousness are encountering learners’ resistance to an active and engaged approach to
learning (Freire and Shor,1987; see also Degener, 1999; Auerbach, 1999). Therefore, some
effort should be made to build students’ consciousness that “learning can be perceived as a
collective endeavour that takes place in a participatory framework, not in an individual
mind” (Adam and Artemewa, 2002, p. 196).
Moreover, as already mentioned in Chapter 4, students’ resistance to the Joint Construction
may suggest that their CT is still developing and needs further improvement. This
constitutes a limitation of such a short program, and therefore, there would certainly be a lot
of aspects regarding CT which were incompletely achieved. Continuous and longer teaching
of CT, infused in various subjects, should consequently be conducted, both in the research
site and a wider range of contexts in Indonesia to help enhance students’ CT.
With respect to the Independent Construction, some students thought the stage was a means
of developing “their individual writing” (Ina) and others of practising their independence in
writing, as represented by Wati’s comment:
The Independent Construction enabled me to learn independently and to devote my own thoughts and
opinions into my writing without others’ interferences (Wati).
Warda further saw the stage as being more efficient than the Joint Construction, and said
“The time used was also more efficient” (Warda).
Of particular interest was Candra, who seemed to consider Independent Construction as a
means of putting her CT skills and knowledge into practice. She explained:
The Independent Construction stage gave me a chance to state what reasons that support the
arguments against and for the issue. I could determine whether I am against or for the issue. Through
reading prior to the writing activity, I could read others’ opinions toward an issue (Candra).
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Candra, who seemed to struggle at the beginning of the teaching program, appeared to have
developed the CT dispositions “to see an issue from various perspectives”, “to seek reasons
to defend a position” and “to take a position” (Ennis, 1987, p. 12). This was evidenced by
her attempt to state reasons and support for both arguments for and against and to read
others’ opinions toward the issue, which also indicates her improvement in reasoning skills,
as suggested by Lipman (2003). Her reading prior to the writing activity may suggest an
attempt to do research to make her position or stance critical (Barnet, 1997) – an important
aspect of metacognition (Marzano et al, 1988).
In terms of the conference conducted at the Independent Construction stage, three students
(Ina, Nia and Ira) found it useful and seemed to be aware of the merit of “teacher’s sitting
down with the students to go over papers” (Meyers, 1986, p. 86). Some students seemed to
see the conference as a means of not only recognizing their mistakes, but also seeing their
strength, as noted by Wati “when we made a good thing, the teacher said good. …It
encouraged me to do better” (above). Another seemed to see it also as a way to promote her
understanding of what she wrote, as noted by Candra, “when correcting my writing, the
teacher did not say you are wrong, but asked me why did you say this, why did you choose
this argument.” However, students like Ina, seemed to see the consultation only as a
correcting stage:
The conference with the teacher made us know at once what were the weaknesses of our writing and
then we could fix them (Ina).
Regarding this, it cannot be denied that in the conduct of this study, there was a possibility
of the emergence of “a sense of impatience” (Moore, 1999, p. 120) in the researcher, linked
to the limited time available. This, to some extent, may have led her to unconsciously
correct the students’ writing, without a clear attempt to make them learn more about their
writing. This also constitutes another limitation of the teaching program, and accordingly,
for further implementation of the teaching program, as will be discussed later, corrections
should be given cautiously in order not to create “teacher’s own legitimated version”
(Moore, 1999, p. 105), but to provide opportunity for real learning to occur.
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Further to the benefit of the consultation, Ina noted that the consultation was also a chance
of “teaching grammar in context” (Ina). Ina explained:
When you supervised our writing you also checked the grammar. It was teaching grammar directly, in
context, and not in isolation, not about Subject, Verb (Ina).
Ina’s comment may suggest her awareness of the significance of the teaching of grammar
“which explains how language makes meaning” (Martin and Rothery, 1993, p. 137). This
relates to the principle of learning about language of the GBA (see Chapter 2), which means
building knowledge of the target language and how it works, or learning language in use. It
also supports the idea that teaching grammar in writing allows students, “to become aware
of what he is doing and to learn to use his skills (in using the correct grammar) consciously”
(Vygotsky, 1962, p. 100). In the ESL context, the concept of learning in context is crucial,
as Cummins puts it:
The more initial reading and writing instruction can be embedded in a meaningful communicative
context ... the more successful it is likely to be. The same principle holds for L2 instruction. The more
context-embedded the initial L2 input, the more comprehensible it is likely to be, and paradoxically,
the more successful in ultimately developing L2 skills in context-related situations. ... (1984, p. 141,
see also Moore, 1999, p. 47 for a similar observation).
All the interviewees’ comments above may suggest that the students seemed “to know not
only how to do it but also what it is that they know how to do it” (Lankshear, 1998, p. 123).
This appears to show that the goal of explicit teaching, in which the teacher attempted to
spell out and to bring to the surface those things that underlie and that become the purpose
of each activity and learning task, had been achieved, to some degree.
To turn to some classroom practices informed by CP (some of which are also suggested in
the GBA), all interviewees seemed to be conscious of a democratic atmosphere in the class,
which allowed them to take a role as agents, as active participants in learning, without fear
of being judged wrong. Compared with their normal classes, this appeared to be an
exception, as noted by Warda:
A democratic sphere was felt in discussing the topics, when each student was asked a question, was
treated equally as the same chance to express our ideas was given to us. We were also free to criticise
or to critique our surrounding situation. In other classes it does not mean that we do not brave to
criticise, but our freedom to do so is limited (Warda).
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Warda’s comments, along with others’ (below), seem to indicate that the students in this
study (and also in other contexts in Indonesia, as reported by Exley, 2002) can be critical
and become active participants in their learning if the climate in the classroom permits them
to do so. Exley reports “They (Indonesian students) are very critical but they chose who they
are going to be critical with” (2002, p. 4; see also Kumaradivelu, 2003 on similar
observation into cultural stereotypes of general Asian students). This may suggest that “for
any kind of CL to develop, students need the guidance ad support of their teachers who in
turn must be able to provide the right environment to nurture their thinking” (Cheah, 2001,
p. 79). This also suggests the significance of the idea that schools (classes) should become
“public places where students learn the knowledge and skills necessary to live in an
authentic democracy and which can support individual freedom and social justice, dedicated
to forms of self and social empowerment” (Giroux, 1988, p. xxxiii;1997).
Likewise, Candra seemed to feel empowered to articulate her ideas in the program and said:
In other classes, I never speak up. But in your class I did. In other classes, only famous students or
those who sit in the front or back row are asked. The students who sit in the middle row are not paid
attention sometimes. “You in the middle, do not need to talk. You will pass any way” (Candra).
Asked further whether it was the small class, or the method which was responsible for her
courage to speak, Candra said, “Not only the method, but also the teacher.” Both Warda’s
and Candra’s comments indicate their awareness of the need for a teacher “to make the
students have a voice” (Giroux, 1988, p. xxxiii), and “to create public spaces for expression,
for freedom to articulate distinctive perspective, within social relation that strengthens the
possibility for active citizenship” (Giroux, 1997, p. 106). This may also indicate that to help
students succeed academically (especially to help students develop their critical capacities),
there should be a willingness on the part of teachers, individually and collectively, to some
extent, to modify the power structure in the classroom, which will prevail in the wider
society (see Cummins, 1996). This also relates to the suggestion from the GBA that “ a
place must be found for interaction and guidance in the context of shared experience”
(Christie, Martin and Rothery, 1994, p. 239) and “interactions both between students and
teacher and between peers should be valued (Feez, 2002, p. 56).
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All interviewees also seemed to be conscious of other features of the democratic atmosphere
found in a dialogic education. Nia, for example, noted:
The teacher always involved the students in making a decision regarding the learning teaching
process, by asking for the students’ agreement in doing the activities (Nia).
This was supported by Wati, who thought the joint decision on the topic choice, which is
also suggested by the GBA (see Derewianka, 1990, p. 6 the DSP, 1989), was another feature
of a democratic atmosphere:
When you asked about the choice of topics, it was part of the democratic atmosphere in this program,
because you allowed us to make our choice based on what we liked (Wati).
This agreement, according to Ina, “made the students motivated to do their best.”
From the perspective of ESL, this seems to be a parallel with the learner-centred approach,
where learners are closely involved in the decision-making process regarding what they
need and how they should go about meeting that need (Nunan, 1988, p. 2, see also Murray,
1990, p. 61).
Particularly interesting is Riya’s comment, which to some extent, shows her awareness of a
sense of the removal of “power asymmetry” and “unequal power relationship” (Fairclough,
1992, p. 203; DSP, 1995, p. 50; Cazden, 1988) in the program. She noted:
A democratic atmosphere was felt as we did not feel inferior to the teacher, who played a different
role. So, we felt so close with the lecturer. We didn’t feel that we talked to a lecturer, but we could
talk to the teacher as a friend. We could share opinions with each other (Riya).
This appears to signal a gradual change in the students’ perception of the role of the teacher,
which is normally seen by students in Indonesia as “an expert” (IALF, 2003
http://www.ialf.edu/dpdf/may03page4.html). Riya seemed to be aware of the importance of
the teacher playing a different role “who in some cases becomes more a colleague of her/his
students in a search for insight and identity than an instructor who has information, skills,
and values to transmit” (Cummins 1996, p. 185; see also Freire and Shor, 1987). In a similar
vein, Wallace (2001) shares the idea:
… just as we make our teaching explicit, sources for authority should be equally so. … teacher-
learner interaction is inherently and generically an unequal encounter. However, it can be mitigated in
particular ways. Optional features of the lesson genre that offer space for students and teacher to
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behave in atypical ways can point the way forward to more productive exchanges in the building of
knowledge and to longer terms change in the classroom culture (2001, p. 214).
This also relates to different roles played by the teacher in different stages, as suggested by
the GBA (see Derewianka, 1990; Gibbons, 2002; Macken-Horarik, 2002) and the shift of
the roles of the teacher and students in relation to each other at specific times and for
specific purposes (Hammond, 1990).
With respect to the development students thought they gained, apart from those mentioned
above, interview data generally support the findings discussed in Chapters 4 and 5. Warda,
whose diagnostic writing was categorized as low, seemed to be aware of her enhanced
confidence in writing, in which she applied her CT skills and knowledge. She explained:
Previously, when I wrote, I just wrote what came out of my brain, without clear stages, and thought
of clarity, accuracy, etc. Now I feel more confident in writing. I can write a whole text and when
writing, I also think of the coherence, the clarity, accuracy of arguments, based on many references. I
also try to practise applying CT into my writing (Warda).
Warda also appeared to have developed to be an effective writer, as she could write a whole
text, with clear stages, which may also indicate her effort to create a clearly-planned text.
All these constitute an important aspect of her metacognition development (Marzano et al,
1988), as mentioned earlier. Moreover, that she based her arguments on references, again,
may suggest her attempt to present more accurate and credible arguments, (Diestler, 2001;
see also Chapter 5, Sections 5.3. and 5.4), and enhancement of her reasoning skills
(Lipman, 2003).
Another student, Candra, whose diagnostic writing was also categorized as low, as analysed
in Chapter 5, elaborated:
Previously, I just could not write and my grades from writing were mostly a C. Since I was in Primary
School I have never learnt to write. … After attending this program, my writing skills are much better.
I have never written an essay in a Discussion genre, but now I can write a Discussion genre by
thinking of clarity, accuracy and relevance of the arguments. I know the way to write, and I know that
in writing (argumentative text) I can’t claim something without any evidence (Candra).
Like Warda, Candra appeared to have developed a sense of CT adopted in this study, that is
“self improvement through standards (i.e. CT standards, such as: clarity, accuracy,
relevance) that assess thinking” (Paul, 1993, p. 91; Lipman, 2003).
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Other students emphasised the significance of “data and references” (Wati) or “quoting or
inserting someone’s ideas” (Nia) in their writing. This, as indicated above, shows the
students’ development in reasoning skills, and may indicate their capacity to create more
intertextual and analytical texts, with more accurate arguments, which constitutes a feature
of critical writing. This, as discussed in Chapter 5, Sections 5.3 and 5.4, was evidenced in
their texts by the high frequency of verbal processes and precise Participants, realized in
nominal groups. This capacity to include “otherness” in their writing, as Kress (1982, p.
119-120) argues, indicates the highest development of students’ writing capacity. It also
reflects a feature of a critical writer, who “does not only tell the reader, but also shows
them” (Chaffee, 2000; Chaffee et al, 2002).
Conspicuous were Riya’s comments, which seem to portray development of more features
of an effective writer and her good grasp of a sense of CT as adopted in this program. Riya
explained:
At first I did not even know what a Discussion genre is and now I can write a three-page Discussion
genre in capital punishment. For me that is an excellent improvement. By rereading and revising my
writing over and over again, I can apply the concept of clarity, accuracy, precision and relevance and
I can find out which statement is less accurate, less precise and irrelevant within the writing piece. I
try to give data and warrants (evidence) available to convince the reader. When I write now I also
have to consider the time. I have to reread my writing. At first it would sound very convincing for me
when I read it, but when I keep it and I read it one or two days later, I will find that there is not
enough clarity, I have to add something. If there is not enough coherence, I have to manage a lot of
things to make it more coherent and cohesive (Riya).
Riya’s statement seems to reveal her growing ability to write a planned and lengthy text,
with CT standards taken into account. This is in contrast to less effective writers who may
focus primarily on the mechanics of writing, and thus lack confidence to write at length
(Gibbons, 2002, p. 52). It also reflects her awareness that “writing is a recursive process”
(Bizzell, 1992, p. 196; But, et al, 2000, p. 267; Gibbons, 2002, p. 67), and growing control
of her own thinking (metacognition) (Marzano et al, 1988) indicated by her revising and
reading her writing again and again, to produce a clearer, more coherent text. This seems to
reject another criticism of the GBA “that the GBA … focuses on the end product”, (see the
discussion in Nunan, 1999, p. 286).
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In addition, Riya’s statement “when there is not enough clarity, I have to add something"
seems to suggest her ability to anticipate the reader’s problem, when the readers may be
distant. This also entails her awareness of “to whom the text was constructed”, a feature of
CL emphasized in this study, as alluded to in Chapter 2. Above all, this may imply her
consciousness that a written text, “is not just speech written down” (Gibbons, 2002, p. 52)
and “is characterized by the physical absence of the addressee” (Kress, 1982, p. 19) or “is
context-reduced” (Moore, 1999, p. 49). Therefore, “it is necessary to make written texts
much fuller of information, to make them more explicit than spoken texts, for there is no
chance of adding information” (Kress, 1982, p. 21-22). From a CT perspective, this may
indicate her reflective thinking (Nosich, 2001, p. 3; Reichenbach, 2001, p. 18), her
awareness of the importance of clarity “to support her position” (Moore and Parker, 1995, p.
29) and her capacity to assess her own thinking, an example of behaviours associated with
self-correction – inquiry skills (Lipman, 2003, p. 224; Paul, 2002), emphasized in the
teaching program (see Chapter 2, Section 2.2). Moreover, the fact that she attempted to
include data and evidence may suggest her enhanced reasoning skill (see Lipman, 1991,
2001) to make sound arguments, to convince the reader (Toulmin, et al, 1984; see also
Connor and Lauer, 1988; Chaffee et al, 2002).
With regard to CT, other students also seemed to be aware of their capacity to assess the
soundness of arguments, by seeing several features, including the presence of factual
evidence, or even logical fallacy – again, a characterizations of enhanced inquiry skills, as
suggested by Lipman (2003). This, for example, was stated by Candra:
Now, I can assess the soundness of arguments by thinking of the relevance between the arguments
and the issue, whether it is an opinion or a fact, who says the statement, whether there is any logical
fallacy (Candra).
Candra also seemed to have good understanding of most of the CT aspects and notions
taught in the teaching program, including facts and opinions, fallacies in reasoning, as
described in Chapters 2 and 4, Section 2.2 and 4.3.1 respectively.
Likewise, Warda appeared to be conscious of the emergence of her “willingness to listen to
other people’s ideas” (Ennis, 1987; Lipman, 2003), and flexibility in her position, due to her
awareness of the multiplicity of perspectives of an issue (Gee, 1991, p. 111) and diverse
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readings and responses exhibited in analysis of a particular text (Giroux, 1988b, p. 206).
Warda said:
In the past, I just saw an issue from one side. But now I learn to see an issue from various aspects, not
only from what I believe but I have to see what other people believe about it. About the Miss
Universe, for example, in the past I saw it just from the religious value, that the Miss Universe
Contest is not relevant to the Islamic values. But now I realise that there are advantages from other
aspects, such as economic, tourism, business, and fame of the Miss Universe (Warda).
Further to critical reading capacity, apart from reading “under the surface level” as stated by
Candra above (and also Wati, Riya and Ira), some students, like Riya, further showed her
care in responding to a text, by attempting not just “to swallow all the things that the writer
writes, but to analyse it thoroughly.” Likewise, bearing in mind the significance of critical
reading, Ira attempted to evaluate the relevance of a text with her context, a feature of
critical reading (see Gerot, 2000; Varaprasad, 1997; Comber, 2002). Ira explained:
When I read a text now, I can assess the clarity, accuracy, and relevance of a text. I can see that the
writer of a text has an interest and so I don’t think that I should always follow the text. I will see its
relevance with my environment, my situation, in recent condition and the facts that support the
writer’s argument. This skill is very important in recent condition in Indonesia (Ira).
Riya’s and Ira’s comments about their reading may suggest their consciousness that “writing
is relative to particular groups and contexts” (Hyland, 2002, p. 44-48), that “all texts are
ideological encodings” (Kress, 1993; White, http://www.grammatics.com) and “… represent
a particular view of the world and that readers are positioned in a certain way when they
read it and that there are many other ways in which texts of all sorts are written out”
(Gibbons, 2002, p. 82; Misson, 1998a,b, see the discussion in Chapters 2 and 4). From the
roles that successful readers take, Riya’s and Ira’s reading strategy may reflect a role as
“texts analyst”, implying that they read a text as a crafted object, one that is written by an
author who has a particular ideology or set of assumptions (Luke and Freebody, 1900, p. 13;
1997; see also Gibbons, 2002, p. 82). Riya’s and Ira’s reading may also suggest reading
which poses not only narrowly as “getting meaning from written texts” but also widely as
“making sense the world around me – through a new lens” (Kress, 2003, p. 140). Overall,
Riya and Ira seemed to be aware that readers need not accept the words on the page as
given, but that a range of interpretations are legitimate, providing that textual warrants are
offered (Wallace, 2001b, p. 24). From a CT point, This relates to a characaterisation of CT,
that is “sensitivity to context”, as suggested by (Lipman, 2003; see also Nosich, 2001).
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The last development the students seemed to be aware of may to some extent shed light on
the debate about CT conceptions (see Chapter 2, Section 2.2.1). That is, whether CT is
generalisable or transferable to other areas, or whether it is subject specific. Some students’
responses in the interview may indicate that CT is transferable to other areas, as shown by
their attempt to apply their CT skills and knowledge in solving their daily life problems.
This was represented by Ina’s and Wati’s comments:
I try to apply my knowledge about CT in my life. When I had a problem a few days ago, I thought
emotionally, not critically. That made me think “Am I thinking critically?” (Ina).
… knowledge about CT… is very important because in our real world we deal with a lot of issues and
problems, the solution of which must be thought critically. So, from now on in dealing with some
problem,… I try to use my CT (Wati).
However, as will be alluded to later, students’ responses also indicate that content
knowledge about an issue is important to make them think critically, which indicates that CT
is also subject specific. This may suggest that both conceptions are not contradictory, rather
they are mutually complementary. This also seems to justify the idea that “it is a mistake to
concentrate only upon knowledge to the exclusion of thinking skills, because such
concentration risks generating students who know a lot but who are unable to evaluate their
knowledge. It is equally a mistake to concentrate only on thinking skills, because the results
may be students who knows how to think but who have nothing to think about” (Sternberg,
1987, p. 254).
Overall, students’ responses are generally positive to the teaching program. The students
seemed to be conscious of the value of each element of the teaching program in facilitating
their learning and providing them with experiences needed to optimise their development in
writing skills and various aspects of critical capacities investigated in this study. This
supports the findings discussed in Chapter 4, and particularly Chapter 5 on students’
developments, as shown in the texts they constructed in various stages. All these may point
to some of the benefits of implementation of the teaching program in Indonesia, in English
teacher education in particular and in various levels and contexts in general to help EFL
learners develop their writing, and critical capacities.
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For better implementation of the program, however, there are matters of practical
importance which warrant further study and improvement, as indicated by the students’
suggestions about improvements to the teaching program. These will be discussed in the
subsequent section.
6.2.1.2 Students’ Suggestions about Improvements to the Teaching Program
Basically, there are five suggestions the students articulated in the interviews, which are all
valuable and may indicate their capacity to offer critical comments on the program. The first
and foremost one, as mentioned above, is regarding the corrections of students’ writing
during the consultation with the teacher. Two students expressed their concern that the
teacher’s corrections some times made them feel over-supported or “feel spoon-fed,” (Ira) or
“made the students think that the mistakes would be corrected by the teacher” (Warda).
This instance of students’ valuable response seems to coincide with the idea that correction
is “a universal teaching problem” (Auerbach, 1996, p. 190) and in the ESL/EFL context,
“providing corrective feedback can be a complicated business as different students react
differently to being corrected” (Nunan and Lamb, 1996, p. 44-45). Therefore, as mentioned
in Chapter 4, the strategy of correcting the students’ writing should be done carefully, as it
possibly makes the students learn very little in the process, since there is a likelihood that
they are not actually being taught, but merely corrected. This, accordingly, is unlikely to do
a great deal for those students’ sense of worth and self esteem (Moore, 1999, p. 105-107; see
also Kress, 1982, p. 179-182 on corrections to students’ writing).
There is indeed a suggestion, especially in the ESL context, that language feedback, should
be given as soon as possible because “if feedback is delayed, …, the effect of the feedback
will diminish”(Barnes, 1999, p. 260). However, in correcting students’ writing, what should
be emphasised is that the teacher should not only tell the students what is wrong with their
writing from a stylistic, generic point of view, but also explain to them why these
stylistic/generic alterations need to be made (Moore, 1999, p. 120). The teacher, Moore
further states, should give more encouragement to the students to make decisions on his
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own, implying, through this action, “a recognition of cultural capital that they already
possessed”. In doing this, the teacher will not lose the sight of the fundamentally social
nature of learning, or of the central role played by teacher in developing language (Ibid).
Moreover, the teacher should also decide “which errors to correct, when to correct, how to
correct and which students to correct”, as suggested by Nunan and Lamb (1996, p. 45).
Finally, students should be made aware of the importance of group work, collaborative
learning and peer correction, as also suggested in the GBA (see Derewianka, 1990, p. 9), to
make them learn to be quite receptive to corrections from their peers (Alford, 1999, p. 242).
In doing so, learners are encouraged to see that the teacher is not always the best person to
mark/correct work (Field, 1999, p. 193, Leki, 2001). Regarding students’ resistance to the
Joint Construction, as discussed in Chapter 4, Section 4.3.2, this can be an alternative to
gradually change students’ discouraging perceptions about the Joint Construction and the
need to promote students’ active participation in a democratic atmosphere of the class in a
longer period of time.
The second suggestion was articulated by all students, regarding the conduct of the teaching
program during school time, which seemed to burden them, as represented by Ina’s
comment:
… as the class was conducted during the school time, while students had other activities and work, the
work in this program made me feel burdensome. … (Ina).
This seems to be reasonable, as the program was really extra hard work for them. However,
later when the program is implemented in real classes, it will not be extra work for students.
Accordingly, it is expected that they can really enjoy their participation in teaching learning
process under a similar program, despite the hard work and rigour they should show to gain
knowledge.
The third suggestion was expressed by Candra regarding the materials “which were not
balanced for the arguments for and against.” Candra further said that “if students are asked
to write a Discussion genre, the materials which support the arguments for and against
should be balanced.” Moreover, Ina elaborated that “the materials were also too many”. This
suggests the necessity to balance the materials for writing a Discussion genre and to select
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the materials carefully for writing of any genre to make students not feel burdened to read
them. Moreover, the materials should also be relevant to the students’ linguistic as well as
cultural backgrounds to enable them to interrogate texts and thus “to get meaning from it” as
well as “to understand the world around them” as suggested by Kress (2003).
The fourth suggestion was pointed out by two students (Ira and Warda), to do with
insufficient exploration of functional grammar, due to the limited time. Ira said,
“unfortunately we did not have time to explore functional grammar,” and Warda
“functional grammar should be more explored because we need it.” Although these
comments indicate another limitation of the program, they may signal the emergence of
students’ awareness of the significance of functional grammar. As functional grammar is a
broad body of knowledge, continuous and longer teaching program on functional grammar
should be conducted to enable students to learn in more detail how language works to make
meaning.
The last suggestion, expressed by four students (Ira, Candra, Riya, and Nia), constitutes the
biggest challenge in the examination of the effectiveness of the teaching program in various
Indonesian contexts and levels in the teaching of EFL. This is regarding the size of the class
in this program, which was much smaller than the majority of classes in formal education
settings in Indonesia. Candra said:
… the teaching program, …. if it is applied in bigger classes, I think it will not be as effective as it
was in this program (Candra).
This, again, constitutes a limitation of the study, and therefore further research should be
conducted to test the effectiveness of the program in normal classes in Indonesia in a wider
range of contexts.
Overall, the students had given valuable suggestions for further implementation and
improvement to the teaching program in an Indonesian teacher education context. An
attempt should be made to better the teaching program, and further research is therefore
warranted to examine the effectiveness of the teaching program, particularly when it is
applied in big Indonesian classes, at different levels and in different settings. To validate
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students’ perceptions and to encourage students’ divergent insights about the teaching
program, as mentioned above, a focus group interview was conducted, and the data obtained
from this interview will be discussed subsequently.
6.2.2 Discussion of Data from the Focus Group Interview
As mentioned above, 10 students, some of whom had been interviewed individually, were
involved in the focus group interview conducted immediately after the teaching program.
Data from the focus group interview regarding students’ perceptions of the teaching
program and the development the students thought they gained, as can be seen in Appendix
18.3, are by and large, similar to those from the individual ones. Therefore, consistent with
the purpose of the interview as mentioned above, this section will discuss only moments of
tension emerging over the course of the interview, and students’ suggestions for further
implementation of the teaching program, which were to do with:
• the flexibility and negotiability of syllabus;
• CT- and content knowledge, which should be taught first;
• more involvement of male students; and
• multimodal resources of meaning making in writing.
The first tension to do with the flexibility of syllabus emerged when Cinta showed her
preference for a strict syllabus, which should function as “a contract” between students and
the teacher, that the sequence of activities and the learning process should follow the
syllabus. Cinta said:
In the first meeting, it would be better that we made an agreement that all activities done should
always be based on the syllabus, so it functions like a “contract” when the teacher and the students
refer to it (Cinta).
Although this was opposed by most students, Puri seemed to support Cinta, saying:
But to some extent, I think Indonesian people should be forced. So, to some extent, it (strict syllabus)
may be useful. But may be for the creativity development, it’s not really good (Puri).
This preference for a strict syllabus seemed to be normal as an impact of their previous
learning under the centralized curriculum, “which follows a lock-step procedure”
(Hammond, 1990, p. 39) and “the delivery of which is monitored through regular
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government inspection and which does not support flexibility or recognise contingency”
(Moore, 1999, p. 176). This also constitutes one obstacle in implementing participatory
pedagogy, as reported by Aeurbach (1999), Moore (1999), Freire and Shor (1987) and Shor
(1999). For Shor, “the problem of adjusting to dialogic practice is problematic, because
students and teachers have already been deeply socialized by prior “banking” models, that is
one-way teacher talk and nonnegotiable syllabi,” (1999, p. 13). Moreover, this seems to go
with Gramsci’s concept about hegemony (about how societal institutions maintain their
power) that:
Power is less likely to be used in a physical manner and more likely to be used in subtle ways that are
harder to see because even the dominated group is partially supporting the process (cited in Wink,
1997, p. 68).
Above all, this may suggest that effort and commitment from teachers and teacher educators
are needed as a change from a centralised curriculum to an emancipatory and flexible one is
“a long term project, demanding high levels of patience and self sacrifice” (Moore, 1999, p.
176, see also Freire and Shor, 1987; Boyce, 2003 for a similar observation). In the teaching
of EFL in English teacher education in Indonesia in particular, student teachers should be
made to understand that:
Effective teaching is much more than simply pre-determined plan. The mechanistic model, with its
assumption that planning equals teaching equals learning simply does not match the reality, …
planning, teaching and learning are complex, multidimensional activities and that the relationships
between them are organic rather than linear. … the process of helping students to learn is more like
growing a garden than building a brick wall (Nunan and Lamb, 1996, p. 44).
However, with the release of the 2004 English curriculum in Indonesia, which involves SFL
and the GBA, which is not a lockstep, it is hoped that the room for flexibility in
implementing the teaching program, the GBA in particular (along with classroom practices
from other theories involved in this study) will be opened wider.
Further to the impact of students’ being accustomed to a strict syllabus, another moment of
tension occurred when Candra and Wati expressed some resistance to the Joint Construction
phase, despite their awareness of merits of the stage for their development of writing skills
as well as CT, as discussed in Chapter 4. Candra and Wati indicated:
What I don’t like from the Joint Construction was domination in the ideas from a certain member of
the group that should be written. That’s injustice (Candra).
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... and in the Joint Construction, when we have an idea, we want our ideas to be accepted by others.
when they judge our opinion wrong, it is discouraging. Our freedom is limited. We can’t express our
ideas totally (Wati).
These comments seem to suggest that the basic reason for the students’ resistance to the
Joint Construction was the fact that they were not used to “discussion”, in which each
participant should be open to viewpoints of others and be willing to listen and exchange
ideas with them (Chaffee, 2000, p. 67). This happened partly as a result of an education
system which applies ranking, which may have encouraged a strong sense of competition
among students and thus their unwilling to share ideas and knowledge with friends (see The
Suara Hidayatullah/Jendela Keluaraga, Tarbiyah
http://www.hidayatullah.com/sahid/9811/tarbiyah.HTM). Moreover, this may also constitute
another impact of the dense and highly structured curriculum implemented in Indonesia,
which has forced the teacher “to merely lecture the materials to the students” without any
attempt “to pose academic subject matters as complex problems, questions and exercises”
(Shor, 1999, p.22). Moreover, as mentioned in Chapter 4, Section 4.3.2, students’ resistance
to the Joint Construction may also be caused by several problems, such as the composition
of the groups, the students’ being accustomed to writing in one sitting, which to some degree
had led to their lack of research strategy and thus their perception of the Joint Construction
as time consuming. Regarding this, the merit of working in groups should be made more
explicit to the students and the groupings should also be done more carefully. Further study
should also be conducted to find out how other groups of students at different levels and in
different contexts in Indonesia perceive the Joint Construction in helping them as learners.
The third moment of tension was to do with the teaching of content knowledge and CT –
which should be taught first. This, to some degree, relates to the debate about CT
conceptions, as mentioned above. Data from the focus group interview reveal that students’
perception of the significance of content knowledge and CT skills seem to be consistent with
the position adopted in the study: both CT knowledge and skills and field knowledge are
important, as one mutually supports the other. However, regarding “which should be taught
first”, students’ responses seemed to bring to light three schools of thought. Some students
perceived that CT should be taught first, as stated by Riya, Wati and Ira:
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… by knowing CT we can explore the knowledge better than before we know CT. If we have
knowledge without understanding CT, we will just take the knowledge as it is. We will never think
about what is behind it, what makes it happen, etc., that relates to the knowledge. So, I think CT
should be taught first (Riya).
I think CT encourages students to learn and read more. So, it improves their knowledge as well (Ira).
When we are taught CT, it will encourage us to try to find as much knowledge as possible. So, in my
opinion, CT should come first because that is the basic ground for students to get more knowledge
(Wati).
However, some other students noted that knowledge should come first, as stated by Elli,
But I think when we want to be a critical thinker, first we have to have basic knowledge about
something. Because we can’t judge an issue from different points of view if we don’t know anything
about it. So, I think when we want to have CT, we have to first have wide knowledge about
something. For example, about capital punishment, there are for and against arguments. We have to
know the reasons why someone is for or against the issue before we decide our own position (Eli).
In addition, Cinta had a different idea from the two above, that “CT and knowledge should
be taught together."One does not come after the other (they come together).” Although CT-
related aspects were explicitly taught first in this program, as suggested by Perkins (1987, p.
45), and then further nurtured and developed in each stage of the teaching cycle of the GBA,
(including the Building Knowledge of the Field for students to acquire knowledge about the
topic to be written), to follow the mixed approach to the teaching of thinking, as discussed in
Chapter 2, further study should be conducted on which should be taught first to find out
which teaching program can yield better students’ achievement. If we see from the general
conception, which upholds the generalisability of CT, it seems that CT should be taught
first. This is because, it is said, once someone has CT capacity in some subject matter, this
capacity can be applied in all aspects of human life and all problems, and he/she does not
need to learn CT again to be able to deal with a different subject matter. This has also been
evidenced above when Wati and Ina tried to apply their CT in solving their personal or daily
problems. However, again, it does not seem to be wise to draw a conclusion just from this
small scale of study. Further study in various levels and contexts should be conducted to
come to a thoughtful and convincing conclusion which should be taught first.
The fourth moment of tension occurred when Puri stated that she did not like the topic about
Capital Punishment, by saying:
I don’t like the topic of capital punishment because capital punishment made someone die. The
process of writing this topic was very long for me. Capital punishment is remarked in Islam. When
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some body commits a murder, that person has to be punished. But in this case, I had to see it from
different points of view, like democracy, human rights, etc. I still believe that capital punishment is a
must. So, I don’t like it (Puri).
Although Puri’s comment was immediately opposed by other students, saying that “it is a
current Indonesian issue” (Riya), this was of valuable input for the researcher and other
teachers who may apply the teaching program later. This may also suggest that although the
topic was dialogically determined by the students and the teacher, students’ resistance to the
topic still existed. However, students’ resistance to the topic should not be considered as a
failure and lead us to abandon the topic. Rather, we should treat it as a pedagogical or
political moment and an opportunity for dialogue (Benesch, 2001, p. 74).
From the CT point, Puri’s reason for her resistance to the topic may suggest that her CT was
still developing. It is seemingly true that students’ progress in CT at times might be slow
(Reichenbach, 2001, p. xv) and “it is often very difficult for people to see things from points
of views other than their own” (Chaffee, 2000, p. 63). Puri did not seem to be aware that
seeing capital punishment from other than an Islamic perspective, could stimulate her to
critically evaluate her belief, which then could lead to “thoughtful, well-substantiated
conclusions” (Chaffee, 2000, p.78). Puri also did not appear to be conscious that to become
a critical thinker “we need to be willing to learn from those others. We often need especially
to learn from the voices we dislike” (Askeland,
http://www3.wittenberg.edu/laskeland/critical_thinking.htm). All these may suggest that
continuous and longer teaching of a broader scope of CT, infused in different subject
matters, should be conducted.
Apart from moment of tensions above, there were two valuable suggestions expressed by
Ari, one of the only two male students involved in this program. The first one related to
more involvement of male students. He noted:
Here, there are only two male students. We are the minority in this program. … I should recommend
that we should have more number of male students (Ari).
From a CL perspective, this suggestion is crucial and should be followed up because, as
outlined in Chapter 3 and 4, “… mixed-gender classrooms provide an ideal environment in
which people can test their own readings against those of others” (Janks, 2001, p. 149).
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The second suggestion was around the issue of “multimodal semiotic resources for meaning
making” (Kress et al, 2001, p. 58; see also Kress, 1997, 2003, Kress and van Leuwen, 1990)
in writing. Ari explained:
I think it (the program) is really good, but the weakness is that we need something more challenging
… We should have some other media. It would be better if we are challenged to use … technology,
computer for example. You can ask us to put charts or pictures in our writing, so that we can be more
creative (Ari).
This suggestion is again, really valuable for further teaching of writing, and coincides with
Kress et al (2001), who are of the opinion that:
writing deploys visual graphological and typographical semiotics. … the meaning of what is spoken
or written does not reside purely in language, but in the complex interweaving between the linguistic,
visual and actional resources….” ( Kress et al, 2001, p. 58-59)
Written texts, Kress elsewhere argues, “are becoming much more visual than they ever
were… . The pages of novels, textbooks, manuals have given way to pages where visual
images dominate in many domains of communication” (1997, p. 160). In ESL context, the
use of non language resources in texts, such as graphics, has also been emphasized, as they
can help learners develop a general competence in academic discourse (Mohan, 1984, p. 92-
95; see also Mohan, 2001; Tang, 2001). With regard to CT, non language sources of
meaning (such as photos) can provide compelling evidence (Reichenbach, 2001, p. 4-6).
Based on the discussion above, students seemed to be articulate and could verbalise their
critical and to some extent, oppositional insights into aspects of the teaching program
explicitly to the researcher (who was also the teacher), although some of their verbalization
suggests that their CT was still developing. Their suggestions are essential and deserve to be
followed up in further studies on implementation of the teaching program in various EFL
contexts in Indonesia.
6.2.3. Summary of Discussion of Data from the First Stage Interview
This section has discussed data from the first stage interviews, conducted immediately after
the teaching program. The data indicate that students’ perceptions are generally positive of
the teaching program in helping them as learners. The students seemed to perceive every
element of the program was useful to help them gain a good control of the Discussion genre
and different aspects of critical capacities investigated in this study. Students’ responses
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regarding their developments in writing skills and critical capacities, by and large support
the findings of Chapter 4, and especially Chapter 5. Interview data may thus indicate that it
would be beneficial if the teaching program is implemented in Indonesia as an alternative to
improve the teaching of EFL and to develop aspects of critical capacities in various levels
and contexts.
Interview data however, also reveal several areas that need to be considered in designing
similar programs in an Indonesian context –for both teacher education and school learning.
From individual interviews, these, among others, are to do with the students’ reaction to the
Joint Construction, the timing, the materials, teachers’ correction and feedback to students’
writing, and the teaching of functional grammar. From the focus group interview, these
areas are regarding students’ preference for a strict syllabus, the chronological order of the
teaching of CT and content knowledge (which should be taught first), the topic, the
involvement of more male students and multimodal semiotic resources for meaning making.
These indicate that further study should be conducted to follow up the problems and to
better the implementation of the teaching program. As some problems relate to students' CT
which was still developing, longer and continuous teaching of CT in various subject matters,
in particular, needs to be conducted.
6.3. Discussion of Data from the Second Stage Interview
Eight months after the teaching program, a focus group interview, involving eight students
who had been interviewed in the first stage, was conducted. A focus group interview was
employed, because this interview, relevant to the function of the focus group interview,
aimed “to allow for group dynamics to produce new additional data” (Frey and Fontana,
1993, p. 32). As outlined in Chapter 3, Section 3.3, with the students’ permission, this
interview used several texts as a prompt ( Texts 5.1 and 5.5, and Texts 5.3 and 5.7 as
discussed in Chapter 5).
The discussion in this section will cover four central themes:
• what students remembered they learned from the teaching program;
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• the developments students thought they gained from the teaching program (using
texts as a prompt);
• the likelihood of their applying the teaching program; and
• possible challenges they perceived in implementing the teaching program in their
own teaching.
In the interest of space, and the fact that the data were similar to those in the first stage
interview, the discussion about what students remembered they learned and the development
students thought they had gained from the teaching program will be brief. The discussion
will focus on the likelihood of students’ applying the teaching program and, particularly on
some possible challenges they might face in implementing the teaching program in their
future teaching. The discussion will be based on a condensed body of information which can
be found in Appendix 18.4.
Interview data from the second stage generally indicate that all interviewees seemed to
remember most their learning of writing a Discussion genre, CT and critical reading. This,
as the students said, was due to the applicability of most of their learning in the program in
accomplishing their current academic tasks, especially reading and writing. Four students
(Candra, Nia, Wati and Ira) explained that their knowledge about how to provide references
in particular, was really useful for fulfilling academic assignments, i.e. essay writings. This
seems to suggest that “teaching the technique of making a reference in the text is particularly
important” (Dudley-Evans, 2002, p. 232). In addition, their skills in critical reading can be
applied in the subject “Extensive Reading” as represented by Wati’s comment:
We can use our critical reading knowledge in the subject Extensive Reading, in which critical reading
is required. So, we can see ‘what is the purpose of the writer’, ‘why did the writer write this, to
whom’ (Wati).
With regard to the development they thought they gained, using the diagnostic and
independently-constructed texts as a prompt, the first development students recognised was
that the independently-constructed texts were much longer than the diagnostic ones. This
reflects a feature of an effective writer, as mentioned above. In this context, Nia noted,
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“Oh… from the length of the text, I can see that the development is a lot.” Moreover, Wati,
seeing her writings (Text 5.3 and 5.7), elaborated:
What is obvious is that (in the Independent Construction) I tried to give evidence to my arguments.
While in the first text, I didn’t. This is because I did not know well about the topic, and may be
because I wrote it in one sitting (Wati).
Wati appeared to be aware of the importance of giving evidence for her arguments, which
constitutes a critical disposition and thus a feature of a critical thinker (see Ennis, 1987;
Noris and Ennis, 1990; Chaffee, 2000, 2002; Lipman, 2003). Her awareness of the
significance of content knowledge may signify the value of the Building Knowledge stage in
the GBA, which aims “to make sure that the students have enough background knowledge
of the topic to be able to write about it” (Gibbons, 2002, p. 60, see also Feez, 2002). This
also relates to the idea on the significance of content knowledge in ESL as suggested by
Mohan (1986; 2001; Davison and Williams, 2001). Moreover, from a CT perspective,
“background knowledge is absolutely essential, as we cannot expect someone who is
ignorant in a field to be good at making and judging best explanation inferences,” (Ennis,
1987, p. 21). Wati’s acknowledgement that improvement in her writing was thanks to the
fact that she wrote it in several sessions, may also suggest her awareness of the recursive
process of writing, a feature of an effective writer, as mentioned above.
Likewise, seeing her writings, Candra indicated that “the development in the independent
writing is also because we did this writing in several sessions.” Candra’s awareness of the
significance of writing as being recursive can further be seen from her intention in teaching
writing to her students:
I learnt that teaching writing should be done not in one session, students should be given time to
revise, to discuss with friends and to consult their writing with the teacher. This is what I would like
to implement when I teach writing later on. Letting the student to go through the process of writing
enables them to create a good product (Candra).
Concerning the likelihood that they would apply the teaching program in their own teaching,
all students seemed to have no reservations about implementing the program. Rather, they
were concerned with some challenges that might hinder them in implementing the teaching
program effectively, as will be explained below.
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The first concern, as in the first stage interview, was to do with the big size of classes in
Indonesian schools, as noted by Wati, Riya, and Candra. Wati said, “… the problem of
implementing this program is that the class should be small… .” This concern seems to be
normal as Indonesian classes, from primary to tertiary levels generally have more than 40
students. This needs further attempt to test the effectiveness of the program in such classes.
The second concern was regarding the possibility of students’ low motivation to read a lot,
and their being unaccustomed to critically interrogating texts, as pointed out by Nuri:
Probably the students will find difficulty when they are asked to read a lot like in this program, as I
did experience at the beginning of the program. May be because they are not used to reading a lot of
materials and asking the text as we did in the program (Nuri).
Apart from indicating students’ low motivation to read a lot, Nuri’s concern may also
coincide with the argument that critical capacities, including critical reading may be a
relatively radical concept in some part of the world (Davidson, 1995), like Indonesia. This
also coincides with the idea that the teaching of reading in EFL (including in Indonesian
context) is usually considered as unproblematic (Wallace, 1992a,b). Therefore, an attempt
should be made to encourage EFL readers not only to enjoy reading but also to critically
interrogate texts. EFL students should learn to take a role as “text analyst” (Luke and
Freebody, 1990, p. 13; see also Gibbons, 2002) as mentioned above. The texts should also
be carefully selected, relevant to the students’ linguistic capacity and cultural background
knowledge.
Further to Nuris’ concern about students’ capacity to interrogate texts, Cinta indicated a
possible difficulty in teaching critical reading to EFL beginner learners, due to their
language restrictions. Cinta illustrated:
When I visited some schools, I could see that some students still struggled to read in English. Some
of them could not even read the word “white”… . So, I think it will be difficult to teach critical
reading to groups of students like this (Cinta).
This matter does not seem to be surprising because it has also been concern of some
observers in CL for ESL beginner learners. Eastman, for example, argues:
… being able to assess CL development in beginning learners may be unrealistic. … In fact, is it even
fair to expect such assessment when survival language is their priority? (1998, p. 27).
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This has been shared by Christie who argues that “it is unrealistic to undertake a critical
analysis of a text if its content is not understood in the first place” (notes to the researcher on
May 27th
, 2004; see also Barkhuizen, 2002, p. 20). Christie further argues that whether or
not critical perspective can be taught to beginner learners depends on what is meant by the
term “beginner learners”. This may suggest that further study should be conducted to find
out which beginner learners can be taught critical analysis of a text.
The last concern was expressed by Riya, to do with the centralized curriculum, which she
though might hinder her to apply the program in formal classes. Riya explained:
In this teaching program there is flexibility, while in schools, we have to follow the curriculum and
syllabus released by the government. In private courses, where teachers can have flexibility, this
program is really applicable (Riya).
Riya’s concern does not seem to be unusual in the framework of current Indonesian
education, as discussed in Chapter 1, Section 1.5. A lot of Indonesian observers seem to
have acknowledged that the centralized curriculum seems no longer appropriate, particularly
for the diverse society of Indonesia. The call for consideration of diversity in socio-cultural,
and political aspirations of Indonesian society in constructing a curriculum, has likewise
been heralded by some observers. Hasan (2001), one of the vice rectors of the university in
which the research took place, for example, argues:
Indonesian society and nation has diversity in social, cultural, and political aspirations as well as
economic capacity. … This diversity should be taken into account in… the development, socialization
and implementation of a curriculum (Hasan, 2001, p. 1).
This is consistent with Wallace’s argument, that:
Just as curriculum reform might be approached from different starting points, it is important to realize
that what works in one setting may not work in another and vice versa. Macro and micro-cultural
factors can make big difference to the substance of the reform
(http://projects.edte.utwente.nl/smarternet/version2/planning/Domains/cur/wallace-cur-ppp.h; see also
Hammond, 1990, p. 39 for a similar observation).
From these arguments, it sounds wise to say that the teaching program, which emphasized a
“context-specific” feature (Auerbach, 1999, p. 13; Kincheloe and Steiner, 1998; see also
Chapters 2 and 4) and attempted to encourage flexibility in its implementation, may fit the
diverse characteristics of Indonesian society. With the release of the 2004 curriculum of
English which involves the GBA, as mentioned earlier, an initial attempt, an intensive
socialization and then gradual implementation of the GBA (synthesised with classroom
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practices suggested by CT, CP and CL) in particular, is timely and seems to be worth
carrying out immediately, to see how it helps the students improve their learning in EFL,
their writing in particular and critical capacities as concerned with in this study.
6.3.1. Summary of Discussion of Data from the Second Stage Interview
This section has discussed data from interview held at the second stage. Based on the
discussion above, it appears that the teaching program brought about long term benefit for
the students in helping them not only as learners, but also as student teachers. Based on the
texts given as a prompt, students seemed to be conscious of development they had gained,
such as their confidence in writing, indicated by the length of the texts written in the
Independent Construction, with attempts to take CT and reading aspects into account.
Moreover, students’ verbalization on some possible challenges in further implementation of
the teaching program, as mentioned above, may suggest something of their emerging
consciousness and sense of their professionalism as teachers who may be going to be using a
new approach to writing and developing critical capacities in their own students. This may
also signify that further study should be conducted to assure that the program is worthwhile
to better the current Indonesian EFL teaching and to enhance students’ critical capacities.
6.4. Conclusion
This chapter has discussed data from interviews. The data indicate that students’ responses
to each element of the teaching program are generally positive. From the GBA perspective,
the data support earlier findings about the value of the GBA, especially in EFL contexts, as
reported by Sutoyo (1994) in another Indonesian setting, and Dang (2002) in Vietnam (see
also Feez and Joyce, 1998a; Gibbons, 2002; Davison, 2001; Feez, 2002; Hunter, 2002;
Burns, 1990 on the application of the GBA in ESL contexts). Despite some resistance to the
Joint Construction, the students seemed to be aware of its benefits for their CT and writing
development. Students’ resistance to the Joint Construction seemed to mainly result from
their being unaccustomed to working in groups or discussion, “the process of give-and-take,
of advancing their own views and considering those of others” (Chaffee, 2000, p. 69).
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Regarding classroom practices informed by CP, students seemed to be conscious of the
value of a sense of a democratic atmosphere in the class, which enabled them to become
agents in the learning process, and allowed for the removal of power asymmetry, to some
degree. They also appeared to be aware of the significance of different roles of the teacher
(which has also been suggested by the GBA) who was not only as an expert but also as “co
participant in the kind of critical enquiry that forms part of the negotiation of CL
development in the classroom”(Wallace, 2001, p. 227). This supports earlier findings as
reported by Exley (2002) that Indonesian students are very critical if the climate permits
them to do so.
With respect to the development gained from the teaching program, interview data seem to
support the findings of Chapter 4, and particularly Chapter 5. Students’ responses may
indicate their consciousness of their writing skill development, evidenced by their
confidence in writing, their capacity to write at length with clear stages, to anticipate the
reader’s difficulty in reading their texts, and their awareness of writing as a recursive
process. Their attempt to include “otherness” (Kress, 1982, p. 117) in their texts constitutes
the highest development of writing skills and cognitive significance (Kress, 1982, p.115-
120). Students’ responses may also suggest their good grasp of a sense of CT and CL
adopted and emphasized in this study. These findings seem to suggest applicability of the
teaching of CT and CL in EFL context (Eastman, 1998; Pennycook, 2001; Perkins, 1998;
Hood, 1998; Canagarajah, 2002), including Indonesian one. The data also give hope that
CT, which is perceived as being rooted in western cultural values (Atkinson, 1997; Barnett,
1997; Davidson, 1995) (and therefore potentially not relevant in an Indonesian context), can
be taught to Indonesian people. This also supports the findings of previous research that
Indonesian students can be very critical (Exley, 2002) and in the longer term hopefully to be
critically thinking citizens. Added to this, the data seem to suggest that the program was
worth implementing in the teaching of EFL in Indonesia. Regarding the GBA in particular,
which has been part of the 2004 curriculum, this study is again timely and important in
terms of providing directions for successful implementation of the new curriculum and
hopefully for responding to various needs in the teaching of English, particularly the
teaching of writing, and the urgency of critical capacities in Indonesian society today.
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However, the data also reveal some practical matters which need to be followed up. These
are, among others, to do with teacher’s correction to students’ writing; the time spent in the
Joint Construction; students’ motivation to discuss and to work in groups; the teaching of
CT and content knowledge – which should be taught first; the need for more comprehensive
exploration of functional grammar; more involvement of male students and inclusion of non
language sources of meaning in writing; the class size employed in this study, which was
smaller than normal ones in Indonesia. Interview data also show some possible challenges in
implementing the teaching program, regarding, among others: students’ preference for a
strict syllabus, which relates to the centralised curriculum; the students’ low motivation to
read and their lack of familiarity with reading texts critically, and the teaching of critical
reading to EFL beginner learners due to their language restrictions.
All these deserve additional studies on the impact of the teaching program on EFL writing
skills and CT and critical reading in normal classes in various levels and contexts. This will
be discussed in Chapter 7, which will deal with general conclusions, limitations of the study
and recommendations for further research.
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CHAPTER SEVEN: CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES
7.1 Introduction
This study sought to investigate the values of using a genre-based approach in teaching
academic English writing skills to students who were learning EFL in Indonesia. The
approach that was developed was distinctive in at least two senses. Firstly, it was distinctive
in that the approach sought to synthesise principles taken from other areas of theory to do
with critical thinking (CT), critical pedagogy (CP) and critical literacy (CL). Secondly, it
was distinctive in that it sought to use a genre-based pedagogy with a community of EFL
students, whereas hitherto most uses of this pedagogy have been with native speakers or
ESL students.
7.2 Conclusions
The major conclusion of the study is that despite some limitations, to be outlined below, the
teaching program was successful in some ways. Most significantly, the students’
argumentative writing skills improved, in that they achieved enhanced control of the target
argumentative genre. They learned to write at greater length, with a clear schematic
structure, indicating students’ improvement in capacity to construct successfully organised
texts, making much improved use of evidence and information in support of their arguments,
which also indicates their development in CT as well as CL.
Linguistically, the students’ texts produced after the teacher’s intervention were much
enhanced, despite minor weaknesses, suggesting students’ significant development in their
competence to exploit various linguistic resources. Textually, students learned to make
better and more effective use of a combination of patterns of Theme progressions (the zig-
zag pattern, the Theme reiteration, and multiple Theme patterns), hyper- and macro-
Themes. This led to the creation of more coherent and cohesive texts, which developed
smoothly not only locally, but also globally – a feature which was not present in texts
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produced prior to the teacher’s intervention. Experientially, students learned to make better
and more effective use of such resources as nominalisations, which are metaphorical
expressions, playing a very crucial role, especially in persuasive texts that the students
wrote, to make arguments sound and “not accessible to debate” (Martin, 1985).
Nominalisation also realises a more academic register as well as the writers’ confidence and
maturity in writing a more written-like text, which in turn suggests their significant writing
development (Colombi, 2002, p. 69-70). Moreover, experientially, students also successfully
employed various processes in building field knowledge, especially verbal and mental
processes. This indicates the students’ improvement in creating a more intertextual and
analytical text, as the result of their learning to write and research, which had enabled them
to hear other voices and to incorporate them in their writing and thinking. Interpersonally,
the students learned to make effective use of modality in expression of judgment and
opinion, which may suggest the students’ care in expressing ideas and thus capacity to make
the communication with the readers work effectively. The use of third person pronouns and
impersonal it in impersonal projections (also assigned as Themes) indicates the students’
attempt to foreground objectivity in their arguments and their awareness of the distant
readers. All these at the same time reflect students’ improvement in aspects of critical
capacities concerned with in this study.
As discussion in Chapters 4 and 6 revealed, the students themselves, while not without some
reservations and criticisms, appeared generally pleased with the study, being themselves
aware of having made progress. They had developed a much improved metalanguage for
discussing critical reading and writing. Data discussed in Chapters 4, 5 and 6 also seemed to
suggest a good grasp of some CT dispositions and abilities concerned with in this study.
From a CP perspective, interview data especially showed that students had enhanced an
awareness of the values of class dialogue, allowing them to take active participation in their
learning. Interview data also showed the students’ awareness and changes in their opinions
about the role of the teacher, who should act not only as an expert in the class, but also as a
facilitator and a peer or a colleague, with whom students could freely share ideas and have a
dialogue.
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In terms of CT, this study may shed light on the debate about the issue of the generalisability
of CT so far. The results of this study indicate that CT can be learned or taught through
explicit teaching, and interview data in particular seem to suggest that CT does transfer to
other domains of knowledge, as the general conceptionists argue. Despite some possible
resistance and difficulty, and the fact that the development of CT takes a long time, this
study supports previous research in that it gives hope that CT can be taught to people from
any background including Indonesians. However, the results of the study also indicate that
as an intellectual process, CT is inextricably context-based (Brookfield, 2003, p. 159), in
that one can think critically about a certain subject matter, only if one has a sound
background knowledge. As indicated repeatedly previously, notions of the general
conception and the subject-specific conception about CT should be complementary, rather
than contradictory. Accordingly, the teaching of CT needs to emphasise both CT skills and
the background knowledge, to enable students to know how to think and to allow them to
grasp what to think about.
With respect to CL, students learned that no text is innocent and all texts construct value
positions and multiple interpretations which can be interrogated. In addition, students’ CL
development can be seen from their capacity to read under the surface level, to read the
word and the world, as Freire and Macedo (1987) suggest. Data from observations, students’
journals and interviews indicate students’ awareness of the fact that the creation as well as
readers’ responses to a text is constrained by various aspects of context of situation and
context of culture.
The above results of the study, which reflect the success of the teaching program employed
in this study may also have been thanks to the emphasis of several aspects in the teaching
program. The first aspect was explicit teaching, as suggested by the GBA and the CT
movement, of all aspects students learned in the program, i.e. CT, CL, some principles of
CP and the Discussion genre. This explicit teaching, as interview and text analyses revealed,
could reduce students’ confusion about the materials discussed and provide all students with
equal access to the cultural and linguistic knowledge that is so important in the teaching of
EFL.
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For the teacher to do explicit teaching as suggested in the GBA, it is important that she/he
has explicit knowledge on the theory of the English language and theory of learning.
Moreover, his/her mastery of the genre in focus as well as his/her understanding of the aims
of every stage and principles of the GBA plays a significant role in helping students
develop their metalanguage and awareness of the benefit of every stage they go through
over the process of their learning. Knowing the benefits and aims of every stage of the
approach, as indicated in the data discussed in Chapter 4 and 6, students were motivated to
do their best in their learning. Such motivation and language awareness is particularly
important for graduates preparing to teach EFL in the current educational climate in
Indonesia as outlined in chapter 1.
Regarding the implementation of the GBA in other EFL contexts, in Indonesia in particular,
the findings in the study indicated that the approach is not a lockstep one. Modification may
be made in applying every stage of the approach, adapted to the situation and condition of
the students and the socio-cultural condition of the teaching learning process. Some stages,
such as the Joint Construction, as was the case in the second cycle of the teaching program
applied in this study, may be skipped, depending on students’ control of the genre in focus.
Another aspect which contributed to the students’ heartening achievement in this study was
the inclusion of the cultural and linguistic aspects of English in the teaching of reading or
writing in this study. The findings indicated that the teacher’s explanation about cultural and
linguistic aspects of English as reflected in the texts students read and wrote was important
to help enhance students’ critical understanding and capacity in reading and writing English
texts. Moreover, the program’s strong and explicit emphasis on students’ metalinguistic and
metacognitive development led to their enhanced awareness and control of their own
thinking, as indicated in their concern with the clarity of the text they wrote, and the
accuracy of the arguments they proposed in their text.
Moreover, the use of the students’ native language, bahasa Indonesia throughout the
teaching program also played a significant role in the students’ development of language and
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critical capacity. The use of bahasa Indonesia in the Building Knowledge of the Field phase
of the GBA, for example, which was conducted in a dialogic situation, helped students
understand what was going on in the teaching learning process regarding the topic
discussed. The inclusion of bahasa Indonesia in this study could lead to the creation of a
place in the classroom where students used multiple discourses to generate meaning of their
everyday social contexts, to comprehend their relations with the wider society and to ensure
their active participation in their learning without having to silence the language they
brought to class and fear be judged wrong. Finally, the use of bahasa Indonesia throughout
the program could allow for both bahasa Indonesia and English to be used as a meaning-
making tool, as a means to communicate ideas.
Finally, in general the study showed that a teaching program that used an SFL GBA,
combined with other critical dimensions could enhance students’ performance of their
argumentative writing skills, CT and CL investigated in this study. This program may be
applied in other EFL contexts in Indonesia to improve the teaching of English and enhance
the students’ critical capacity needed to create a democratic Indonesian society. The
teaching program may also be applied in other ESL or EFL contexts in other countries, with
some modification adapted to the condition of each context.
7.3 Limitations of the Study
There are some limitations of the study, and the major one is that the study involved the
researcher in studying and evaluating her own teaching. There is therefore a potential loss of
objectivity in every stage of the research, in terms of both data collection and analyses, as
Ivanic and Weldon (1999) write. In the use of interview data, for example, where the
researcher acted as the interviewer, there was a potential for the students to try to please the
interviewer who was also the teacher. The decision to interview certain students was also
influenced, to some extent, by the relationships between the researcher and the students.
This may have coloured the results.
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However, there are some tactics which were used to address the problems. The first tactic
was that a colleague gave some additional feedback and review. The second tactic was that
the study used multiple sources of evidence through multiple data collection techniques,
which allowed for a triangulation of different sources of information. Attempts to address
bias in each data collection were also made. For example, classroom observation was
conducted not only by the researcher but also her colleague. Interviews were conducted in
two stages, and the transcription of some interviews was also sent back to the students to be
checked and amended if necessary. In addition to this, one interview to test the reliability of
the students’ observation was conducted by a colleague, who was not involved in the study.
Given the fact that the interviewer did not know anything about the study, and the interview
was conducted in their own language, the students in this interview seemed to want to give
information to the interviewer on what happened in the class, what activities conducted in
the program and what they thought about the activities. This, accordingly, allowed for a
more elaborated verbalization on what the students thought of the benefits and the
weaknesses of activities conducted in the program and how they felt over the teaching
learning process. The results of this interview, which were similar to those gained in
previous interviews with the researcher helped to assure that the students were being honest
and not just trying to please the interviewer, who in this case was also the researcher. This
also led the researcher to feel secure that the data obtained from the interviews were reliable.
Moreover students’ journals were collected after each session, which enabled the researcher
to obtain data and at the same time to do on-going data analyses. Finally, in terms of the
method of text analyses, the use of SFG as a tool for text analyses did promote some validity
and replicability of the study. In this case, Halliday maintains that a discourse analysis that is
not based on grammar is not analysis at all, but simply a running commentary on a text
(1985b, 1994a, p. xvi-xvii, see also Paltridge, 1994, p. 296; Gerot, 2000), because grammar
is inseparable from discourse (Stubbs, 1994, p. 202). Halliday goes on to maintain that “the
most direct move in the analysis of a text is to give its structural interpretation, … all the
structural analyses could be reinterpreted in terms of the features selected” (1994a, p. xvii).
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All these methods could address the issue of subjectivity in text analyses (Ivanic and
Weldon, 1999; Stubbs, 1994) and the concern that the findings were not simply products of
the researcher/analyst’s intuitions, as raised by Crooks (1986, cited in Ansary and Babaii,
2004).
The last tactic to enhance the reliability of the study involved a detailed description of a
range of data collection techniques and procedure, as shown in Chapters 3 and 4. This was
aimed, as mentioned in Chapter 4, at “enabling later investigator to follow exactly the same
procedures as described in this study” (Yin, 1984, p. 40).
7.4 Recommendations for Further Studies
Based on the findings of this study, which may not be generalisable to other settings, it is
recommended that a critical GBA be gradually but intensively implemented in Indonesia.
The involvement of the GBA in the 2004 English curriculum of junior and senior high
school in Indonesia indicates the necessity of the implementation of the GBA in the teaching
of English in Indonesia. The findings of this study, which suggest the values of the approach
in helping students enhance their writing skills, confirms the urgency of the gradual but
intensive implementation of the GBA in English classrooms in Indonesia to better the
teaching of English, to enable students to use the language in context.
Moreover, given the limited writing capacity of Indonesian students (and academics), as
mentioned in Chapter 1, Section 1.4, while students’ writing capacity plays a central role in
their success of learning, it is also recommended that learning to write should be emphasised
across the subjects of the curriculum and the teaching of writing should also be a major
responsibility for all teachers. From the urgency of CT in Indonesia and the calls for re-
examination or changes in the centralised curriculum to an interactive one, as also discussed
in Chapter 1, Section 1.5, the GBA should be supported by classroom practices from the CT
movement, CP and CL. It is also important that CT be infused across the subjects of the
curriculum, and principles of CP which can encourage dialogic and democratic classroom
practices be applied in the teaching-learning process, in various contexts, from primary to
285

tertiary levels of education. As what happens in the class reflects the existing wider social
condition of the society, dialogic and democratic classrooms are expected to allow for a
gradual change in the existing social condition of the Indonesian community, to a better and
more democratic one.
However, without adequate teacher education, such an approach is unlikely to succeed.
Teacher education therefore must urgently provide better models for teaching English
writing and reading than in the past, as well as models for teaching CT and implementing
dialogic and democratic principles in the class, to enable students to take active
participations in their learning. Students’ experience and learning in the university (teacher
education) should help practising and preservice teachers better understand the process and
the practical application of the GBA, classroom practices as suggested by CT, CP and CL
with their students in their classrooms. Extensive studies focusing on the best ways to
implement the GBA, to teach CT and CL, and to apply classroom practices as suggested by
CP in a wider contexts in Indonesia should also be conducted.
For the teaching of English in the research site in particular, it is recommended that the
teaching of macro skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking should not be separated.
Moreover, the teaching of English grammar should in authentic use of the language, and
teachers should focus explicitly on aspects of language that enable students to use the
language for different purposes and contexts. A greater component should also be given to
the teaching of writing, which can lead to their independence in writing different genres, for
different purposes and audiences, or “writing across the curriculum and writing that would
have a place in the world beyond school” as Bizell (1992, p. 197) suggests.
Regarding the teaching of writing in English (as well as in Bahasa Indonesia) which aims to
promote students’ CT and implementation of CP, recommendations from Bizzell (1992, p.
196-198; see also Tsui, 2002) are worth a brief mention. First, because writing is a complex
process and learning to write requires writing, students cannot be expected to master
complex processes if they seldom practise it, or without teacher’s guidance. This means
then, if students are to be writing frequently and receiving frequent responses from the
286

teacher, classes in which writing is taught must be kept small, no more than 20 students
(Bizzell, 1992, p. 196).
Moreover, if the emphasis in writing is to be on developing thinking, it follows that the
curriculum should be structured to encourage recursive composing processes, and
constructive feedback from the teacher, and classmates. Students should be given
opportunities “to write and re-write (texts) and to interact with the teacher and peers in the
process” (Martin and Rothery, 1986, p. 262), which can enhance “the students’ self-
assessed growth in CT” (Tsui, 2002, p. 742). If the emphasis in writing is to be on
developing thinking, institutionalised testing of students’ writing should not set a counter
agenda for the writing class, and the class should also create a thinking environment, which
exhibits, among others: longer periods of time that allow investigation and interactive
dialogue, emphasis on reasoning, self correction and willingness to admit errors, to seek
explanation, to make predictions and to question inference, as suggested by Wilks (2004a, p.
ix). If the curricular goal is to foster mastery of academic discourse, given the fact that
students typically do not have enough prior knowledge of academic discourse conventions,
guidance from the teacher and more reading materials that illustrate and elucidate the
practices will be needed, without, however, returning to the traditional, authoritarian
classroom (Bizzell, 1992, p. 197-198). In addition, given the essential role of language
resources and reading materials to help develop competent and critical writers and readers,
students’ greater access to language resources and multiple and authentic reading materials
both in libraries and the world wide web should be made more widely available.
A recommendation regarding the teaching of EFL also needs to be mentioned. This is to do
with the assumption that “English should be taught entirely monolingually”(Auerbach,
1993, p. 12-15; 1996, p. 18), which is also prevalent among Indonesian English teachers and
students. As indicated in Chapter 4, the use of bahasa Indonesia in Indonesian EFL classes,
to some extent is necessary, as Auerbach (1996, p. 15) suggests that “knowledge of the
learners’ first language should be considered an important teaching qualification.” The use
of the first language can provide students with additional support that allows them to analyse
the second language. It can also enable students to work at a higher level than would be
287

possible were they restricted to sole use of English, and to increase their basic understanding
about how languages work. Furthermore, from a CP perspective the inclusion of bahasa
Indonesia in Indonesian EFL classrooms, as indicated earlier, may provide a place in the
classroom where students use multiple discourses to comprehend their relations with the
wider society and thus to ensure their active participation, without having to silence the
language they brought to class. This follows that English teacher education in Indonesia in
particular, should allow student teachers to have not only explicit knowledge about the
theory of language and learning, but also qualities such as: awareness of cultural diversity,
recognition of language diversity, understanding of the students’ reality, recognition of the
potential of all students, knowledge of second language acquisition theory and willingness to
modify instruction as needed, adapted to the socio-cultural condition as well as cognitive
and linguistic capacity of the students (Thonis, 1990, cited in Auerbach, 1996, p. 19).
The last recommendation is that the program implemented in this study should be tried out
in various contexts and levels of education in Indonesia to test its effectiveness in helping
students to promote their English capacity, their reading and writing skills in particular, and
their critical capacities, i.e, critical thinking and critical literacy. This, in the long run, may
allow the emergence of models of English teaching that can genuinely contribute to the
development of English skills and critical capacities in teacher education, and eventually in
primary and secondary education in Indonesia. These capacities, which have now been seen
as of great national importance in Indonesia, as outlined in chapter 1, would contribute to the
creation of an Indonesian society which is highly competitive in the modern and
globalisation era. It is this sort of critical and democratic society which the Indonesian
government has been trying to achieve.
288

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343

A CRITICAL GENRE-BASED APPROACH TO TEACHING
ACADEMIC WRITING IN A TERTIARY EFL CONTEXT
IN INDONESIA
VOLUME 2
APPENDICES
EMI EMILIA
Dra (Bandung, Indonesia), Grad. Dip. Arts (Deakin University,
Melbourne), M.Ed (Deakin University, Melbourne)
Submitted in Total Fulfilment of the Requirements
of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
May, 2005
Department of Language, Literacy and Arts Education
Faculty of Education
The University of Melbourne

TABLE OF CONTENT
APPENDIX 1: SAMPLE OF SYLLABUS OF WRITING COURSES (WRITING I-V) IN
THE RESEARCH SITE........................................................................... 1
Appendix 1.1 A Sample Schedule and Topics for Writing 1......................................... 1
Appendix 1.2: A Sample Schedule and Topics for Writing II........................................ 1
Appendix 1.3: A Sample Schedule and Topics for Writing III....................................... 2
Appendix 1.4: A Sample Schedule and Topic for Writing IV......................................... 2
Appendix 1.5: A Sample Schedule and Topic for Writing V.......................................... 3
APPENDIX 2: PLAIN LANGUAGE STATEMENT........................................................ 4
APPENDIX 3: CONSENT FORM FOR PERSONS PARTICIPATING IN RESEARCH
PROJECTS .............................................................................................. 6
APPENDIX 4: A HAND OUT GIVEN TO THE STUDENTS.......................................... 7
APPENDIX 7: SAMPLES OF REFLECTIONS (NOTES) OF CLASSROOM
OBSERVATIONS AND STUDENTS’ JOURNALS............................ 37
Appendix 7.1 A Sample of Reflections (Observation Notes) by the Researcher.......... 37
Appendix 7.2 A Sample of Observation Notes by the Researcher’s Colleague........... 39
Appendix 7.3 Format of Journal Writing..................................................................... 43
Appendix 7.4 A Sample of Students’ Journals............................................................. 44
APPENDIX 8: TEXTS ON OPPOSING ARGUMENTS ABOUT JUNK MAIL ........... 45
APPENDIX 9: EXERCISES ON PROPERTY OF TEXT (FROM NON-TEXT TO
TEXT).................................................................................................... 46
APPENDIX 10: TEXT TYPES (GENRES) AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GENRES
IN TERMS OF STAGES AND THE SOCIAL CONTEXTS ................ 48
APPENDIX 11: ESSAY TYPES TO AVOID IN ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING....... 50
APPENDIX 12: MODEL TEXTS OF DISCUSSION GENRE....................................... 51
APPENDIX 13: SAMPLES OF READING MATERIALS............................................. 53
Appendix 13.1: Reading Materials about the Miss Universe Contest......................... 53
Appendix 13.2: Reading Materials About Working Women........................................ 67
Appendix 13.3: Reading Materials about Capital Punishment................................... 77
APPENDIX 14: LINGUISTIC FEATURES OF A DISCUSSION GENRE................. 112
APPENDIX 15: THEME ANALYSES OF STUDENTS’ TEXTS................................ 115
Appendix 15.1: Theme Analysis of Text 5.1............................................................... 115
ii

APPENDIX 16: TRANSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS’ TEXTS................... 170
Appendix 16.1: Transitivity Analysis of Text 5.1....................................................... 170
Appendix 16.2: Process Types of Text 5.1................................................................. 172
Appendix 16.4: Process Types of Text 5.2................................................................. 176
Appendix 16.6: Process Types in Text 5.3................................................................. 181
Appendix 16.7: Transitivity Analysis of the Joint Construction Text (Text 5.4)........ 182
Appendix 16.8: Process Types in the Joint Construction Text (Text 5.4).................. 190
Appendix 16.10: Process Types in Text 5.5.............................................................. 201
Appendix 16.11: Transitivity Analysis of Text 5.6..................................................... 202
Appendix 16.12: Process Types in Text 5.6........................................................... 212
Appendix 16.13: Transitivity Analysis of Text 5.7..................................................... 213
Appendix 16.14: Process Types in Text 5.7............................................................ 223
APPENDIX 17: MORE SAMPLES OF STUDENTS’ TEXTS..................................... 224
APPENDIX 18: INTERVIEW DATA........................................................................... 238
Appendix 18.1: Questions of the First Stage Interviews............................................ 238
Appendix 18.2: Condensed Version of Data from Individual Interviews (Stage One)
........................................................................................................... 242
Appendix 18.3: Condensed Version of Data from the Focus Group (Stage One)..... 252
Appendix 18.4: Questions and Condensed Version of Data from Second Stage Focus
Group................................................................................................ 256
iii

A Critical Genre Based Approach To Teaching Academic Writing In A Tertiary EFL Context In Indonesia

APPENDIX 1: SAMPLE OF SYLLABUS OF WRITING
COURSES (WRITING I-V) IN THE RESEARCH SITE
Appendix 1.1 A Sample Schedule and Topics for Writing 1
Session Topic
1 Introduction to Writing I
2 Paragraph structure
3 Analysing paragraph models
4 Analysing paragraph models
5 Choosing and developing a topic
6 Making an outline
7 Writing topic sentences
8 Mid Test
9 Writing supporting sentences
10 Writing concluding sentences
11 Writing concluding sentences
12 Identifying and using transitional signals
13 Writing conference
15 Identifying methods of paragraph development (by example)
16 Final Test
Appendix 1.2: A Sample Schedule and Topics for Writing II
Session Topic
1 Introduction to Writing II
2 Identifying methods of paragraph development
8 Mid Test
9 Identifying methods of paragraph developments
11 Analysing paragraphs with various methods of development
12 Paragraph writing practice
14 Introduction to essays
15 Introduction to essays
16 Final test
1

Appendix 1.3: A Sample Schedule and Topics for Writing III
Session Topic
1 The essence of paragraph and paragraph structure
2 The essence of idea and idea development
3 Techniques of generating ideas
4 Techniques of supports
5 Paragraph outlining
6 Expository paragraph
7 Paragraph development: definition and classification
8 Paragraph development: definition and classification (peer correction)
9 Midterm test
10 Paragraph development: process
11 Paragraph development: process (peer correction)
12 Paragraph development: comparison and contrast
13 Paragraph development: comparison and contrast
14 Paragraph development: cause-and-effect
15 Paragraph development: cause-and-effect (peer correction)
Introduction to essay writing
16 Final Test and students’ feedback
Appendix 1.4: A Sample Schedule and Topic for Writing IV
Session Topic
1 Essence and structure for essay
2 Generating ideas for an essay
3 Thesis statement and introductory paragraph
4 Outlining an essay (peer correction)
5 Writing an introductory paragraph (peer correction)
6 Techniques of support: facts, examples, personal experience, and physical description
7 Techniques of support: facts, examples, personal experience and physical description
8 Mid Test
9 Methods of essay development
10 Developmental paragraph: comparison and contrast essay
11 Developmental paragraph (peer correction)
12 Developmental paragraph: Classification essay
13 Developmental paragraph: Process analysis essay
14 Developmental paragraph (peer correction)
15 Developmental paragraph (cause and effect analysis essay)
16 Final test
2

Appendix 1.5: A Sample Schedule and Topic for Writing V
Session Topic
1 Sharing of writing experiences and socially constructing procedural knowledge of
writing especially those related to the skills of paraphrasing
writing especially those related to the skills of quoting
3 Peer feedback and class discussion
writing especially those related to the skills of summarizing
writing especially those related to the skills of synthesizing
7 Model compositions followed up with exercises focusing on paraphrasing
8 Midterm Test
9 Model compositions followed up with exercises focusing on quoting
10 Model compositions followed up with exercises focusing on summarisisng
12 Model compositions followed up with exercises focusing on synthesizing
14 Writing an article synthesised from three different published articles
(the topic will be negotiated with the students)
15 Writing an article synthesised from three different published articles
(the topic will be student-chosen one)
16 Final test
3

APPENDIX 2: PLAIN LANGUAGE STATEMENT
Dear students who take the Course Writing V, the English Department, Indonesia University
of Education.
You are invited to participate in the above research project, which is being conducted by
Prof. Frances Christie; Dr. Kristina Love (supervisors) and Mrs. Emi Emilia (Ph. D student)
of the Department of Language, Literacy and Arts Education, The University of Melbourne.
This project will form part of Mrs Emi Emilia’s PhD thesis, and has been approved by the
Human Research Ethics Committee.
The aim of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of a teaching program which
attempts to synthesise classroom practices under the critical thinking movement, critical
pedagogy, critical literacy and the genre-based approach in developing students’ writing as
well as critical thinking skills. Should you agree to participate, you would be asked to take
part in several activities. First we would ask you to complete a questionnaire prior to the
writing lessons. This questionnaire would ask you to indicate your experiences in writing
argumentative genre and your familiarity with the concept of critical thinking.
Second, we would ask you to sit a diagnostic writing task, in which you will be asked to
write an argumentative text on any topic you like. This is aimed to obtain information about
your familiarity with argumentative genres and your initial critical thinking capacity as
reflected in your writing.
Third, following the diagnostic writing task, you will be asked to attend writing classes, for
100 minutes, twice a week for eight-ten weeks. During the undergoing of the teaching
program, you will be asked to produce three pieces of a Discussion genre with different
topics under the guidance of the researcher (Mrs. Emi Emilia). Your writing will be
submitted for further analysis later. However, all your work will be given back to you.
Lastly, some of you will be involved in an individual as well as group interview for about 30
minutes. These interviews are aimed to gain a more detailed picture of what improvements
could be made to make the teaching program more effective to help students develop their
writing as well as their critical thinking skills. Interviews are also aimed to get your ideas on
how you find your writing as well as critical thinking skills after you attend the program.
With your permission, the interview will be tape-recorded so that we can ensure that we
make an accurate record of what you say. When the tape has been transcribed, you will be
provided with a copy of the transcript, so that you can verify that the information is correct
and/or request deletions. We estimate that the time commitment required of you would not
exceed 30 minutes.
We intend to protect your anonymity and the confidentiality of your responses to the fullest
possible extent, within the limits of the law. Your name and contact details will be kept in a
separate, password-protected computer file from any data that you supply. This will only be
able to be linked to your responses by the researchers, for example, in order to know where
4

to send your interview transcript for checking. In the final report, you will be referred to by a
pseudonym. We will remove any references to personal information that might allow
someone to guess your identity; however, you should note that as the number of people we
seek to interview is very small, it is possible that someone may still be able to identify you.
Once the thesis arising from this research has been completed, a brief summary of the
findings will be available to you on application at the English Department of Indonesia
University of Education. It is also possible that the results will be presented at academic
conferences. The data will be kept securely in the Department of Language, Literacy and
arts Education, Faculty of Education, The University of Melbourne, for five years from the
date of publication, before being destroyed.
Please be advised that your participation in this study is completely voluntary. Should you
wish to withdraw at any stage, or to withdraw any unprocessed data you have supplied, you
are free to do so without prejudice. The researchers are not involved in the ethics application
process. Your decision to participate or not, or to withdraw, will be completely independent
of your dealings with the ethics committee, and we would like to assure you that it will have
no effect on any applications for approval that you may submit.
If you would like to participate, please indicate that you have read and understood this
information by signing the accompanying consent form and returning it in the envelope
provided. The researchers will then contact you to arrange a mutually convenient time for
you to fill out a questionnaire and sit a diagnostic writing task.
Should you require any further information, or have any concerns, please do not hesitate to
contact either of the researchers;
Prof. Frances Christie on ph: 61.3. 8344 8799, or
Dr. Kristina Love on ph: 61.3. 83448372, or
Mrs. Emi Emilia on ph: 0816 603490.
Should you have any concerns about the conduct of the project, you are welcome to contact
the Executive Officer, Human Research Ethics, The University of Melbourne, on ph: 8344
7507, or fax: 9347 6739.
5

APPENDIX 3: CONSENT FORM FOR PERSONS
PARTICIPATING IN RESEARCH PROJECTS
The University Of Melbourne
School/Department of Language, Literacy and Arts Education
PROJECT TITLE: Teaching A Discussion Genre to Foster Students’ Critical Thinking
Name of participant:
Name of investigator(s): Prof. Frances Christie; Dr. Kristina Love; Emi Emilia
1. I consent to participate in the project named above, the particulars of which -
including details of the filling out of a questionnaire, sitting a diagnostic
writing task, attending the writing lessons, and involving in interviews - have
been explained to me. A written copy of the information has been given to
me to keep.
2. I authorise the researcher or his or her assistant to use with me the research-
related activities referred to under (1) above.
3. I acknowledge that:
(a) The possible effects of the involvement in all research-related activities, such
as the filling out of the questionnaire, sitting a diagnostic writing task,
attending writing lessons and involving in interviews have been explained to
me to my satisfaction;
(b) I have been informed that I am free to withdraw from the project at any time
without explanation or prejudice and to withdraw any unprocessed data
previously supplied;
(c) The project is for the purpose of research; and not for treatment;
(d) I have been informed that the confidentiality of the information I provide will
be safeguarded subject to any legal requirements.
4. I have also been informed that some sessions of writing lessons will be
videotaped, the interviews will be audio-taped, and copies of transcript will be
returned to me for verification, copies of my writings will be returned, I will be
referred to by pseudonyms or identified by name in any publications arising from
the research. I have also been confirmed that my participation or non-
participation in the research will have no effect on grades/assessment.
Signature Date
(Participant)
Signature Date
(Witness to consent)
6

APPENDIX 4: A HAND OUT GIVEN TO THE STUDENTS
A. Definitions of CT
The word critical derives from two Greek roots: “kriticos”, meaning discerning judgment,
and “criterion” meaning standards (Paul et al,
http://www.criticalthinking.org/schoolstudy.htm; see also Chaffee, 2000, p. 45 for the
definition of the word critical). The word critical, Paul et al argue, is also characterized by
careful analysis and judgment and by an attempt at objective judgment so as to determine
both merits and faults. The word critical also means to question, to make sense of, to be able
to analyse. It is by questioning, making sense of situations, and analysing issues that we
examine our thinking and the thinking of others. The word critical is also related to the word
criticise, which means to question and evaluate. Unfortunately, the ability to criticise is
often used destructively, to tear down someone else’s thinking (Chaffee, 2000).
There are a lot of definitions of CT, as there are many theorists of CT. Some of the
definitions are:
CT is a careful, deliberate determination of whether we should accept, reject, or suspend judgment about
claim-and of the degree of confidence with which we accept or reject it (Moore and Parker, 1995, p. 4).
CT is based on articulately intellectual standards and hence is intrinsically subject to assessment by those
standards. Criteria for the assessment of thinking in all domains are based on such general standards as: clarity,
precision, accuracy, relevance, significance, fairness, logic, depth, and breadth, evidentiary support, probability
predictive or explanatory power. … There is an intimate interrelation between knowledge and thinking (Paul,
2002, p. 3).
CT is a skillfull thinking that is conducive to good judgment because it is sensitive to context, relies on criteria,
and is self correcting (Lipman, cited in Nosich, 2001, p. 46).
CT is always thinking about X, manifests itself in connection with some identifiable activity or subject area
and never in isolation (McPeck, 1981, p. 13; see also McPeck, 1990, 1992).
B. Essential Components of CT
There are several essential CT notions, which are: arguments, the issue, reasons, facts and
opinion (Moore & Parker, 1996, Reichenbach, 2001; Picciotto, 2000; Diestler, 2001;
Toulmin, 1971; Toulmin et al, 1984).
Arguments
Argument is the heart of CT and to begin to think critically is to recognize arguments
(Bowell & Kemp, 2002, p. 5). The concept of argument emphasised here is not associated
with negative connotations, referring to “a kind of verbal battle or disagreement between
two persons” (Kurfiss, 1988; Boylan, 1988; Diestler, 2001; Eemeren et al, 2002). Instead, it
refers to:
7

the sequence of interlinked claims and reasons that, between them, establish the content and
force of the position for which a particular speaker (or writer) is arguing (Toulmin, et al,
1984, p. 14).
The anatomy of Arguments, according to Toulmin, et al (1984; see also Nickerson, Perkins,
& Smith, 1985, p. 290-294; Connor, 1996), consists of the following:
- Claims: assertions put forward publicly for general acceptance;
- Grounds: statements specifying particular facts about situation to support a given claim.
Grounds may comprise experimental observations, matters of common knowledge,
statistical data, personal testimony, previously established claims, or other comparable
factual data;
-Warrants: justification of the data, providing further support for the claim, as the accuracy
and appropriateness of data may be challenged;
-Backings: generalizations making explicit the body of experience relied on to establish the
trustworthiness of the ways of arguing applied in any particular case;
-Qualifiers( Modality): phrases that show the strength and limitations of the claim, and what
kind and degree of reliance is to be placed on the claim, given the arguments available to
support them. These are often construed by modality, such ac necessarily, very likely,
maybe, certainly, presumably, apparently, in all probability, so far as the evidence goes,
plausibly, or so it seems (Modality will be discussed in SFG later);
-Rebuttals: the extraordinary or exceptional circumstances that might undermine the force of
the supporting arguments.
Criteria to assess the soundness of arguments as proposed by Toulmin et al (1984; see also
Connor & Lauer, 1988, p. 145-146)
Claim
No specific problem stated and/or no consistent point of view. May have one sub claim. No
solution offered, or if offered, not feasible, unoriginal, and inconsistent with claim.
Specific explicitly stated problem. Somewhat consistent point of view. Relevant to the task.
Has two or more sub claims that have been developed. Solution offered with some
feasibility with major claim.
Specific, explicitly stated problem with consistent point of view. Several well-developed sub
claims, explicitly tied to the major claim. Highly relevant to the task. Solution offered that is
feasible, original, and consistent with major claim.
Data
Minimal use of data. Data of the “everyone knows” type, with little reliance on personal
experience or authority. Not directly related to the major claim.
8

Some use of data with reliance on personal experience or authority. Some variety in use of
data. Data generally related to the major claim.
Extensive use of specific, well-developed data of a variety of types. Data explicitly
connected to major problem.
Warrant
Minimal use of warrants. Warrants only minimally reliable and relevant to the case.
Warrants may include logical fallacies.
Some use of warrants. Though warrants allow the writer to make the bridge between data
and claim, some distortion and informal fallacies are evident.
Extensive use of warrants. Reliable and trustworthy allowing rater to accept the bridge from
data to claim. Highly relevant. Evidence of some backing (Cited from Connor, 1996, p. 68).
For example:
Claim (score-2): Abortion is wrong.
Data (Score-2): Right after conception constitutes life.
Abortion affects a whole community.
Those who argue that they have a right to their own bodies should realize
God gave them those bodies.
Fetus’ right are ignored.
Fetus can’t talk, carry protest signs, or defend himself.
Warrants (Score-1): Abortion is a very serious issue.
Abortion is a crime
To abort a child is to kill part of God and part of the mother.
Fetus is innocent victim of modern cruelty.
Claim (Score-3): Underage drinking is a problem in our community.
(Solutions: Parents should tell kids about alcohol. Schools should
distribute information on alcoholism. Community needs AA group for
teens).
Data (Score -3): I hear kids boasting about drinking on weekends.
Kids think parents are stupid for not noticing.
I’m teenage alcoholic.
I drank through junior high and high school.
As freshman in high school, I need whiskey to get out of bed.
I drank at school during lunch.
I had to drink to feel normal.
My grades and athletic performance lowered.
My PE teacher sent me to a counselor.
Counselor diagnosed me as alcoholic and put me on treatment plan.
After year of struggling, I’m myself.
9

Warrants (Score – 3): If only other teens knew the struggles of alcoholism, they wouldn’t
boast about their drinking.
Worth efforts to help one person.
No good to cut alcohol off at source because kids will get it from
somewhere.
Need to take action promptly in ways kids can understand.
(source: Connor & Lauer, 1988, p. 149-150).
The Topic
The topic is what a sentence, a paragraph, series of paragraphs, chapter, book, video, or
speech is primarily about. In effect, it is the main or central subject to the communication.
The topic might be a thing, event, person, or idea. Generally, it is express by a word or two
or three, at most a phrase. You should not express it by a complete sentence, because by
then, you are moving on to state some claim or thesis about the topic.
To find the topic, ask yourself “What is the author or speaker talking about?” Here are two
clues:
Sometimes communication comes with titles
Locate the grammatical subject of either the first or the last sentence in the paragraph
The issue
The issue is the question that is being addressed (Diestler, 2001; Bowell & Kemp, 2002). In
a text the issue is the main or primary question the author asks and then goes on to answer
(Reichenbach, 2001; Bowell & Kemp, 2002). The issue is different from the topic. The
issue should contain the topic, preferably (not always) as the subject of the question. Topics,
are ideas or subjects and topics become issues when a question or controversy is introduced
(Diestler, 2001).
Reasons
Reason is the central point of an argument (Toulmin et al, 1984). Reasons are the statements
that provide support for claims or conclusions. Without reasons, we have no arguments; but
we simply have an assertion, a statement of someone’s opinion (Diestler, 2001, p. 9).
In a text, several indicators for reasons can be realised in conjunctions, such as: because,
since, and some other expressions, such as for one thing, for the reason that ... (Browney &
Keeley, 1986; Reichenbach, 2001; see also the conjunction system in SFG, chapter 3,
Section 3.3).
Fact and opinion
The capacity to differentiate fact and opinion is crucial for students to learn CT. A fact is
defined as what actually happened, what is true (The glossary of CT.org/University/gloss/f-
h.html). A fact is verifiable by empirical means, distinguished from interpretation, inference,
10

judgment, or conclusion, and considered as the raw data (Picciotto, 2000). A fact is also “the
way things are, the way the world is and makes a statement true” (Reichenbach, 2001, p.
80). For example, the statement The earth is the third planet from the sun is true, and The
earth is the fifth planet from the sun is false, because of the fact that the earth is the third
planet from the sun (Reichenbach, 2001, p. 80)
An opinion, on the other hand, is something that may be believed to be true, but that is
questionable or debatable (Picciotto, 2000). Opinions are our own beliefs about the world.
Every idea we express or judgment we make communicates our opinions about the way
things are (Reichenbach, 2001, p. 82).
Intellectual standards of critical thinking (CT Standards)
According to Nosich (2001), Paul (1993, 2002, what critical thinkers do, when thinking is
addres a question or problem, and then they think it through, using the elements of
reasoning, and while they do this, they monitor their reasoning using the critical thinking
standards. These intellectual standards, as English (2002) states, are regarded as a way of
gauging how well critical thinking skills are performed.
There are several critical thinking standards that can be used by a critical thinker in
monitoring their thoughts, which will be discussed below, mainly based on the work of
Nosich (2001), An Educator’s Guide to Critical Thinking Terms and Concepts, 2001
(http://www.critical thinking.org/University/gloss/f-h.html) and others.
Clarity
According to Nosich (2001), our thinking is clear when it is easily understood, when it is
free from the likelihood of misunderstanding, when it is readily apparent what follows from
it. There are two aspects to clearness or clarity. One is being clear in our own mind about
what we mean; the other is expressing ourselves clearly so that the other person knows what
we mean. Clarity, as the glossary of critical thinking states, is a fundamental perfection of
thought, and clarification a fundamental aim in critical thinking (2001).
In relation to this clarity, Nosich (2001) and Vipond (1993) point out that clarity/clearness is
context dependent, it should not be considered as a stable property of texts. “What is clear to
you might not be clear to me, and what is clear in one context is not necessarily clear in
another” (Vipond, 1993). Similarly, Reichenbach (2001) argues that “not everything we say
or write is clear. We may believe it is clear because it is clear to us but others may not
understand what we are saying or writing” (p. 108). Nosich (2001) sees that knowledge,
familiarity, and expectations play important roles in determining what is clear on any given
occasion for any given reader. He further states that there are three important aspects of
context, which may cause us to adjust our standard of clarity in undertaking any course of
study. These are:
Audience: To express ourselves clearly we need a clear idea of who our audience is. We
must then choose our words appropriately.
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Discipline or subject matter: Different disciplines use the standard of clarity in different
ways.
Stage of thinking: If we are thinking critically, our understanding of important concepts
becomes clearer over time. For example, how clear a concept is to us at the beginning of a
course will be different from how clear it is to us at the end (Nosich, 2001, p. 120-121).
The importance of clarity in critical thinking has also been justified by Ennis & Norris
(1992) & Moore & Parker (1995). In relation to clarity in argumentative writing, Moore &
Parker suggest “… if our objective is to support our position, … then we will strive to write
as clearly as possible” (1995, p. 29).
Accuracy
Following Aristotle, Nosich (2001, p. 122) gives one of the clearest definitions of the notion
of truth. “To say what is that it is, or what is not that it is not, is true.” Nosich goes on to
define accuracy in a similar way, “My thinking and my words are accurate when they
describe the way things actually are.” (2001, p. 122). Related terms to accuracy are: “true”,
“well-established”, “confirmed”, “corroborated”, “well-authenticated”, “and plausible”. As a
critical thinking standard, the word “true” means simply that our words describe the way
things are.
Importance, Relevance
In critical thinking, relevance, according to Nosich (2001) means relevant to a question at
issue, with a purpose in mind and set in a particular context. It does not mean “relevant” in
general. In writing or speaking, to focus on what is relevant we can ask a question: “How
does this point relate to the topic at hand?”
Sufficiency
Our thinking about a question or issue is sufficient when we have reasoned it out thoroughly
enough for the purpose at hand, when it is adequate for what is needed, when we have taken
account of all necessary factors. Related terms to sufficiency are: adequacy, sufficiency,
completeness, and comprehensiveness.
Depth & Breadth
Nosich (2001, p. 132) sees that our thinking about a question is deep enough when:
we recognize that, in order to accomplish our purpose, we must look below the surface of
the question or issue. (particularly at theories or explanations in a discipline);
we identify the complexities that underlie it;
we take adequate account of those complexities and underlying issues in addressing the
question.
Similarly, our thinking is broad when we:
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a) Recognize the need to look at other aspects, other perspectives, and other parallel
problems;
b) identify them; and
c) take adequate account of them in reasoning through the question.
Precision
Our thinking is precise when we have been as specific and detailed as needed to reason
through an issue. Related terms to precise are: exact, specific, detailed, and focused.
According to Nosich (2001), precision and clarity are related, but they capture different
ideas. For example, the sentence the infant is running a temperature is clear. But the
sentence the infant is running a temperature of 39C degrees is both clear and precise.
However, Nosich further states, precision is not related to accuracy. A lie can be entirely
precise; a true statement can lack precision.
In relation to the critical thinking standards above, Paul (1994), cited in English (2002)
states that in an educational environment, precision and clarity constitute the criteria to
measure students’ overall quality of their use of critical thinking skills. Intellectual
standards, according to English (2002) seem vital as education develops standards for
student performance in critical thinking skills.
Note: Precision and clarity are related, as can be seen in the following example:
“There is a great deal of violence on TV, even on children’s program” (Clear)
“ In 1993, U.S. network programs offered about 3 violent acts per hour during prime time,
and 18 per hour during children’s Saturday morning programs” (Both clear and precise)
Precision and accuracy are not related, as suggested by Nosich (2001, p. 136) that “A lie
can be entirely precise; a true statement can lack precision. We can’t infer that the statement
is accurate from the fact that it is precise” (Nosich, 2001, p. 136)
Questions to Test CT Standards:
Below are questions that can be used to probe each standard of critical thinking.
Clarity:
Is the idea easily understood?
Is the information free from confusion or ambiguity or vagueness?
Are concrete and specific examples given?
Accuracy:
Is the information free from errors, mistakes, or distortion?
Does information have conformity with fact or truth?
Do the words describe the way things actually are?
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Relevance :
Does the thinking focus on what is important?
How does the point relate to the topic at hand?
Precision:
Is the thinking precise?
Is the reasoning detailed enough? (Nosich, 2001).
Brief Notes Related to CT:
When you are thinking critically, what you think makes sense, and you can give good
reasons to back up your ideas. It is not enough to take a position on an issue or make a
claim; we have to back up our views with other information that we feel support our
position. In other words, there is an important distinction as well as relationship between
what you believe and why you believe it (Chaffee, 2000).
Knowledge plays a very significant role in critical thinking. Without knowledge,
Reichenbach (2001, p. 30) argues, critical thinking is like a carpenter without wood: We
have nothing with which to work. To acquire knowledge of what is communicated, you
must identify the topic the writer or speaker is discussing, what the writer or speaker takes to
be the issue or problem with respect to that topic, what position the author or speaker takes
on the issue, and finally, where appropriate, the main points the author or speaker uses to
support or develop the position he or she takes on the issue.
C. CT Skills
According to Lipman (2003, p. 178-186), there are four skill areas of CT relevant to
educational purposes, including: inquiry processes (self-correcting practices), reasoning
processes, information organizing and translation (see also Lipman, 1991).
Meanwhile, Browne, Haas, and Keeley, S. (1978, January) identify several CT skills that
should be emphasized in college. These are, among others:
1. "Identifying a controversy and conclusions,
2. Identifying major arguments pertaining to the controversy,
3. Identifying and analyzing implicit premises according to their level of abstraction,
4. Recognizing language difficulties (e.g., ambiguity, vagueness),
5. Evaluating the validity of individual arguments and truth of individual premises,
6. Formulating a conclusion from premises based on number 5,
7. Recognizing alternative inferences that could be drawn from premises supporting the
conclusion, and
8. Suggesting a rudimentary technique for verifying these alternative inferences.
D. Dispositions and Abilities Involved in CT
There are a lot of dispositions and abilities involved in CT. Some dispositions and abilities
involved in CT which will be emphasised in this study are those closely related to the
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process of reading and writing (a Discussion genre) and can be enhanced through the
process of discussion and collaboration in classroom activities. The dispositions and
abilities, adapted from Ennis (1987, p. 12-15); Nickerson (1987); Zechmeister & Johnson
(1992, p. 6-7) are as follows:
Dispositions:
- seek a clear statement of the thesis or question;
- seek reasons;
- try to be well informed;
- use and mention credible sources;
- try to remain relevant to the main point;
- be open minded:
(i) consider seriously other points of view than one’s own;
(ii) withhold judgment when the evidence and reasons are insufficient
- take a position (and change a position) when the evidence and reasons are sufficient to do
so;
seek as much precision as the subject permits;
be sensitive to the feelings, level of knowledge, and degree of sophistication of others.
Other dispositions typical of a critical thinker, according to Zechmeister & Johnson (1992,
p. 6-7) are among others:
- Objectivity: using objective factors to make decisions and avoiding being influenced by
emotional or subjective factors (see Langrehr, 1994);
- Intellectual honesty: accepting statements as true even when they don’t agree with one’s
own position;
- Being systematic: following a line of reasoning consistently to a conclusion;
- Respect for other viewpoints: willingness to admit that he/she is wrong and that others may
be right.
Abilities:
- Focusing on a question;
- Analysing arguments
identifying conclusions;
identifying stated reasons;
identifying unstated reasons;
- asking and answering questions of clarification and/or challenge, for example:
(i) why?
(ii) what is your main point
(iii) what do you mean by...?
(iv) What are the facts?
(v) Would you say some more about this?
- Judging the credibility of source;
- Identifying assumptions;
- Deciding on an action;
(i) formulate alternative solutions
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(ii) tentatively decide what to do
- interacting with others
(i) employing and reacting to fallacy labels (see fallacy in reasoning below)
(ii) logical strategies
(iii) rhetorical strategies
(iv) argumentation: presenting a position, oral or written.
E. Activities that Make up CT (Adapted from Chaffee, 2000; Chapters 2 & 6 Chaffee
et al, 2002, Chapters 2 & 5)
Corresponding to dispositions and abilities above, there are several activities that make up
CT, and according to Chaffee (2000, p. 44; Chaffee, et al, 2002), they are:
• Thinking actively: actively using intelligence, knowledge, and abilities to deal
effectively with life’s situation, through integrating new information with existing
knowledge framework (Chaffee, 2000, p. 51).
When you think actively, you are:
-Getting involved in potentially useful projects and activities instead of remaining
disengaged.
-Taking initiative in making decisions on your own instead of waiting passively to be told
what to think or do.
-Following through on your commitments instead of giving up when you encounter
difficulties.
-Taking responsibilities for the consequences of your decisions rather than unjustifiably
blaming others or events beyond your control.
Exercise
Listed here are some of the activities that may influence you to think actively or passively.
Place an A next to those items you believe in general influence you to think actively, and a P
next to those you consider to be generally passive influences.
Activities: People
Reading books Family members
Writing Friends
Watching television Employers
Dancing Advertisers
Drawing/ Painting School/College teachers
Playing video games Religious leaders
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Playing sports
Listening to music
• Carefully exploring situations with questions: actively using thinking abilities to
attack problems, to meet challenges, and to analyse issues. Questions can be
categorized into: fact, interpretation, analysis, synthesis, evaluation, and application
(see Chaffee, 2000, p. 53-55).
An important dimension of thinking actively is carefully exploring the situations in which
you are involved with relevant questions. In fact the ability to ask appropriate questions is
one of the most powerful thinking tools you possess, although many people do not make full
use of it. Active learners explore the learning situations they are involved in with questions
that enable them to understand the material or task at hand, and then integrate his new
understanding into their knowledge framework.
Questions can be categorized into six, including:
Questions of fact: seek to determine the basic information of a situation: who, what, when,
where, how. These questions seek information that is relatively straightforward and
objective.
Who, what when, where, how ……………………………………….
Describe ………………………………………………………………...
Questions of interpretation: seek to select and organize facts and ideas, discovering the
relationship between them. Examples of such relationships include:
Chronological relationships: Relating things in time sequence
Process relationships: relating aspects of growth, development, or change.
Comparison/contrast relationship: relating things in terms of their similar /different features.
Causal relationship: relating events in terms of the way some events are responsible for
bringing about other events.
Retell ….. in your own words.
What is the main idea of ….?
What is the time sequence relating the following events: ………?
What are the steps in the process of growth or development in … ?
How would you compare and contrast …… and …….?
What was the cause of ….? The effect of ….. ?
Questions of analysis: seek to separate an entire process or situations into its component
parts and to understand the relation of these parts to the whole. These questions attempt to
classify various elements, outline component structures, articulate various possibilities, and
clarify the reasoning being presented.
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What are the parts or features of ……………………….?
Classify …………. According to ……………………….
Outline/ diagram/ web ………………………………….
What evidence can you present to support ……………..?
What are the possible alternatives for ……………….. ?
Explain the reason why you think …………………… .
Questions of synthesis: have as their goal combining ideas from a new whole or come to a
conclusion, making inferences about future events, creating solutions, and designing plans
of action.
What would you predict/ infer from?
What ideas can you add to ….?
How would you create/design a new …?
What might happen if you combine … with …?
What solutions/decisions would you suggest for …?
Questions for evaluation: the aims of evaluation questions are to help us make informed
judgments and decisions by determining the relative value, truth, or reliability of things. The
process of evaluation involves identifying the criteria of standards we are using and then
determining to what extent the things in common meet those standards.
How would you evaluate …. And what standards would you use?
Do you agree with ….? Why or why not?
How would you decide about …. ?
What criteria would you use to assess …. ?
Questions of application: The aim of application questions is to help us take the knowledge
or concepts we have gained in one situation and apply them to other situations.
How would you apply this rule/ principle to …. ?
Note: Thinking independently: thinking for ourselves, involving balancing our view of
things against those of others, integrating ourselves into our social structure, without
sacrificing our independence or personal autonomy. Becoming a critical thinker transform
you in positive ways by enabling you to develop your own well-reasoned viewpoints and to
make informed choices.
Answer the following questions, based on what you believe to be true.
Yes No Not sure
1. Is the earth flat?
2. Is there a God?
3. Is abortion wrong?
4. Should men be the breadwinners and women the homemakers?
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To evaluate the strengths and accuracy of the reasons and evidence you identified to support
your beliefs on the five issues by addressing the following questions:
Authorities: Are the authorities knowledgeable in this area?
Are they reliable? Have they ever given inaccurate information? Do other authorities
disagree with them?
References: What are the credentials of the authors? Are there other authors who disagree
with their opinions? On what reasons and evidence do the authors base their opinions?
Factual evidence: What are the source and foundation of the evidence? Can the evidence be
interpreted differently? Does the evidence support the conclusions?
Personal experience: What were the circumstances under which the experiences took place?
Were distortions or mistakes in perception possible? Have other people had either similar or
conflicting experiences? Are there other explanations for the experience?
• Viewing situations from different perspectives: a willingness to listen to and examine
carefully other views and new ideas; an awareness that in addition to one’s own
point, there may be other viewpoints that are equally important and need to be taken
into consideration if he/she wants to develop a more complete understanding; “a
willingness to learn from others, often from the voices he/she dislikes” (Askeland
http://www3.wittenberg.edu/laskeland/critical_thinking.htm).
Although it is important to think for yourself, others may have good ideas from which you
can learn and benefit. A critical thinker is a person who is willing to listen and to examine
carefully other views and new ideas.
As children, we understand the world from only our point of view. As we grow, we come
into contact with people who have different viewpoints and begin to realize that out
viewpoints is often inadequate, we are frequently mistaken, and our perspective is only one
of many. If we are going to learn and develop, we must try to understand and appreciate
viewpoints of others.
Being open to new ideas and viewpoints means being flexible enough to change or modify
your ideas in the light of new information or better insight. Each of us has a tendency to
cling to the beliefs we have been brought up with and the conclusions we have arrived at. If
we are going to continue to grow and develop as thinkers, however, we have to be willing to
change or modify our beliefs when evidence suggests that we should.
Example:
Imagine that you have been brought up with certain views concerning an ethnic group in
Indonesia, say, Sundanese, Balinese, Javanese or Bataknese. As you mature and your
experience increases, you may find that the evidence of your experience conflicts with the
views you have been raised with. As critical thinkers, we have to be open to receiving this
new evidence and flexible enough to change and modify our ideas on the basis of it.
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In contrast to open and flexible thinking, uncritical thinking tends to be one-sided and close-
minded. People who think this way are convinced that they alone see things as they really
are and that everyone who disagrees with him is wrong. The words we use to describe this
type of person include “dogmatic”, “subjective” and “egocentric”. It is very difficult for
such people to step outside their own viewpoints in order to see things from other people’s
perspectives. Part of being an educated person is being able to think in an open-minded and
flexible way.
Activities: Work in pairs
Consider the following situation:
Imagine that you have been employed at a new job for the past six months. Although you
enjoy the challenge of your responsibilities and you are performing well, you find that you
simply cannot complete all your work during office hours. To keep up, you have to work
late, take work home, and even occasionally work on weekends. When you explain this to
your employer, he/ she says that although he/she is sorry that the job interferes with your
personal life, it has to be done. He/she suggests that you view these sacrifices as an
investment in your future and that you should try to work more efficiently. She/he reminds
you that there are many people who would be happy to have your position.
1. Describe this situation from your employer’s standpoint, identifying reasons that might
support her views.
Describe some different approaches that you and your employer might take to help resolve
this situation.
Note: Considering other points of view is very important especially when we are making an
argument. People do not argue about things on which they agree, nor do they agree about
concepts that are accepted as facts. For example, it’s not likely that an argument would arise
over the relative lengths of a meter and a yard. Arguments develop because people have
different opinions about issues.
“You should not ignore opposing points of view when you are making an argument.
Sometimes, people will ignore other ideas and present one-sided cases-as in most
advertisements, sermons, many political statements, and attempts to pushing proposals
through. But in reasoned arguments, you should address varying ideas in order to
demonstrate your grasp of the issue and also to try to achieve mutual understanding and, if
possible, consensus or agreement”
Supporting diverse perspectives with reasons and evidence: to take a position on an issue
and make a claim, we have to back up our views with other information that support our
position. To make sense of an issue, we should attempt to identify not just the reasons that
support our view, but also the reasons that support other views.
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When you are thinking critically, what you think makes sense, and you can five good
reasons to back up your ideas. It is not enough simply to take a position or make a claim, we
have to back up our views with other information that we feel support our position. In other
words, there is an important distinction as well as relationship between what you believe and
why you believe it.
Consider the issue of whether UPI (Indonesia University of Education) should become a
BHMN (autonomous university).
Issue:
UPI should not become a BHMN UPI should become a BHMN
(an autonomous university) (an autonomous university)
Supporting reasons: Supporting reasons:
• Discussing ideas in an organised way: Critical thinking often takes place in a social
context, not in isolation (Chaffee, 2000) and therefore exchanging ideas in the
process of “take and give” (Chaffee, 2000, p. ) is important to develop knowledge,
understanding and judgment about the matter. Regarding this, McPeck maintains:
Not only do discussion and argument enable students to understand the disciplines more
deeply, in an epistemological sense, but they enable students to partake in autonomous
discourse about these things. It helps to provide those characteristics in students, which we
all agree, are desirable: those characteristics, which many people regard as tantamount to
critical thinking (Mc Peck, 1990, p. 50).
When we discuss, we have to do the following:
• Listening Carefully
Review dialogue B and notice how each person in the discussion listens carefully to what
the other is saying and then tries to comment directly on what has just been said. When you
are working hard at listening to others, you are trying to understand the point they are
making and the reasons for it. This enables you to imagine yourself in their position and see
things as they see them. Listening in this way often brings new ideas and different ways of
viewing the situation to your attention that might never have occurred to you. An effective
dialogue in this sense is like a game of tennis-you hit the ball to me, I return the ball back to
you, you return my return, and so on. The ball the discussant keeps hitting back and forth is
the subject they are gradually analyzing and exploring.
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• Supporting Views with Reasons and Evidence
Critical thinkers support their points of view with evidence and reasons and also develop an
in-depth understanding of the evidence and reasons that support other viewpoints.
Review Dialogue B and identify some of the reasons used by participants to support their
points of view.
• Responding to the Points Being Made
When people engage in effective dialogue, they listen carefully to the people speaking and
then respond directly to the points being made instead of simply trying to make their own
points.
Examine the second dialogue and notice how each person keeps responding to what the
other is saying, creating an ongoing, interactive discussion.
• Asking Questions
Asking question is one of the driving forces in your discussions with others. You can
explore a subject first by raising important questions and then trying to answer them
together. This questioning process gradually reveals the various reasons and evidence that
support each of the different viewpoints involved. Identify some key questions imposed in
dialogue B.
• Increasing Understanding
When we discuss subjects with others, we often begin by disagreeing with them. In fact, this
is one of the chief reasons that we have discussions. In an effective discussion, however, our
main purpose should be to develop our understanding –not to prove ourselves right
at any cost. If we are determined to prove that we are right, then we are likely not to be open
to the ideas of others and to viewpoints that differ from our own. Unfortunately, our
conversations with other people about important topics are too often not productive
exchanges. They often degenerate into name-calling, shouting matches, or worse.
Read the dialogues 1 and 2 in pairs. What do you think are the people in dialogue 1 and 2
doing? Are people in dialogue A discussing their views or simply expressing them?
Consider the following dialogues and examine the dynamics of the dialogues, whether the
two people here are really:
Listening to each other;
Supporting their views with reasons and evidence;
Responding to the points being made;
Asking and trying to answer –important questions;
Trying to increase their understanding rather than simply winning the argument.
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DIALOGUE 1 (taken from Chaffee, 2000, p. 69-70)
Person A: I have a friend who just found out that she is pregnant and is trying to decide
whether she should have an abortion or have the baby. What do you think?
Person B: Well, I think that having an abortion is murder. Your friend doesn’t want to be a
murderer, does she?
Person A: How can you call her a murderer? An abortion is a medical operation.
Person B: Abortion is murder. It’s killing another human being, and your friend doesn’t
have the right to do that.
Person A: Well, you don’t have the right to tell her what to do-it’s her body and her
decision. Nobody should be forced to have a child that is not wanted.
Person B: Nobody has the right to commit murder-that’s the law.
Person A: But abortion isn’t a murder.
Person B: Yes, it is
Person A: No, it isn’t
Person B: Good-bye! I can’t talk to anyone who defends murder.
Person A: And I can’t talk to anyone who tries to tell other people how to run their lives.
DIALOGUE 2 (Chaffee, 2000, p. 70-71)
Person A: I have a friend who just found out that she’s pregnant and is trying to decide
whether she should have an abortion or have the baby. What do you think?
Person B: Well, I think that having an abortion is murder. Your friend doesn’t want to be a
murderer, does she?
Person A: Of course she doesn’t want to be a murderer! But why do you believe that having
an abortion is the same thing as murder?
Person B: Because murder is when we kill another human being, and when you have an
abortion, you are killing another human being.
Person A: But is a fetus a human being yet? It certainly is when it is born. But what about
before it’s born, while it’s still in the mother’s womb? It is a person then?
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Person B: I think it is. Simply because the fetus hasn’t been born doesn’t mean that it isn’t a
person. Remember sometimes babies are born prematurely, in their eighth or seventh month
of development. And they go on to have happy and useful lives.
Person A: I can see why you think that a fetus in the last stages of development-the
seventh, the eighth, or ninth month-is a person. After all, it can survive outside the womb
with special help at the hospital. But what about at the beginning of development? Human
life begins when an egg is fertilsed by a sperm. Do you believe that the fertilised egg is a
person?
Person B: Let me think about that for a minute. No, I don’t think that fertilised egg is a
person, although many people do. I think that a fertilised egg has the potential to become a
person – but it isn’t a person yet.
Person A: Then at what point in its development do you think a fetus does become a
person?
Person B: That’s a good question, one that I haven’t really thought about. I guess you could
say that a fetus becomes a person when it begins to look like a person, with a head, hands,
feet, and so on. Or you might say that a fetus becomes a person when all of its organs are
formed-liver, kidneys, lungs, and so on. Or you might say that it becomes a person when its
heart begins to start beating or when its brain is fully developed. Or you might say that its
life begins when it can survive outside the mother. I guess determining when the fetus
becomes a person all depends on the standard that you use.
Person A: I see what you are saying! Since the development of human life is a continuous
process that begins with a fertilised egg and ends with a baby, deciding when a fetus
becomes a person depends on at what point in the process of development you decide to
draw the line. But how do you decide to draw the line?
Person B: That’s a good place to begin another discussion . But right now I have to leave
for class. See you later.
Notes:
When we discuss, we have to listen to each other.
When we discuss, we keep asking –and trying to answer –important questions.
When we discuss, our main purpose is to develop a further understanding of the subject, we
are discussing, not to prove that we are right and the other person is wrong.
F. Fallacies in Reasoning
In addition to those features that foster CT, there are some fallacies, which should be
avoided and recognized in learning to think, particularly in reading or writing a text.
Adapted from the work of Kahane (1984); Kurfiss (1988); Boylan (1988); Fulkerson
(1996); Toulmin et al (1984); Thomas (1986); McPeck (1981), Diestler (2001), Picciotto
(2000), the fallacies can be classified into, among others:
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-Provincialism: The tendency to accept or reject ideas on the basis of experience in one’s
own group or society;
-Ad hominem (the genetic fallacy): An attack on a person’s credibility or character rather
than on the arguments presented;
-False dilemma (false alternatives, to use Thomas’ (1986) term): Erroneously reducing the
number of possible choices on an issue;
-Hasty conclusion or generalisation: Drawing conclusions from too little evidence or from
unrepresentative samples;
-Begging the questions, circularity: Endorsing without proof of some form of the very
question at issue;
-Irrelevant reasons/causes: The reasons given in support of a conclusion are irrelevant to the
truth or falsity of the conclusion.
-A classic case of faulty analogy: Comparing one situation or idea to another and disregard
significant differences that make this comparison invalid.
G. Some advice regarding critical thinking in writing (adapted from Chaffee, 2000;
Chaffee et al, 2002)
A common piece of advice to writers is “Don’t tell your readers; show them.” Good writers
show by providing specific details and relevant examples, often searching through
specificity to find what is needed. For example:
Telling: Michael Jordan is a great basketball player.
Showing:
During the 1995-1996 seasons, Michael Jordan led the NBA with a scoring average of 30.4
points per game.
That same season, he ranked second on the Bulls for rebounding and assists.
He was chosen for NBA All stars Team in his first nine seasons.
He has won four league MVP awards and two Olympic gold medals.
Telling: My brother is an easygoing person
Showing: My brother lets me borrow his can whenever I want.
When I had an accident while driving his car, all he said was, “That’s why we
have insurance.”
When writing, a critical thinker will also avoid:
stereotypes (general perceptions). A critical thinker will try to avoid expressing a belief
about an entire group of people without recognising individual differences among members
of the group.
Consider the following perceptions:
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Women are very emotional.
Politicians are corrupt.
Teenagers are wild and irresponsible.
People who are good athletes are usually poor students.
Men are thoughtless and insensitive.
Vague language (a vague word is a word that lacks a clear and distinct meaning).
Consider the following sentences:
1. I had a nice time yesterday.
2. That is an interesting book.
3. She is an old person
Give specific definitions for the following words in italics by filling in the blanks.
1. A middle-aged person is one who is ......years old.
2. A tall person is one who is over ... .
3. It’s cold outside when the temperature is ... degrees.
4. A person is wealthy when she or he is worth ... dollars.
Virtually we use vague language extensively in our day-to-day conversations. In many
cases, it is natural that our immediate reaction to an experience would be fairly general.
(That’s nice, She is interesting, etc. If we are truly concerned with sharp thinking and
meaningful communication, we should follow up these initial general reactions with a more
precise clarification of what we really mean.
1. I think that she is a nice person because ....
2. I think that she is a good teacher because ...
3. I think that this is an interesting class because ...
Vagueness is always a matter of degree. In fact we can think of our descriptive and
informative use of language as falling between somewhere on a scale between extreme
generality and extreme specificity. For example, the following statements move from general
to specific.
General
She is really smart.
She does well in school.
She gets straight As
She got an A in physics.
Specific
Examine the following response to the assignment “Describe what you think about the
school you are attending.” Circle the vague words.
26

I really like it a lot. It’s a very good school. The people are nice and the teachers are
interesting. There are a lot of different things to do, and students have a good time doing
them. Some of the courses are pretty hard, but if you study enough, you should do all right.
Notice how general the passage is. The writer says, for example, that “the people are nice,”
but gives no concrete and specific descriptions of why she thinks the people are nice. The
writer would have been more specific if she had used statements such as the following:
Everyone says hello.
The students introduced themselves to me in class.
I always feel welcome in the students lounge.
The teacher takes a special interest in each student.
Ambiguous language
Ambiguity is another obstacle that can interfere with the clear expression of our thoughts
and feelings.
An ambiguous word is “A word with more than one meaning that is open to different
interpretations.”
Give at least two meanings for the following potentially ambiguous words:
Exercise critical major bar cool
Think of two meanings for each of the following sentences.
He fed her dog biscuits.
The duck is ready to eat.
Flying planes can be dangerous.
The shooting of the hunters disturbed him.
References
Browne, M., Haas, P., & Keeley, S. (1978, January). ‘Measuring critical thinking skills in
college.’ The Educational Forum, 43, 219-226.
Chaffee, J. (2000). Thinking critically. 6th
edn. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Chaffee, J., McMahon, C., Stout, B.(2002). Critical thinking, Thoughtful writing. Second
edition. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Diestler, S. (2001). Becoming a critical thinker. 3rd
edn. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Inc.
Eichhorn, R. Developing thinking skills: Critical thinking at the ARMY Management Staff
College. http://www.amsc.belvoir.army.mil/roy.html. Accessed on May 3 rd, 2004.
English, J. (2002). Critical thinking. A CITLA-Sponsored Workshop. Defining Critical
Thinking Era: 1980-Present.
http://citle.kysu.edu/Resources/Critical%20Thinking/History%20Detail%204.htm
Ennis, H. R. (1987). ‘A taxonomy of critical thinking dispositions and abilities.’ In Baron, J.
B., and Sternberg, R. J. (1987). (Eds). Teaching thinking skills: Theory and practice.
New York: W.H. Freeman and Company.
Ennis, H. R. (1992). ‘The degree to which critical thinking is subject specific: Clarification
and needed research.’ In Norris, S. P (1992). (Ed). The generalizability of critical
27

College Press.
Ennis, R. H. (2003). ‘Critical thinking assessment’ In Fasco, Jr. D. (2003). (Ed). Critical
thinking and reasoning. Current research, theory, and practice. Cresskill, New
Jersey: Hampton Press, Inc.
Fisher, R. (1990). Teaching Children to think. London: Basil Blackwell Ltd.
Fulkerson, R. (1996). Teaching the argument in writing. Urbana: National Council of
Teachers of English.
Giancarlo, C.A., and Facione, P. A. (2001). ‘A look across four years at the disposition
toward critical thinking among undergraduate students.’ The Journal of General
Education Vol. 50 (1), 2001. Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, P.A.
Lipman, M. (2003). Thinking in education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
McPeck, J. E. (1981). Critical thinking and education. New York: St martin’s Press.
McPeck, J. E. (1990). Teaching critical thinking. London: Routledge.
McPeck, J. E. (1992). ‘Thoughts on subject specificity.’ In Norris, S. P. (1992). (Ed). The
generalisability of critical thinking. Multiple perspectives on an educational ideal.
Meyers, C. (1986). Teaching students to think critically. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Publishers.
Munsell, P., and Clough, M. (1984). A practical guide for advanced writers in English as a
second language. New York: Macmillan, Publishing Company.
Nickerson, R. S. (1987). ‘Why teach thinking’. In Baron, J. B., and Sternberg, R. J. (1987).
(Eds). Teaching thinking skills: Theory and practice. New York: W.H. Freeman and
Company.
Nickerson, R. S., Perkins, D. N., and Smith, E. E. (1985). The teaching of thinking. London:
Norris, S. P. and Ennis, R. H. (1990). The Practitioners’ Guide To Teaching Thinking
Series. Evaluating Critical Thinking. Melbourne: Hawker Bronlow Education
Norris, S. P. (1992). Introduction: The generalisability question. In Norris, S.P. (1992). (Ed).
The generalisability of critical thinking. Multiple perspectives on an educational
ideal. New York: Teachers College Press.
Norris, S. P. ‘Thinking about critical thinking: Philosophers can’t go it alone.’ In McPeck, J.
Norris, S. P. (2003). ‘The meaning of critical thinking test performance: The effects of
abilities and dispositions on scores’. In Fasco, Jr. D. (2003). (Ed). Critical thinking
and reasoning. Current research, theory, and practice. Cresskill, New Jersey:
Hampton Press, Inc.
Nosich, R. M. (2001). Learning to think things through. A guide to critical thinking in the
curriculum. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Paul, R. and Striven, M. (2001). ‘Defining critical thinking’ (A draft statement for the
National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking.
http://www.criticalthinking.org/University/defining.html
Paul, R. (1990). ‘McPeck’s mistakes’. In McPeck, J.(1990). Teaching critical thinking. New
York: Routledge.
28

Paul, R. (1992). ‘Critical thinking: What, why, and how.’ In Barnes, A. C. (1992). (Ed).
Paul. R. (1993). Critical Thinking. What every person needs to survive in a rapidly changing
world. Melbourne: Hawker Bronlow Education.
Paul, R. (2002). A draft statement of principles. The National Council for Excellence in
critical thinking <http://www.critical thinking.org/ncect.html.
Paul, R., Elder, L., and Bartell, T. Study of 38 public universities and 28 private universities
to determine faculty emphasis on critical thinking in instruction.
http://www.criticalthinking.org/schoolstudy.htm Perkins, D. N. (1987a). ‘Thinking
frames: An integrative perspective on teaching cognitive skills.’ In Baron, J. B., and
Sternberg, R. J. (1987). (Eds). Teaching thinking skills: Theory and practice. New
York: W.H. Freeman and Company.
Perkins, D. N. (1987b). ‘Knowledge as design’. In Baron, J. B., and Sternberg, R. J. (1987).
(Eds). Teaching thinking skills: Theory and practice. New York: W.H. Freeman and
Company.
Perkins, J. (1998). ‘Developing critical literacy with post-beginner learners.’ In Burns, A.
and Hood, S. (1998).(Eds). Teachers’ Voices 3. Sydney: National Centre for English
Picciotto, M. (2000). Critical thinking. A casebook. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.
29

APPENDIX 5: QUESTIONNAIRE DISTRIBUTED PRIOR TO
THE TEACHING PROGRAM
1. Name:
2. When did you start learning English?
3. Where have you learned English?
(Please mention if you take any private English courses)
4. Do you enjoy writing in English?
5. Do you often write in English? How often?
6. What type of writing do you often write?
7. Do you have experiences in writing argumentative genre?
If yes, what do you think about argumentative genre? Easy or difficult?
8. When you write, do you take context into account? (such as the purpose of the
writing, the stages of the writing to meet the purpose of the writing, the audience, the
topic)
9. Do you find any difficulties when writing in English?
If yes, mention the difficulties you have encountered.
10. Have you heard about the term “critical thinking”?
If yes, please answer the questions 11-16.
11. When did you first hear “critical thinking? And where?
12. Have you learned critical thinking and critical reading in subjects you have enrolled
so far?
13. If you have, could you explain what critical thinking and critical reading are.
14. Have you heard critical thinking related-terms (a-f) below? If yes, please provide a
brief explanation about those terms.
a. “clarity”:
b. “accuracy”:
c. “precision”:
d. “relevance”:
e. “argument”:
f. “facts and opinions”
15. When you read a text, specifically an argumentative text, can you identify all the
above concepts?
16. Have you ever learned to apply the above concepts (in question 14) in writing?
17. Have you ever learned to analyse arguments?
18. Have you ever heard the terms “claim”, “data” and “warrant” in arguments?
If yes, please explain briefly.
19. When you read an argumentative writing, can you identify:
a. the claim or statement;
b. stated reasons; and
c. conclusions of the writing?
20. Please mention your expectations from attending this course.
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APPENDIX 6: LESSON PLAN FOR THE TEACHING
PROGRAM
A. Course Description
This program will try to implement a teaching technique, which tries to integrate classroom practices under the
traditions of the critical thinking movement, critical literacy, critical pedagogy and the genre-based approach.
This program is intended to familiarize students with the concept and aspects related to critical thinking. Over
the course of the program, students will be facilitated with activities that make up critical thinking which will
allow them to, say, see an issue from different perspectives, support ideas with evidence, discussing ideas in an
organizing way. Students will also be facilitated with activities that enable them to have critical perspectives on
texts and the realities around texts. This program is also aimed to equip students with knowledge and skills in
writing, specifically writing a discussion genre in which they can apply their knowledge and skills in critical
thinking and critical perspectives on texts and realities. As a terminal goal, the program tries to enable learners
to write a discussion genre, both jointly and individually, in which all their critical thinking skills and activities
that make up critical thinking, their critical perspectives on texts and the realities around texts can be exercised.
Over the course of the program, some classroom practices as suggested by critical pedagogy will also be
employed, aiming at slowly making possible the potential changes, which reflect a shift toward critical
pedagogy.
B. Objectives
At the end of this program, students are expected to:
- Have critical thinking skills, which can be applied in reading and writing text, and later in their daily
life, regarding both academic and nonacademic matters.
- Assess the soundness of arguments based on the critical thinking standards learnt in this program.
- Have critical perspectives on text and the realities around the text, which will later on facilitate them
to the access of being agents of changes into equalities and justices, specifically in campus level, and
generally in the society, which has been experiencing a long multidimensional crisis.
- Describe why the debate of an issue discussed in the program has emerged.
- Discuss arguments for and against the topics discussed from various perspectives.
- Synthesize information on the issues treated in a number of articles on the topics discussed in the
program.
- Grasp knowledge of systemic functional grammar, particularly aspects related to a discussion genre,
such as conjunction, types of process and participants.
- Write and use the Discussion genre effectively.
In relation to the learning of a Discussion genre in English, which is the participants’ foreign language, like
other programs under the genre-based approach, as exemplified by Smith et al (1995), over the course of the
program students are expected to:
• Learn through English, which includes to:
1. develop their awareness of the need to evaluate carefully issues presented, the need to
consider different points of view before reaching a conclusion;
2. develop understanding of the fact that what we say or write reflects our beliefs on the issue
discussed.
• Learn to use English, among others, to:
1. develop their ability to listen to, read and discuss a variety of issues treated in various texts;
2. develop their ability to identify and evaluate knowledge and information from different
viewpoints as well as from their own;
3. demonstrate the developing ability to identify and use schematic structure of a written
Discussion text;
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4. demonstrate the developing ability to present balanced arguments for and against an issue,
using appropriate and sufficient reasons and evidence;
5. demonstrate the ability to write a Discussion genre which follows the correct schematic
structure.
• Learn about English
1. demonstrate understanding of linguistic features of a discussion genre, such as conjunctions,
processes, tense and participants commonly used in a Discussion genre.
C. Planned schedule for the program
Session Topic and activities Students’ activities
1 Topic: Introduction to critical thinking,
including the definitions of critical thinking and
activities that make up critical thinking.
Activities:
-Ask students about their familiarity and
understanding of the concept of critical thinking.
-Introduce the concept of critical thinking and
activities that make up critical thinking, based on
the illustration given by Chaffee (2000).
-Relate activities that make up critical thinking
with the realities around the class or the society.
-Express their knowledge about
critical thinking.
-Listen to the teacher’s
explanation.
-Do exercises related to
activities that make up critical
thinking
2 Topic: Essential notions of critical thinking,
including arguments, reasons, facts and opinions,
thinking skills, critical thinking standards,
assessing the soundness of arguments.
Activities:
-Introduce essential aspects of critical thinking.
-Provide exercises on aspects related to critical
thinking, such as critical thinking standards and
the soundness of arguments.
-Listen to the teacher’s
explanation.
-Read and discuss the material
given on essential aspects of
critical thinking.
-In pairs/groups do exercises on
critical essential aspects of
thinking.
3 Topic: Critical thinking and argumentative writing
Activities:
-Discuss how critical thinking can be promoted
through argumentative writing referring to what
students have learnt about essential aspects of
critical thinking.
-Present students with some tips on what to avoid
when writing an argumentative essay.
Discuss the material given and
do exercises related to how
critical thinking can be applied
in writing.
4 Topic: Introduction to argumentative text and
critical literacy
Activities:
-Discuss an argumentative text
-Discuss the importance of the skills of writing
argumentative texts.
-Demonstrate that what a writer says/ writes
reflects his/her belief in an issue, although
sometimes the writer does not explicitly state it.
-Interrogate the text based on the suggestion from
critical literacy and the genre-based approach
-Present students with two texts presenting
opposing arguments on the same issue.
-Introduce a text type which enables learner to
discuss both for and against arguments, and to
Reading, identifying and
analyzing the text and
answering the questions
suggested by critical literacy
and critical thinking.
Discuss and give comments on
the texts. From critical literacy
and critical thinking
perspectives.
32

apply activities that make up critical thinking, that
is a discussion
5. Topic: Introduction to the genre-based approach,
the concept of genre.
Activities:
- Discuss the term genre
-Describe the stages of the genre-based approach
that students will go through.
-Introduction to SFL and SFG
Listen to the teacher’s
explanation about genre and the
genre-based approach.
6 SFG (Continued)
Activities:
-Discuss in brief Systemic Functional Grammar by
relating them to traditional grammar that students
have understood.
Listen to teacher’s explanation
and do some exercises related
to functional grammar.
7. Topic: Introduction to the issue on the Miss
Universe Contest (Building knowledge of the
field)
The Miss Universe Contest.
Activities:
-Ask students about their familiarity with the
topic.
-Discuss why the Miss Universe Contest has
become a heated debate in Indonesia.
- presents students with a variety of texts related to
the Miss Universe Contest, from various
perspectives.
-List questions of things that students need to find
out from the texts, e.g. What are the benefits of
sending an envoy to the Miss Universe, as can be
seen in the cases of other countries? What aspects
of the contest that make people, especially
Indonesian people argue for and against it?
What do people say about the contest from
economic, social cultural, religious points of
view?
Encourage students to find out other resources
about the Miss Universe to promote their
background knowledge.
Put forward their knowledge
and opinion about the Miss
Universe contest.
Read at home all the texts and
synthesise the information the
obtain from the text, using the
guiding questions given.
8. Building knowledge of the field (continued)
-Discuss what people say (based on the texts)
about the Miss Universe Contest.
- List arguments for and against the Miss Universe
Contest.
-List the reasons why the Indonesian government
does not allow Miss Indonesia to participate in the
contest.
-Discuss and interrogate several texts based on the
suggestion from critical literacy and critical
thinking.
-Relate what students understand from the text
with social practices in Indonesia.
-Compare two texts on the same issue.
-Discuss what students know
about the miss universe.
-Ask questions related to the
text.
-In pairs/groups list arguments
for and against the Miss
Universe Contest.
-List supporting evidence for
each argument.
-Answer the question suggested
by critical literacy, and critical
thinking, regarding various
texts.
-Do exercises given regarding
the comparison of the text.
9. Topic: Introduction to a Discussion genre
(Modeling)
Listen to the teacher’s
explanation.
33

Activities:
-Introduce the concept of text and context.
- Discuss the purpose of a discussion genre.
-Present the schematic structure of a discussion
genre.
- Present an example of a discussion genre, which
shows the schematic structure and linguistic
feature of a discussion genre (Possibly two or
three models)
-Identify the linguistic features of the modeled
text, such as: Conjunctions, Processes (Verbs),
Tense, Generic participants. Each should be
treated separately.
-Interrogate texts based on critical literacy, the
genre-based approach and critical thinking
perspectives.
-Present students with jumbled texts.
-Present students with some tips on writing a
discussion genre, various expressions that might
be used to stating arguments for and against an
issue, and various saying (verbal) processes
commonly used in a discussion.
-Show students with some key written genres,
taken from Macken-Horarik (2002, p. 21-23).
-Represent students with the concept of text and
context, critical aspects context, including texture.
Identify the schematic structure
and linguistic feature of a
discussion genre.
Answer questions.
Work in groups with jumbled
texts.
Students in pairs did exercises
determining whether a piece of
language is a text or non-text,
by seeing the property of
texture, namely coherence and
cohesion. The exercise is taken
from Eggins (1994, p. 85-93).
10. Joint Construction
Activities:
-Brainstorm arguments for and against the Miss
Universe Contest.
- Make an outline
-Conference between teacher and students
Work in groups, brainstorming
arguments for and against the
Miss Universe.
Discuss to decide which
arguments included in the
writing, which argument to be
put first, or second, etc.
11. Joint Construction (continued)
- Teacher encouraged students to focus on all
aspects of critical thinking and writing previously
learnt.
- When students finish their first draft, teacher
discussed with the students the first draft of their
jointly constructed text. The discussion is focused
on aspects of critical thinking and writing.
-Discussion (Write in groups)
-Conference with the teacher
about their first draft.
-Revise the first draft.
12. Joint construction (continued)
Activities:
-Discuss the second draft of students’ jointly
constructed text.
-Collect students’ jointly constructed writing
-Discuss the second draft with
the teacher.
-Write and tidy up their writing.
-Submit their final draft.
13. Independent Construction
At this stage, as students will be more confident
in their writing and have had the knowledge and
skills in both
Activities prior to the independent construction
may include:
-Build knowledge of the field (about the issue
discussed) by independently reading materials
presented by the teacher and the students (This
-Students read the texts, analyse
and synthesise the information
they obtained from all the texts.
Some readings can be done at
home.
- Discuss some of the texts
based on the suggestion from
critical literacy and critical
thinking.
34

may be done at home)
-Discuss and list arguments for and against the
issue.
-Interrogate some f the texts based on the
suggestions from critical literacy, critical thinking
and the genre-based approach.
-Relate the texts with the social realities.
-Encourage students to do something when
students find injustices related to the issue,
especially at campus level.
-After the discussion, students might be invited to
express their opinions on how the system works in
Indonesia regarding the issue previously discussed
from various levels: campus, local and national
level.
-Discuss possible way to do to
at least minimize injustices
students find, particularly in
campus level.
-Discuss arguments for and
against the issue.
-Write an outline for their
writing and discuss and
conference it with the teacher
-Students write a discussion
individually, and independently.
14. Independent construction (Continued) Students write their individual
writing, and go through the
process of writing, such as
revising, editing, proof reading.
15. Independent construction (Continued) Conference with peer, to get
feedback on their writing.
16. Independent construction (continued) Write final draft
17. Building knowledge of the field for the second
independent construction.
Activities done in meeting 12 can be repeated.
Activities done in the first
independent writing can be
repeated
18. Independent construction (continued) Continued
19 Independent construction (continued) Continued
20 Independent construction (continued) Continued
D. Main References:
Burns, A., & Hood, S. (1998). Teachers’ voices 3. Teaching critical literacy. Sydney: National Centre for
English Language Teaching and Research, Macquarie University.
Butt, D., Fahey, R., Feez, S., Spinks, S., Yallop, C. (2000). 2nd
edn. Using functional grammar. An explorer’s
guide. Sydney: National Centre for English Teaching and Research. Macquarie University.
Butt, D., Fahey, R., Spinks, S., & Yallop, C. (1995). Revised edition. Using functional grammar. An explorer’s
guide. Sydney: National Centre for English Teaching and Research. Macquarie University.
Chaffee, J. (2000). Thinking critically. 6th
edn. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Chaffee, J. (2002). Critical thinking, Thoughtful writing. 2nd
edn. New York:
Christie, F. (2002). ‘The development of abstraction in adolescence in subject English.’ In Colombi, C., &
Schleppegrell M. (2002). (Eds). Developing advanced literacy in first and second language. New
Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Degener, S. C. ‘Making sense of critical pedagogy in adult literacy education.’ In The Annual Review of Adult
learning and Literacy- Volume 2. http://ncsall.gse.harvard.edu/ann_rev/vol2_2.html
Eggins, S. (1994). An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics. London: Printer Publishers, Ltd.
English Learning Area (2003). Critical literacy. http://www.discover.tased.edu.au/english/critlit.htm
Feez, S. (2002). ‘Heritage and innovation in second language education’. In Johns, A. M. (2002). Ed. Genre in
the classroom. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers
Feez, S., & Joyce, H (1998a). Text-based syllabus design. Sydney: National Centre For English Language
Teaching and Research.
Feez, S., & Joyce, H. (1998b). Writing Skills. Narrative and nonfiction text types. Melbourne: Phoenix
Education Pty. Ltd.
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Feez, S., & Joyce, H. (2000). Creative Writing Skills. Literary and Media Text Types. Melbourne: Phoenix
Education Pty. Ltd.
Freire, P., & Shor. I. (1987). A pedagogy for liberation. Dialogue and Transforming Education. London:
Macmillan Education Ltd.
Gibbons, P. (2002). Scaffolding language and scaffolding learning. Teaching second language learners in the
mainstream classroom. Porthsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1994). An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London, Edward Arnold.
Halliday, M. A. K., & Hessian, R. (1985). Language, Context and Text: Aspects of language in a social
semiotic perspective.
Keesing-Styles (2003). The relationship between critical pedagogy and assessment in teacher education.
http://radicalpedagogy.icaap.org/content/issue5_1/03_keesing-styles.html
Macken-Horarik, M. (2002). ‘Something to shoot for.’ In Johns, A. M. (2002). (Ed). Genre in the classroom.
Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
McGregor, R. (2002). Analysing and Writing Arguments 2 .Activities, Projects and Tasks. Melbourne: English
Club.
Nosich, R. M. (2001). Learning to think things through. A guide to critical thinking in the curriculum. New
Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Paul, R. (2001). Using intellectual standards to assess student reasoning.
http://www.criticalthinking.org./K12/k12class/using.html.
Rothery, J. (1996). ‘Making changes: Developing educational linguistics.’ In Hasan, R., & William, G. (1996).
(Eds). Literacy in Society. New York: Addison Wesley Longman Limited.
Shor, I. (1999). ‘What is critical literacy?’ Journal for Pedagogy, Pluralism and Practice.
http://www.lesley.edu/journals/jppp/4/shor.html
Smith, S., Kane, V., Wessels, J., & Wignell, P. (1995). Writing a discussion. Child ESL and Literacy Network.
Melbourne: National Languages and Literacy Institute of Australia.
Wink, J. (2000). Critical pedagogy: Notes from the real world. New York: Longman.
36

APPENDIX 7: SAMPLES OF REFLECTIONS (NOTES) OF
CLASSROOM OBSERVATIONS AND
STUDENTS’ JOURNALS
Appendix 7.1 A Sample of Reflections (Observation Notes) by the Researcher
Today was the second Building Knowledge of the Field, with the topic working women.
We discussed several texts, among others, Tips to look after the husband and Women in
Islam. Perhaps the most significant aspect of the session was that the discussion was lively,
with every student participating actively. The students seemed to be very enthusiastic in
responding to the questions asked by the teacher. This is because, perhaps, the texts were
relevant to their life, as Moslems and women who are going to be a wife.
Students’ CT, CL and awareness of the impact or meaning of certain linguistic features of a
text to readers seemed to have significantly improved. The students seemed to feel free to
express ideas and at times their critical or oppositional insight into the texts discussed. Of
particular interest in terms of critical capacity is that the students seemed to be able to
evaluate the accuracy or validity of arguments, seeing the source of the statement in the text.
When asked about the accuracy of the arguments in the text Women in Islam, surprisingly,
students said that “the writer uses alaihissalaam for the narrator of hadith (Muhammad’s
saying and doing) her texts, and this means that she is a syi’ah” (Nuri, Cinta, Candra,
Homsi). Therefore, the students said, “The accuracy of the hadith in the first part of the text
is questionable and not relevant to us.” This may suggest the students’ emerging awareness
of the impact of the writer’s background on the text and that the text is relative to particular
groups of readers.
In terms of CT students were also aware of the need for giving reasons to the statement, as
stated by Wati that “the writer mentions that the suitable jobs for women are teachers,
nurses…”, but she does not give reasons why these jobs are considered most suitable for
women. Moreover, in terms of linguistic features, the students could recognize that the use
of commands suggests that the writer positions as an authority to the reader. However,
particularly interesting was that Cinta could also recognize that the writer positions herself
as a friend or “someone in the same boat” (Fairclough, 1989) by seeing that the writer uses
we in the last suggestion “ May we…”
Moreover, students’ development in CT and CL can also be seen from their capacity in
evaluating and responding to the second text discussed, that is Tips to look after the
husband. They seemed to be aware that the text is not timeless, and again is relative to
particular groups of readers, by saying that “Women in big cities, who have career and work
outside the house cannot do this … . This text is not relevant today. We can’t think of the
husband only we have a lot of things to think of” (Riya). Students’ also seemed to recognize
what is missing in the text, saying “The writer should also have said what the husband
should do to their wife to make their wife happy” (Cinta). Likewise, when asked about who
possibly wrote the text, students could mention several possible writers, such as “an old
37

women who has been successful in her marriage, who has celebrated her golden wedding
anniversary. She gives this advice to her children”. Some students said that the text may also
be written by “an old woman to her daughter in law”. When the teacher asked “why?” they
said “Usually a mother in law wants her son to be treated very well by his wife.”
Particularly interesting is that in the discussion of the two texts, despite their resistance to
some part of the texts, the students also expressed submission to what is stated by the writer,
connecting what is stated in the text to their knowledge regarding religion and social reality.
This may suggests that critical or tactical reading has taken place.
However, despite their improvement in CT, CL and awareness of how the linguistic features
of the text affect the reader, I have an impression that in discussions, from the beginning up
to this stage students still rarely ask questions. So, asking question is something that should
be further emphasized in this program.
38

Appendix 7.2 A Sample of Observation Notes by the Researcher’s Colleague
Notes of the researcher’s colleague’s on the discussion of the text “Tips to look after the
husband” and “Women in Islam”.
Teacher and students are discussing the text “Tips to look after the husband”. The students
are laughing while reading this article. Two students come late because of heavy rain.
T: What does the text tell you about
Students: ... about what a wife should do to her husband.
T: When was the text written?
Students: in 1960.
T: Who do you think the writer is?
Students: A man …
Wati: Possibly the writer is an old woman who had been successful in her marriage, who
had celebrated her golden wedding anniversary. She gave the advice to her children
and she did this because it was also what she did to her husband that made her
successful in her marriage.
T: Who else possibly wrote this text?
Students: An old woman to her daughter in law.
T: Why?
Students: Usually a mother in law (the mother of a husband) wants her son to be treated
very well by his wife. So, this has possibly been written by a mother in law.
T: You think so?
Students: Yes… .
T: What is the text asking you to do?
Students: The text positions us as the one who should follow what she (the writer) said.
T: How do you know that?
Students: The text uses imperatives, such as get dinner ready, …
Students: It is asking us to think of husband as the first priority, and it is only looking after
the husband that we should do.
Riya: This text is not relevant to the situation now because it is impossible that we do this .
We have too many things to think of.
Candra: The first part is not applicable.
T: Why?
Candra, Riya: We probably cannot prepare meals everyday because we work. Some times
we just buy our foods (cooked foods).
T: Yes, that’s right … and many workers in big cities, like my husband, sometimes have
work until late, at 9 or 10.00 pm … . If the worker is a wife, she will definitely not be
able to do this … .
T: What about you, Puri, do you want to say something?
Puri: I agree with some parts in this text such as ideas that we have to look pretty, we
should smile at our husband when he comes home … (students are laughing...)
39

T: why?
Puri: That’s what we have been suggested so far… . Also in our religion …
T: What do you think is missing or should have been discussed in this article.
Wati: The writer does not discuss the rights of a wife. He/she should have mentioned what
she should do to get the right as a wife.
Cinta and Nuri: The writer should also have said what the husband should do to their wife
to make their wife happy. How the husband helps do the household work
should also be discussed.
Nuri, Wati: Why doesn’t the writer say about what the husband should do to his wife in
order that the wife can do her best to him?
T: That’s a good idea.
T: What did you think or how did you feel while you were reading this text? Upset,
annoyed, or angry?
Students: Upset, annoyed, angry.
T: What influenced these thoughts or feelings?
Riya: Our experience says that when we get married, we do not have time to do al these.
What if women work outside? If we work, we won’t be able to do especially advice
no. 1.
………………………..
The teacher gives another text: Women in Islam, and the students are enthusiastic to read it,
saying … Asyiik (an expression of happiness or joy in Bahasa Indonesia).
…
T: What is the text about?
Students: … about what women should do in her family.
…
T: Who is the writer?
Students: A Moslem…, a Moslem woman
T: How do you know that?
Students: she uses we in the last suggestion, …
T: Do you think that the arguments she mentions are accurate?
Students: Nuri, Candra, Cinta: The writer mentions alaihissalaam for the narrator of
Muhammad’s saying or doing. This means that she is a syi’ah … so, the accuracy
of the hadiths is questionable. This text is also from Ahlul Bayt magazine, which
belongs to Syi'ah… .
T: Oh ya?
Students: Yes… .
T: Why does the writer mention hadiths to support her arguments?
Riya: Because it is dealing with the relationship between human beings, and it is hadiths
which discuss a lot of what people should do regarding their relationship with other
humans. It is dealing with Hablum minannaas…(the relationship between human
beings).
40

......
T: Do you agree with her recommendations
Students: … recommendations…that’s what a woman should do in Islam…
Wati: But… the writer mentions that women should work as a teacher, a nurse, but she does
not mention the reasons why…
T: good, …if the writer mentions the reasons, will it make her arguments clearer and more
sound?
Students: yes…
T: How does the writer position to the readers?
Students: From the suggestions, she positions as the one who gives advice … .
Cinta: But she also uses we in the last recommendation, …she positions the readers as those
who have equal positions, as a friend …
T: In the last recommendation, the writer says “May we …”, instead of using imperative,
such as “consult your husband …”. This indicates that the writer tries to soften her
language. What do you think the reason behind this?
Students: May be because the husband is the leader of the family. He should know the
rights of his wife. ….
T: Any other opinion?
Students: silent …. If the husband is pious, he will understand his responsibilities and the
rights of his wife.
T: … without being reminded about the rights of his wife, may be he will support his wife
to work? …
Students: ya… .
T: that’s why, may be, the writer also puts this as the last recommendation …
T: ... mh…How do you think other readers, such as western women, will respond to this
text?
Wati, Candra: May be they will not agree with the suggestions, like “consult your husband
…” They may feel that women have the same rights as men. … no gender difference.
… if the writer is a western woman, she will not mention… “Do not use make up …
do not communicate with non mehram (a man to whom a woman can get married).
…
T: What should have been discussed in the text?
Students: … It should be mentioned that when the wife is working, the husband should
support the wife in doing the household work..
Puri: But I think if the husband is religious and know what to do, he doesn’t need to be
advised. So, this text is dedicated to husbands who are religious and know the
Islamic rules.
T: practicing Moslem husbands you mean?
Puri: … yes….
41

T: Do you think that our social system allows women to have the same job opportunities or
to have successful career as men?
Riya: To some degree, yes, because there is no explicit rules saying that women cannot
enter or go to a certain schools or universities. … But in reality, there are some jobs
which cannot be done by women, like construction, mining…
Ira, Homsi: Yes, … indeed there is no rules which limits women in getting the same job
opportunities or having the same career as men. But we can see, for example, in our
university … .
Warda: ya .. in our university, there is only one dean who is a woman … .
Candra: Our society also does not allow women who have a baby to work. .. In a way, they
do, because we can have a servant to take care of the children, or we can leave our
children with their grandmother. … However, because the child care is rare while the
servant is not educated, a lot of working women are worried to leave their children with
the servant. … therefore, there are women who then quit their job when they have a
baby, as what happened to my aunt. ……….
42

Appendix 7.3 Format of Journal Writing
Name:
Date:
What I learnt from the teacher
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What I learnt from Friends
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43

Appendix 7.4 A Sample of Students’ Journals
Name: Riya
What I learnt from the Teacher
Finally, the confusing “Systemic Functional Grammar” is explained again by Mrs. Emi. At
first behavioural and verbal processes puzzled me a lot. But then by absorbing what the
teacher taught and brainstorming in the class, I declare myself “understand” what systemic
functional grammar is. However, understanding and applying knowledge are two different
things. I have to practise my knowledge then.
After systemic functional grammar we discussed a new topic for independent construction
“Should women become homemakers?” Relating the texts on the topic to SFG, we found a
lot of sentences we can use to practise analysing texts.
What I learnt from Friends
Reading other groups’ writing helps me and my group a lot about how to re-correct our
work, which turned out to have a lot of mistakes we did not realise before. From the joint
construction activity, I can conclude that reviewing others’ work is necessary and beneficial
for us to construct a better text.
44

APPENDIX 8: TEXTS ON OPPOSING ARGUMENTS ABOUT
JUNK MAIL
Source: McGregor (2002, P. 5)
In this activity, your task is to understand and comment on arguments expressed on what to
do about the increasing problem of junk mail.
Which of the two arguments on the issue below appeals more to you?
Argument 1
Anyone caught placing advertising or
promotional material in letterboxes should be
fined. Last week, I collected 27 pieces of junk
mail from my letterbox.
As a national newspaper reported last week, our
mail is increasingly just junk. The junk mail I
received came from local pizza shops, real estate
agents, restaurants, and supermarkets, to name a
few. If people put up signs that say “no junk
mail” they mean just that. Junk mail is
unsolicited mail-unwanted, uninvited.
Junk mail is adding tremendously to the amount
of litter that finds its way into the storm water
drains and ends up polluting our rivers and bays.
There is no need for this. We can find out about
products and services available locally by
walking down the main street, or by looking up
the telephone directories.
Advertising has gone mad. Junk mail is a waste
of resources such as paper and people’s time and
money.
Junk mail is war. The mayor of Darwin recently
suggested that we should gather all the junk mail
on the streets, stuff it in a garbage bag and send
it back to the perpetrators at a cost to them.
What a good idea!
Argument 2
Mailbox advertising is not junk mail. It provides
useful local information and shopping specials,
cuts down on shopping time by allowing
comparison between products and services, and
is much less intrusive and noisy than other
media.
A study by Australia Post shows that 74 percent
of consumers actually enjoy or don’t mind
receiving unaddressed advertising mail. Another
study by Radley University found that more than
50 per cent of people will open advertising
material personally addressed to them. So,
people want advertising material in their letter
boxes.
The national library has a special heritage
section for examples of advertising material.
Fast food advertising, store sale catalogues, real
estate notices, appeals for charity support etc, are
all potential heritage material and as such are
added selectively to the National Library
collection.
There are very good reasons for the library to do
this. This material reflects our culture and
lifestyle, and keeps people in touch with the
community around them. Advertising material is
communication which brightens up our lives.
People who want to ban it are doing the
community a disservice.
45

APPENDIX 9: EXERCISES ON PROPERTY OF TEXT
(FROM NON-TEXT TO TEXT)
Source: Eggins (1994, p. 84-94)
Text, according to Halliday and Hasan (cited in Eggins, 1994, p. 85) refers to “any passage
of language, spoken or written, of whatever length, that does form a unified whole.” In
relation to how a text forms a unified whole, a text has texture, which refers to “what holds
the clauses of a text together to give them unity.” Texture is the property that distinguishes
text from non-text: a text has texture.
Regarding texture, there are two important dimensions, which are: Coherence and
Cohesion.
Coherence refers to the way a group of clauses or sentences relate to the context. In
Systemic Functional Linguistics, there are two types of coherence: situational or registerial
coherence and generic coherence.
A text has situational coherence when we can think of one situation in which all the clauses
of the text could occur, i.e. when can specify a field, mode, and tenor for the entire
collection of clauses.
A text has generic coherence when we can recognize the text as an example of a particular
genre, i.e. when we can identify a Schematic Structure, with each part of the text expressing
one element of the unfolding, staged organization of the language event.
Cohesion refers to the way we relate or tie together the bits of our discourse. The key notion
behind cohesion is that there is a semantic tie between an item at one point in a text and an
item at another point. The presence of the tie makes at least one of the items dependent upon
the other for its interpretation.
Exercises
In pairs, consider whether the following pieces of language are texts or non-texts. Discuss
the reasons.
Written Language
a. 1.Up road runs they. 2. To sign please form those page on. 3. Three children Shirley
have: boy two, girl.
b. 1. I’ve been learning English for two years. 2. He’s been playing the guitar for six
months. 3. They’ve been living in Sydney for one month. 4. We’ve been working
here for 3 years. 5. She’s been studying French for two weeks.
46

c. 1. Once upon a time there was a little white mouse called “Tiptoe”. 2. It’s very
rarely hot in Paris. 3. When does the race start? 4. It does so. 5. No, I don’t know
how to make chocolate crackers.
d. 1. Once upon a time there was a little white mouse called “Tiptoe”. 2. The boys
lived in a large, red brick house with a thatched roof at the end of the longest street
in town. 3. That morning, Mrs Smooks left home in a great hurry. 4. But too late,
William realized that the car had no brakes. 5. So they ran and they ran until
eventually the giant got so tired out that he couldn’t follow them anymore. 6.
“What an exciting day!” she sighed. And so he never goes alone to the shops
anymore.
e. 1. The little white mouse sniffed the cheese carefully. 2. Camembert is a soft,
French cheese. 3. The French consume a lot of dairy products. 4. Isn’t milk an
important source of calcium? 5. You know of course that vitamin deficiencies can
lead to feelings of fatigue and listlessness.
f. 1. Michael took the book out of the glove box and gave it to Jane. 2. It had a
terrible smell about it. 3. he coughed and said “Thanks”. 4. She asked if it was
pretty. 5. Together they cooked.
g. I had always wanted to see Paris. 2. However, you can imagine how excited I was
one there. 3. We had wanted to do some sightseeing. 4. An unfortunately it was
cold and wet. 5. Meanwhile we were exhausted by 6 o’clock.
h. Mark offered Lisa the box of chocolate. 2. She took two of the chocolates out of
the box of chocolates. 3. She put one of the chocolates down on the saucer of her
cup. 4. She started eating the other one of the chocolates she had taken out of the
box of chocolates. 5. Then she started eating the other chocolate she had taken out
of the box of chocolates. 6. These chocolates out of the box of chocolates are
delicious, she said. 7. Is that chocolate out of the box of chocolates delicious, he
replied. 8. “Why don’t you take another chocolate out of the box of chocolates” he
suggested. 9. I will take another chocolate out of the box of chocolates” she replied.
10. And so she took another chocolate out of the box of chocolates.
i. 1. Mark offered Lisa the box of chocolates. 2. She took two out of the box. 3.
Placing one down on her saucer, 4. she started eating the other. 5. “These are
delicious” she said. 6. “Are they?” he replied. 7. “Then why don’t you take
another?” he suggested. 8. “I will” she replied. 9. And so she did.
Spoken language
j. A: 1. Have a chocolate, Lisa.
B: 2. The ferry just left.
A: 3. Thank you.
B: 4. Hallo
47

APPENDIX 10: TEXT TYPES (GENRES) AND
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GENRES IN
TERMS OF STAGES AND THE SOCIAL
CONTEXTS
Source: Macken-Horarik (2002, p. 21-21)
A Look at Eight Key Genres for Teaching Writing across the Curriculum
Social Purpose Social
Location
Schematic
Structure
Description of stages
Recount Retells events for
the purpose of
informing or
entertaining.
Events usually
arranged in a
temporal
sequence.
Recounts are
found in
personal letters
or oral and
written histories,
police records,
insurance claims
and excursion
“write-ups”.
{Orientation ^Record
of Events
^(Reorientation)}
Orientation:
Provides information about
situation;
Record of Events:
Presents events in temporal
sequence;
Re-orientation:
Optional stage bringing the
events into present.
Information
Report
Describes “the
ways things are”
in our natural,
built and social
environment by
first classifying
things and then
describing their
special
characteristics.
Information
reports package
information and
are found in
encyclopedias,
brochures, and
government
documents.
They are useful
for locating
information on a
topic.
{General Statements
(or Classification)
Description of Aspects
^Description of
Activities.}
General Statement:
the subject matter;
Description of Aspects:
lists and elaborates the
parts or qualities of the
subject matter;
Description of Activities:
Could be behaviours,
functions, or uses.
Explanation Accounts for
how or why
things are as they
are. An
explanation sets
out the logical
steps in a
process.
Explanations are
written by
experts for
textbooks, for
nature programs,
environmental
leaflets, health-
care booklets,
and so on.
{General
StatementÎmplication
Sequence^(State)}
General Statement:
phenomena to be
explained;
Implication Sequence:
Sets out steps in a process
or the factors influencing a
phenomenon in a logical
sequence.
Exposition Argues for a
particular point
of view on an
issue. An
exposition gives
reasons to
support a thesis
and elaborates
this using
evidence.
Expositions are
written in school
essays for
subjects like
history or
English.
They also occur
in editorials,
commentaries,
and political
debates.
{Thesis{Position
^Preview]Ârguments
{Elaboration
Âssertion]^Reiteratio
n}
Thesis: Proposes a view
point on a topic or issue;
Position^Preview: a
position is stated and the
arguments listed;
Arguments: the
arguments are asserted and
elaborated in turn.
Reiteration: returns to the
thesis and concludes.
Discussion Discusses an
issue in the light
of some kind of
Discussions are
found in essays,
editorials, and
{IssueÂrguments for
and
gainst^Conclusion}
Issue: gives information
about the issue and how it
is to be framed;
48

“frame” or
position.
Provides more
than one point of
view on an issue.
public forums,
which canvas a
range of views
on issues. They
also occur in
panel
discussions and
research
summaries.
Arguments for and
against: canvasses points
of view on the issue
(similarities and
differences or advantages
and disadvantages).
Conclusion: recommends
a final position on the
issue.
Procedure Instruct in how
to do something
through a
sequence of
steps.
Procedures can
be found in
science
experiments and
in instructional
manuals such as
gardening and
cookbooks and
technical
instruction
sheets.
{Goal^Steps 1-
n^(Results)}
Goal: gives information
about the purpose of the
activity (might be in the
title or in the opening
paragraphs);
Steps1-n: presents the
activities needed to
achieve the goal. They
need to be put in right
order.
Results: optional stage
describing the final state or
“look” of activity.
Narrative Entertains &
instructs via
reflection on
experience.
Deals with
problematic
events which
individuals have
to resolve for
better or worse.
Narratives are
found across all
aspects of
cultural life, in
novels, short
stories, movies,
sit coms, and
radio dramas.
They are
important in
subjects such as
English.
{Orientation^Complica
tion.
Evaluation)^Resolution
Orientation: provides
relevant information about
the characters’ situation;
Complication: introduces
one or more problems for
characters to solve;
Evaluation: highlights the
significance of the events
for characters;
Resolution:
Sorts out the problems for
better or worse.
News Story Presents recent
events regarded
as “news-
worthy” or of
public
importance.
News stories are
found in
newspapers,
television, and
radio broadcasts.
{Lead^Key
Events^Quotes}
Lead: provides
newsworthy information
about the events (the
“hook”);
Key Events: provides
backgrounds information
about events or story;
Quotes: provides
commentary from relevant
sources about
Significance of the events.
Notes: The ^formalism indicates “is followed by”.
49

APPENDIX 11: ESSAY TYPES TO AVOID IN
ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING
Source: Moore & Parker (1995, p. 53). Critical thinking. Fourth Edition. Montain View,
California: Mayfield Publishing Company.
A good argumentative essay defines or otherwise clarifies obscure terms, avoids ambiguous
claims, and does not bewilder its readers with vague phrases and assertions. Another thing a
good argumentative essay does not do is confuse its readers with weird organization.
Essay types to avoid
The windy preamble
Writers of this type of essay avoid getting to the issue and instead go on at length with
introductory remarks, often about how important the issue is, how it has troubled thinkers
for centuries, how opinions on the issue are many and various, and so on-and on.
The Stream-of-consciousness Ramble
This type of essays results when writers make no attempt to organize their thinking on the
issue and instead simply list thoughts more or less in the order they come to mind.
The Knee-Jerk reaction
In this type of essay, writers record their first reaction to an issue without considering the
issue in any depth or detail.
The Glancing Blow
Writers of this type of essay address the issue obliquely rather than straight on if they are
supposed to evaluate the health benefits of exercise, they will discuss the health benefits of
using exercise equipment. If they are supposed to consider the health benefits of using
exercise equipment, they will discuss the benefits of bicycling.
50

APPENDIX 12: MODEL TEXTS OF DISCUSSION GENRE
Logging in Old-Growth Forests
Source: Feez & Joyce (1998b, p. 140)
One of the most controversial issues in our community is whether old-growth forests should
be logged. Some people believe that it is vital for Australia’s rural economy to continue
logging in native forests. People on the other side of the debate claim that logging will lead
to the destruction of Australia’s few remaining wilderness.
Supporters of the logging industry say that only 1% of old growth trees are
harvested and that all these trees are replanted. This, they claim, brings new life to the
forests. At the same time they point out that logging brings employment to rural
communities. This is important at a time when Australia’s country towns are dying as more
and more people move to the cities to find work.
On the other hand, there are a growing number of people in the community who oppose
logging. They argue that logging destroys the habitat of a great number of native animals
and plants. The consequence of this is the extinction of many species. Furthermore they
point out that forests are vital to the environment because they absorb carbon dioxide and
produce oxygen.
Although logging supports rural communities, it also threatens the environment. After
looking at both sides of this debate, I believe that new industries should be developed for the
rural sector and that we should leave areas of untouched wilderness to be preserved for
future generations.
51

Should We Use Animals for Entertainment?
Source: Christie (2002, p. 62)
Statement of issue
“Should we use animals for entertainment” is the name of the topic we’re talking about in
this essay. Below I have stated the positive and negative points for this issue.
Arguments for
In the report we read it said that in order to let a particular species survive, we need to at
least capture a few to show to the public, to let them learn about the animals and then may
be the public would do something to help the endangered animals. It said the animals are
never tortured during training or the performances and they are kept in very clean, natural
yards while not performing. At one stage it said that animals are the core element of circuses
and the statistics proved that people like the animals best at the circus, therefore human
circuses would not meet the public demand. Most people judge circuses on their old ways,
not on the current, improved ways.
Arguments against
But then on the other hand, animals like the elephants and bears are very prone to stress so
they make a habit of standing in one place and rocking or swaying, which is bad for their
joints and feet. Things like constant traveling and performing in front of very large
audiences nearly every day affect this. They’re nearly always in confined spaces and the
biggest places they are ever in are the circus arena or tent, which is also really small. The
animals are not usually kept in their natural habitat, which stops their basic instinct like
fighting for mates, building nests, hunting, etc, from being used to such a large extent like
they do in the wild. An alternative is to use humanism circuses because they can’t exactly
force people to join, they have to be voluntary.
Recommendation
After looking at all these facts, I believe that it’s wrong for us to keep animals in circuses for
our entertainment. We should be able to entertain ourselves, not rely on animals. For this
reason, and the one I have mentioned before, I believe it is wrong for us to train and force
animals to perform in circuses.
52

APPENDIX 13: SAMPLES OF READING MATERIALS
Appendix 13.1: Reading Materials about the Miss Universe
Contest
Arranging Beauty Contest!
By Md. Habibur Rahman Bhuiyan, Dhaka
(http://www.dailystarnews.com/200206/07/n2060711.htm)
We are surprised to learn from a national English daily that marketing agent of ‘LOLANE’
is going to organise a beauty contest “LOLANE Miss Bangladesh Contest-2002”.
Being the third largest Muslim country it is shameful for us to even consider arranging such
contest. Even in India such type of beauty contest is not welcomed by many. There were
protests and demonstration against beauty contest in India. The beauty contest is against the
dignity of women, against our culture and against our religion as well.
We strongly protest it and request the organiser as well as all the authorities concern
including the PM, who is also a woman, not to arrange beauty contest and uphold the image
of Bangladesh women in a dignified manner.
Arranging Beauty Contest!
By Mamunur Rahman, Department of Women’s Studies, DU.
(http://www.dailystarnews.com/200206/07/n2060711.htm
Picture of Miss Universe 2002 was illustriously covered in most of the electric and print
media. Role of some progressive media has enormously stunned us regarding the issue.
Especially by those who are deemed to have committed to uphold the women’s issues and
try to emancipate our women folk from their subordinate condition in the society.
In the name of beauty contest our sisters are exposing themselves to the vested groups. We
would like to know do these and Miss Universe and Miss World know how they are being
made the worst product of multinational companies? Teenage beauty contestants may not be
aware of their position how they are belittling themselves in particular and the women folk
in general. But how our conscious publishers and reporters are covering these disgraceful
events aggravating the situation from bad to worse?
53

Special Interview with Alya Rohali (Miss Indonesia 1996)
(http://ferondi.tripod.com/missindonesiaunofficial/id15.html)
She has been chosen as the Most Beautiful Miss Indonesia and she was the longest Miss
Indonesia to hold her title for 4 years (1996-2000) and she also the most controversial Miss
Indonesia due to her participation in Miss Universe pageant in 1996. Now she is hosting a
quiz show in television and I have to tell you that she still beautiful and I had a great time
talking with her. There she is: Alya Rohali, The Most Beautiful Miss Indonesia
MIU: Could you tell us briefly the process you had to go through to participate in Miss
Indonesia pageant?
Alya: Well, it begins when I won the None Jakarta contest and then I was interested to
follow the Miss Indonesia pageant especially because some of the past Miss
Indonesia like Indira and Venna were also started their career as Miss Indonesia
from None Jakarta contest and particularly because they also represented the same
state as I did. So, actually I had a lot of feedback from them how to enter and how to
prepare myself during Miss Indonesia contest.
MIU: How was the chance to win at that time?
Alya: It was really hard because most of the contestants were prepared themselves really
well especially the candidate from.....uhm.....Lampung, if I am not wrong.
MIU : And then how did you feel after they announced you as the winner ?
Alya : I was very happy definitely, because it’s been my dream since I followed the pageant
from the first day. Actually I did not put any target to win and just do my best but
soon after I joined the activities with other candidates, we had so many seminars and
visit to many places during the pageant. Since then, I started to realize that it would
be pitiful if I just want to do my best in here and I started to say to myself that I had
to win this pageant and it came true.
MIU : Could you tell us briefly about your activities during your reign as Miss Indonesia
1996?
Alya : Since I won the pageant the most important thing that I’ve done was certainly my
participation in Miss Universe 1996 but I heard that it wasn’t approved by the
government especially by the Indonesian Women Department and followed by other
related Departments because of my participation in swimsuit competition and it
became an issue in Indonesia. Actually the swimsuit competition was not a big part
through the whole pageant, it was just a really small part from the whole activities
that we did in there maybe because they don’t participate and see directly with their
own eyes how exactly the pageant is and they just don’t understand completely. Well,
anyway after the Miss Universe Pageant I was doing my regular duties as Miss
Indonesia by promoting the sponsors and involving myself in many social activities
in Indonesia.
MIU : Personally, do you agree with beauty pageant such as Miss Universe pageant?
54

Alya : Well, of course I do agree with those pageants because we can introduce our country
through the world community especially when the situation in Indonesia is not stable
it is very important for us to heal our country’s reputation from any media including
Miss Universe pageant.
MIU : Do you still remember who your roommate was ?
Alya : My roommate is Miss Philippines but I don’t remember her name and she was the
one who won the Miss Photogenic award during the pageant.
MIU : What do you think about Alicia Machado, Miss Venezuela 1996 who won the Miss
Universe pageant at that time?
Alya : Okay, here is another interesting story. During the pageant, contestants from South
America and other Latin countries could not speak English properly. It was really
bad, even the simplest English sentence they still get confuse with that. Therefore,
they tend to grouping themselves and speak with other South America countries
merely because they cannot communicate with other delegates effectively. Thus,
Alicia Machado was regarded as one of the candidates that wasn’t very like so much
by others because she cannot speak English yet she seemed very confident with
herself and that what makes people didn’t like her so much but I think it is only the
matter of language. People cannot get close with her because she cannot speak
English and hence they cannot recognize her well.
During the final night there were only herself and Miss Aruba. Well, Miss Aruba was
a very nice person and she communicated well with most of us during the preliminary
round and therefore most of the girls on back the stage were supporting her and
wishing Aruba will be the winner but then when Miss Venezuela was announced as
the winner we were surprise and just clap our hands and look at her without any
enthusiasm. I think Alicia is a nice lady however and what makes her shine through
the pageant was her naturality and she did not behave like a naive of fake person, I
think that’s why she won.
MIU : Why do you think the contestants from Asia are really hard to shine in Miss Universe
pageant ? What makes them different with the rest of the delegates ?
Alya : Definitely our self confident. Through the pageant, the ladies from Asia were almost
forgotten especially from India, Lebanon and other West Asia countries but mostly
the ladies from South East Asia and East Asia were very shy and they just cannot
bear themselves to do something that is expressive. Even we lose with other
delegates from the Islands like Jamaica and British Virgin Island. They came from a
small country but they really have a good confident and they can socialize very well.
This is one of the benefits by joining Miss Universe pageant, I never know if there
were countries like Aruba or Botswana before but then I realize that we really left
behind from them.
MIU : Within the controversy arise after you joined the pageant, do you consider your
participation in Miss Universe as a positive or negative experience ?
55

Alya : Well, I think it is a really memorable moment in my life and I never think get trauma
with that because it has been my dream since I was a little child. I still remember
clearly when I saw the Miss Universe pageant for the first time it was in 1988 and I
just dreaming and dreaming to be there and now since my wish already came true I
don’t want to consider it as my bad experience. I don’t care what people say because
they wasn’t there and they cannot feel the excitement and the joyful. I was very
thrilled soon after I realized I enter the Miss Universe pageant and it was a strong
evidence that I can reach my dream.
MIU : Do you think that within the future the government will allow Miss Indonesia to
compete in Miss Universe pageant ?
Alya : Well, there is a possibility because people always demand for reformation in
anywhere and it is so pathetic if we cannot enter such competition just because the
swimsuit competition. Compare to what happen in here our entertainment world
always related with such thing even they was sexier and wearing swimsuit as well.
Just look at our drama movies, magazines, even our sculptures always related with
such thing. We have to open our eyes first and look at where we up to if we don’t
want to get left behind from other countries.
MIU : What do you think about the reigning Miss Indonesia 2001, Angelina Sondakh?
Alya : It’s quite hard to know Angelina more because I rarely met with the reigning Miss
Indonesia. Since I passed my crown in 2000 I only met with Bernika, Miss
Indonesia 2000 twice and even worse I only met Angelina once during the pageant.
I never received any invitations related to the pageant anymore so I cannot
recognize Angelina well but during the pageant I can see that she is a very smart
person and her answers during interview always great and had a good quality.
MIU : Do you have any message you want to say to all the Indonesian women especially
young teenagers ?
Alya : Well, what I really want to say is that when you have a dream then you have to try
your best to achieve that cause possibility always there and it all depends on you. I
am really fortunate to be able to reach my dream joining the Miss Universe pageant.
Therefore, I emphasize to all the young teenager to do your best, it doesn’t have to
be the same as me but realize your ability, use your talent and it can be in any fields.
When you realize your talent and your dream then you have to try hard and it’ll be
yours, I’m positively sure.
MIU : Thank you Alya and it is very nice to have this opportunity with you
Alya : You’re welcome.
56

Miss Indonesia & the Resistance towards Beauty Pageants
(http://ferondi.tripod.com/missindonesiaunofficial/id15.html)
It had been 6 times since the Miss Indonesia pageant was held in 1993 for the very first time
and the pageant had choose 6 beautiful and stunning ladies within each year as a Miss
Indonesia. Clearly it is not an easy thing to achieve and it has been the dream of most
woman to be crowned as a beauty queen. Furthermore, being a Miss Indonesia means that
she has to prepare to do all her duties waiting for her as tourist ambassador and to promote
Indonesia in the world community. However, as a Miss Indonesia she also receives a ticket
straight away to participate in Miss Universe pageant, an international beauty pageant
contest which is the biggest, and the most recognized contest all over the world. It has been
the dream of many young women around the world to get the chance to be in the pageant
and from 200 million Indonesia people Indira Soediro, Venna Melinda, Santi Manuhutu,
Alya Rohali, Bernika Ifada, and Angelina Sondakh are the only 6 lucky ladies who had the
chance to be in there.
But the question is: will the government permit them to participate in such contest ? To
follow the Miss Universe pageant the Miss Indonesia tends to get a resistance from both the
society and the government because of the culture and the tradition point of view. However,
as a compensation the government still allow Miss Indonesia to travel around the world and
to take a part in many international forum to introduce Indonesia.
It seems fair enough for Miss Indonesia to enjoy her reign by traveling around the world and
this could be crucial for Indonesia because the situation in
Indonesia since the economic crisis in 1997 never been good and the number of people who
visited Indonesia is getting downwards.
On the other hand, for the woman itself it must be feel incomplete if she has not yet been
participated in Miss Universe pageant. Feels like you have been to Paris but you do not see
the Eiffel tower or you have been to New York but the Liberty statue could not be reached.
Almost all candidate are dreaming away to get the chance to Miss Universe pageant but the
hope is gone as soon as they realize how big the resistance may come from the others. The
main problem is that the swimsuit competition which is one of the conditions for each
contestant to participate always become the biggest wall which is regarded as a ‘taboo’ thing
to do on the stage always blow up all the hope and the chance.
The first time Indonesia started to send a delegate into Miss Universe pageant was in 1967
when Sylvia Taliwongso was planned to participate but at that time a hard reaction came
from everywhere. The government also emphasize that they will not allow such thing. The
minister of tourism in 1978, Dr. Daud Jusuf gave an instruction which forbid all beauty
competitions to be held in Indonesia. In 1984, the minister of education and culture, Mr.
Fuad Hasan altered the instruction by forbidding all beauty queen competitions which have
negative impacts on society. Since then, Yayasan Putri Indonesia (YPI), starts to hold a few
competitions which focused on intellectuality and personality. Then in 1993, the Miss
Indonesia was held for the very first time and Indira Soediro of Jakarta won the first title of
Miss Indonesia.
57

It is not fully understood how Indonesia was capable to send delegates during 70’s into Miss
Universe and other beauty pageants but the latest Indonesia delegate who registered to
participate in Miss Universe pageant was Andi Tenri in 1982 in which she did not appear on
the pageant afterwards. Since then Indonesia was totally absent from all pageants until in
1995, Santi Manuhutu (Miss Indonesia 1995) appeared on Miss Universe 1995 in
Windhoek, Namibia. In 1996, Alya Rohali (Miss Indonesia 1996) was participated in Miss
Universe 1996 in Las Vegas, USA and her swimsuit picture was on the newspaper in
Indonesia. The reaction was so strong, all the people and the government gave protest to
Alya and she received such a hard resistance after the pageant. “I felt really stressful because
everyone was suing me like I was the worst woman in Indonesia”, said Alya. But she never
regrets her participation in Miss Universe because she admits that it was truly a tremendous
experience and not all woman could get a chance as she has. This leads her as the longest
Miss Indonesia ever with 4 years holding the title because the Miss Indonesia pageant was
banned afterwards.
Now, since the reformation began the Miss Indonesia is allowed to be held again, the Miss
Universe pageant is permitted to be telecasted again by cutting the swimsuit competition,
and finally the reigning Miss Universe is welcome to come into the land of Indonesia again
as Lupita Jones, Michelle McLean, Dayanarra Torres, Sushmita Sen, and Chelsi Smith did
few years ago.
Maybe it would be better if we look at Lara Dutta, Miss Universe 2000 from India. As a
world ambassador, clearly Lara Dutta has shown a lot skills of her as an intellectual and a
woman with full of charisma. She actualizes herself on the right track as a Miss Universe
and so far from what people think as a woman who expose herself in a bikini and other
model photo shots. Clearly she gave us an indication how positive the Miss Universe
pageant for a woman like Lara Dutta. During her travel in Indonesia, she often mention her
country India to the press and comparing it with Indonesia in a proper manner which mean
that she also could use every opportunities to introduce her country into the worldwide in
every chances she has.
It is the time for Indonesia to move on and to start think logically and being more positive
because the globalization era is moving ahead and the challenge is getting stronger. If the
society still keep thinking traditionally, it can be predicted that we may be left behind from
another Asian country. Many improvement in the way we think and the way we act because
Indonesia is a ‘naive country’, what we say and what we do is totally different. However, as
an Asian nation we still have to act and to behave properly as our culture but do not let it
become a resistance to move on because as a developing country, Indonesia must develop
like a child who dare to try everything in which he curious with and learn from every
mistakes he did so one day he can be a man who does know how to act and behave as he
wants with full of responsibility and that is what we should do.
58

Miss World and the Press (Missworld.terra.com, Nov 25th
, 2000)
Henrique Fontes is in London covering the event and here are his first impressions upon
arriving:
“Back to London after one year, I am glad to see that the local press is giving the Miss
World pageant some attention this time around (although 99% of what comes out in
newspapers related to Miss World is mockery and criticism). Yesterday “The Sun” reported
the Julia Morley, Eric Morley’s widow, will be announcing the Miss World’s final results.
(in reverse order, of course). Julia said during last Thursday’s press call, “After 40 years
together it is hard to come to terms with. He was a wonderful husband and father. However,
the show must go on. It will be a very poignant moment and I hope I can do it half as well as
he did it.” The “Daily Star” mocks the pageant with the following headline: “BABES
BATTLE TO RULE WORLD”. For them the favorites are Misses Northern Ireland, Ireland
and Russia. As much as we pageant fans try to defend major beauty competitions such as
this, sometimes it gets tough to argue against some of the criticism they receive. For
example, how can we justify Jerry Springer, the king of bad taste, as Sunday Express’
defined him, being host?? It is hard to understand what is behind it may be conquering the
US market?? But is it the most appropriate way??
Conversely the good news is that last year alone Miss World was able to raise $66 million
pounds for Variety Club and its needy children. But journalists rather still see Miss World as
old fashioned and sexist. Haven’t they seen the latest editions of the pageant? Sexist-what
they mean by that?? Are respectable international pageants like Miss World, Miss Universe
and Miss International really sexist?? And then they talk about how dumb contestants are.
Do they care if supermodels and soccer players are dumb as long as they are good in what
they are doing?? The so called ‘supermodels’ are in most cases not much more than pretty
walking brain and feelingless hangers walking around in a ‘fashionable way’. Yet they are
respected and admired. Miss World works her ass out during an entire year for a cause. She
is a positive role model and an Ambassador for the world, just like national titleholders are
ambassadors for their countries. Let’s hope the British press will be able to start appreciating
the bright side of this magnificent event.
I have not seen or talked to many of the contestants yet (I will tonight), but based on
pictures, comments, newspapers articles, talks on the phone with some of the candidates,
etc, I am starting make up my mind about a few of these beautiful women. Miss Mexico is
looking so amazing I have to say she has to be one of the 10. This Catherine Zeta Jones look
alike is also friendly and expressive. Miss Chile is a huge and great surprise: The woman is
beautiful and could not be sexier! She does have an amazing body and a beautiful
personality. I have heard good comments about Miss Bahamas here and there-she might be a
surprise. Another contestant highly appreciated here in London is Miss Holland and her
exotic looks. Miss England is often cited as a favorite in most newspapers and I have a
feeling she will go far. It’s been a while since the last time a local girl did well in Miss
World, and the pageant’s 50th
anniversary may be the time to turn this around. Nevertheless,
although Miss England is very pretty, I personally rather see Scotland or Northern Ireland up
there instead.
We are now headed to the Hilton to try to catch up with more contestants and bring you
more stuff. See you all tomorrow.
59

Commentary/Vir Sanghvi
The opposition to Miss World seems to me to be a symbol of
r society (http:www.rediff.co
sickness in ou m/news/1996/0611vir.htm)
Never mind the bimbettes, look at the principles.
I must confess to holding no strong views about beauty contests. Yes,
Of course, each time I refused, the organisers would urge me to reconsider, offering up the
Oh sure!
Judging by the few contests I’ve read about or seen on television, the ‘personality round’
I note with relief, however, that they have now dispensed with the round where girls were
In any case, honesty is not sought – after virtue at these contests. Apparently, Madhu Sapre
Good for her! Not so good for the contest, however, and the crown went to somebody else.
Not so in India. If the fashion show was the middle class art from the early 1990s the beauty
There seems to be a new contest each week: Look of the Year, Supermodel of the Year, Air
Force Queen, Miss Beautiful Hair of Karol Bagh Di Rani (okay, okay, I made the last one
up – but you get the general idea).
there was a phase (1979 to 1981) when I edited Bombay magazine and
was routinely invited to judge some contest or the other. I always
refused, not so much because I was against the principle of such contests
but because I felt uncomfortable sitting in judgment over another
person’s physical assets.
standard excuse: ‘It is a test of brain power and personality as well as beauty.’
consists of one question which usually gives the contestants a chance to say how much they
admire Mother Teresa, want to spread world peace and hope to end global suffering.
asked what they wanted to be when they grew up. Once contestant – back in the 1970s –
answered ‘interior decoration’. I thought she was being remarkably honest but it turned out
that she meant that she wanted to become an interior designer.
was a shoo-in for Miss Universe two years before Sushmita Sen actually won. She lost
because of her performance in the ‘intellectual’ round. Asked what she would do if she came
to power in India, she refused to say ‘feed the little children’ or ‘put an end to war’. Instead,
she answered, with remarkable candour, that she would build a sports stadium.
But all that was a while ago. In the 1970s, feminist groups still made the front pages of
newspapers abroad by picketing beauty contests. Now, such contests have moved to the
periphery of the national consciousness in the West – both Miss World and Miss Universe
are usually held outside England or America – and the feminists have moved on.
contests has taken its place in the mid-1990s.
60

Partly it is that the beauty business picked up when Sushmita Sen and Aishwarya Rai won
their international titles. Partly, it is that there are loads of advertisers in search of
manufactured ‘events’ by which they can flog their products. And partly it is that the great
Indian middle class has so little to do in the evenings that a beauty contest or a fashion show
eem interested in watching them than men so it
is hard to see the contests as symbols of male oppression.
e models in
advertising and ask film directors to disregard appearances while
Unless you are prepa
far – then it is foolish
seem like attractive, aesthetically elevating ways of spending their time.
I’m still uncomfortable with beauty contests (though fortunately nobody is stupid enough to
ask me to judge them any longer), but I’ve come around to the view that the feminist
objections are passé’.
First of all, nobody forces’ the girls to take part. Secondly, they don’t
seem in the least degraded by the experienced (just more prosperous).
Thirdly, more women s
And finally, while beauty contests do put a premium on looks, so I
suspect, does society. If you don’t want women to get ahead because
they are beautiful then you’d have to ban the use of femal
casting their heroines.
red to do all of that – and clearly, no sensible person wants to go that
to single out beauty contests.
61

All that stuff about respect for Indian women and protection of
Indian culture is complete nonsense
iff.com/news/1996/0611vir.htm)
(http:www.red
Which brings me to the immediate provocation for this column: The Miss
World contest.
I would not normally waste your time by discussing this non-issue – after all
if the whole country celebrates when Aishwarya Rai wins in Sun City, how
can we complain if the same contest is held in Bangalore? But the opposition
to Miss World seems to me to be a symbol of something more serious; a
sickness, if you can call it that, in our society.
Clearly, the protesters have no record of objecting as strenuously to other beauty contests. If
the objection is that such competitions violate the chastity of Indian maidenhood, then the
proper contests to picket is Miss India or Miss Bangalore. That’s when Indian girls are put
on parade. Miss World will have only one Indian contestant; the rest will be foreigners.
So, all that stuff about respect for Indian women and protection of Indian culture is complete
nonsense. A country that hails Sushmita and Aishwarya as role models can’t now get self-
righteous about the global contests that raised them to these heights.
Why then are the protesters doing it?
Two reasons. One: for the publicity. Nobody had heard of most of these people before they
discovered this issue. And those who had a certain local notoriety (I e, the fellow who keeps
trashing the KFC outlet) now hope to get international exposure.
If they had picketed the Miss Bangalore show, nobody would have cared. But this is an
international extravaganza. And besides, Amitabh Bachchan is involved. As everybody –
from Shatrughan Sinha to V P Singh has discovered – there’s no surer way of staying in the
headlines than by taking potshots at Bachchan.
But it is the second reason that concerns me more. The threat to disrupt the Miss World
show is a manifestation of a growing illiberal and intolerant trend in our society.
The logic is: I don’t like it, so I’ll deny everybody else the right to like it.
Whether it is the ban on The Satanic Verses, the campaign against Mani Ratnam’s Bombay
or the uproar over Husain’s paintings, the symptoms are the same. We
are in danger of turning into a society where people measure their
clout by their ability to deny other people their freedoms.
The opponents of Miss World have a right to their views – even if I
think that many of them are cynical self-publicists. And they have the
62

right to move the courts or to use other legal means to oppose the contest.
But they have no right to disrupt it; no right to threaten to cause chaos; and no right to
terrorise those attending the pageant.
Unfortunately, we have become a soft state in which nobody stands up for other people’s
rights. Not only do the vandals get away with it but they also become national figures in the
process.
Miss World, with its parade of bimbettes all of whom say that they will use their breasts to
promote world peace, may not seem like a big deal. But the principles involved are crucial.
And if we can’t stand up for little freedoms, we might as well kiss the big ones goodbye.
63

India, Beauty Superpower, Is Becoming Jaded
By BARRY BEARAK (http://biharnews.hypermart.net/priyankanyt.htm)
NEW DELHI, Dec. 12 – Exceptionally sexy in swimwear, stunningly elegant in evening
gowns, oh-so- earnest in their admiration for the good works of Mother Teresa, Indian pinup
girls have been sashaying across the globe like some juggernaut in high heels, making this
country the world’s beauty pageant superpower.
Two weeks ago it furthered its boast to leggy hegemony, with Priyanka Chopra winning the
Miss World title just months after Lara Dutta became Miss Universe.
It is the second time in six years that India has swept the two major international
competitions in feminine comeliness. Indeed, the Miss World crown may as well be
displayed atop the jeweled inlays of the Taj Mahal. India also won it in 1994, 1997 and
1999.
But while this latest victory received the customary front-page treatment here, there has also
been a bit of self-consciousness, as if many Indians suddenly realized that all this time they
had been watching a spoof and thinking it a drama.
“India Breasts Tape Again in the World’s Great Bimbo Race” was the banner headline in
The Indian Express, an example of the sarcasm that has been rubbing shoulders with the
usual adoration.
Several commentators noted derisively that the Miss World pageant was now largely a third-
world event. The show was not televised in the United States, and it was carried only by a
down-market channel in Britain. The host was the less-than- dignified Jerry Springer. He
asked a bewildered Miss Turkey, “Tell me, what do you eat on Thanksgiving?”
Ms. Chopra, the planet’s new Miss World, is an 18-year-old who, before the competition,
said she aspired to be a clinical psychologist “to understand why people turn demented.”
Afterward, she allowed that her true calling might be movie stardom.
On the night of Nov. 30, she walked flawlessly down the ramp in her peach strapless gown.
But at crunch time, she made a slight flub when five finalists – including Miss Kazakhstan,
Miss Italy, Miss Turkey and Miss Uruguay – were each challenged with a weighty question
that called for introspection: “Who do you consider to be the most successful woman living
today and why?”
Ms. Chopra, who had been groomed for months by a team of tutors, beauticians and fashion
designers, seemed to switch to auto pilot. She named Mother Teresa, dead since 1997: “I
admire her from the bottom of my heart for being so passionate and kind – to give up her life
to put smiles on people’s faces.”
For some, the slip-up was a telltale sign of societal rot. “We Indians send out some bimbo
and she returns with the prize, and we act like we’ve conquered the world,” scoffed the
writer Khushwant Singh, an avowed lecher not usually so mocking of bimboosity. “This one
is singularly stupid. She didn’t even know whether Mother Teresa is alive or dead.”
Many news accounts dwelled on the faux pas. An editorial in The Hindustan Times said that
“perhaps Ms. Chopra had taken the convent school line about the Holy Ghost a little too
seriously.”
64

The new Miss World was also given bad marks in demographic study, having said India is
home to two billion people, which is twice the correct number.
Other accounts were far more forgiving, concluding that Ms. Chopra’s poise and charm
were so extraordinary that the judges simply chose to overlook her mistake.
But naysayer offered a more cynical explanation: that Indian beauties so often win these
contests because India is one of the few countries that actually cares. There were
insinuations that the contest might even be fixed.
The Miss World competition was held in London, but it was an Indian network that
sponsored the show worldwide. Indian designers did the costumes. An Indian was among
the judges. Indians made up a large of the live audience.
India, in fact, has been gaga over beauty contests since 1994., the year of that astonishing
Miss World-Miss Universe twin triumph. Awakened was something that might be called
patriotic vanity. Contests multiplied.
There are now queens of this city and that city: monsoon queens, married queens and junior
queens. Indian women, many say, are discovering their sexuality; some are also discovering
bulimia and anorexia.
“What wins these international contests is not the traditional Indian conception of beauty,”
said Patricia Uberoi, a sociologist. Here, height has not been so much a criterion. It’s a more
rounded look, wide hips, plenty of bosom. Ten years ago it would have been hard to imagine
how many women would be going to slimming parlors.
India, of course, is a big and varied place-home to about one in every six of the world’s
people. Beauty contests are more likely to appeal to the urban middle class, the same
segment of the population that has the extra rupees to spend on herbal skin creams.
Even then, the flaunting of well-proportioned flesh does not fall within every Indian’s idea
of propriety.
In 1996, when the Miss World pageant was held in the Indian city of Bangalore, the
numerous protests included self immolation. Strange bedfellows found themselves entwined
in their mutual outrage-feminists who found such contests degrading to women and Hindu
nationalists who saw the show as an invasion of western degeneracy. The swimsuit
competition had to be moved to the nearby and more hospitable Seychelles Islands.
But for most Indians the victories of Indian beauties were a needed boost. The national self
image had been in a droop. In the early 90’s, with its economy a mess, India finally veered
from Nehru-era socialism and began to open its markets to the world. In came hair tonics,
toothpaste, and satellite television with titillating soap operas like “Santa Barbara”.
Indians did not approve of everything that was entering their living rooms, but they did
enjoy the televised rivalry of radiant women from every nation.
Worldwide, more than one billion people were said to watch the annual extravaganza. And
there was India, able to show off females judged as incomparably beautiful and brainy.
Merely to be chosen to compete was to become an instant celebrity here; to be a winner was
to become an icon.
“For long we’ve considered ourselves to be losers and second-raters,” said novelists Shobe
De. "We crave success at anything at all in the international arena.”
65

Vir Sanghvi, the editor of the Hindustan Times, said Indians especially longed for
recognition from the West, anything showing that they are major players in the world,
whether with nuclear weapons, a seat on the United Nations Security Council, Western book
prizes, and movie deals with Hollywood or top jobs with multinational corporations.
“There is a sense that we can be a contender,” he said. “At least we certainly want to be.
That’s why we became obsessed with these beauty contests. We thought they brought us a
victory over the world. But now fatigue and cynicism are setting in.”
Mr.Sanghvi and others actually view this disdain as a sign of maturity.
“We shouldn’t kid ourselves anymore that our women are exceptionally beautiful, that our
women are exceptionally bright,” said Mary John, a senior fellow at a women’s research
center here in New Delhi. “We’re so desperate to make it in the globalised world that we’ll
fall for any con job.”
“Winning beauty contests doesn’t deserve national fervor. A beauty queen should not be
held in the same esteem as a prime minister. I mean really now.”
66

Appendix 13.2: Reading Materials About Working Women
Women in Islam: Sharing the Work Load
Source: Ahlul Bayt Magazine
(http://members.ozemail.com.au/`azma/WomeninIslam.htm)
It is right that earning a family’s livelihood is an obligatory deed of the man and as per
Islamic laws, women are not responsible for this act. However, women should not remain
idle. Imam Ja’far As Sadiq (AS) stated: “The Al-mighty Allah hates too much sleep and too
much rest.”
In Usul Al Kahfi, it is reported that Fatima Zahra (A) also used to work at home. Anyone, in
need or without, should have a job. One should not waste one’s life by not doing anything,
but one should work and contribute in building a better world. The best job for married
women is to take care of the house. Housekeeping, childcare, etc. Are areas where women
do an excellent job. It is a misconception that the work of house-wives are of no
consequence. A talented and hardworking housewife can turn her house into a heavenly
place for her husband and children, whose value cannot be measured in terms of money.
The Holy Prophet (SAWA) said: “A woman’s jihad is when she attends to her husband.”
Ummi Salamah asked the Holy Prophet (SAWA): “How much reward is there for a
woman’s housework?” The Holy Prophet (SAWA) replied: “Any woman who in the way of
improving the order of the house, takes something from somewhere and places it some-
where else, would enjoy the grace of Allah, and whoever attracts the blessings of Allah,
would not be tormented by Allah’s Anger.”
Ummi Salamah said, O Messenger (SAWA) of Allah! May my parents be sacrified for you,
please state other rewards for women.” The Hly Prophet (SAWA) stated: "When a woman
becomes pregnant, Allah rewards her as such as He would to some one who goes for Jihad
with all his wealth and life. Then, when she delivers her baby, a call would reach her
stating, all your sins are forgiven; start a new Life again. Each time she feeds her baby with
her milk Allah gives reward equal to that of freeing a slave for each feeding."
Housewives who have spare time on their hands must find something to do. They can read
books, learn some skills such as tailoring, knitting, embroidery, etc. As a result they can help
their families economically. Working prevents the development of many mental disorders.
Hazrat Ali (AS) stated: "Allah likes a pious person who honestly engages in doing a job."
While some women work at home, there are others who prefer an outside job for
economical or other reasons. In this case, the best jobs are cultural occupations, or
nursing. Women can suitably serve the society as teachers, doctor and nurses.
The following are recommendations to those ladies who intend to or who are working
outside their homes:
67

a) Consult your husband before taking up a job. It is your husband's right to grant or refuse
you permission to work. Starting to work without your husband's permission will be
detrimental to the serenity and the loving atmosphere of your family. Men are also
advised not to be adamantly negative unless the job concerned is considered unsuitable
for women.
b)Women should observe complete Islamic hejab (covering) when not at home. They
should go to work without any make up and with simple clothes. They must avoid
interacting with men who are not mehram as much as possible. An office or an institution
is a place to work and is not for the purpose of showing off or rivalry. Prestige and
dignity does not come with fashionable or attractive clothes, but what you do and how
well you do. Be and act as a dignified Muslim woman. Maintain your self-respect and do
not hurt you husband's feeling; save your adornments and your beautiful dresses for him
at home.
c) Women should be aware that although they are working outside the house, they are still
expected by their husbands and children to attend to such activities as housekeeping,
cooking washing and so forth. This can be done by co-operation within the family. An
outside job should not pave the way for upsetting the whole family. Husbands are also
advised to help their wives with regard to housekeeping. They should not expect their
wives to work both outside, and inside the house on their own. Such an expectation is
neither lawful nor fair. Men and women should share the housework.
d) If a woman is working outside and has a child, then she should leave the child with
someone trusted and kind. It is neither right nor wise to leave children at home on their
own, since many children become fearful or helpless when they have to confront
difficult situations. Here, we are not speaking of the child who has just learnt to walk. At
this stage, no one is more suitable than a mother to look after the child. We're speaking
of a child who has been admitted to a nursery or primary school.
e) If the husband agrees for the wife's taking up a job, she must try to select a job in which
she comes in contact with minimum number of strangers or non-mehram men. This is in
the interest of both herself and the society.
f) May we also remind the husbands, that the wife has a right to work outside the home as
long as it does not harm the family environment. And whatever she earns belongs to her
alone, no matter what legitimate work she performs or the degree to which the husband
helps with housework. A husband has no right to benefit economically in anyway
whatsoever from his wife. That is, he cannot expect or demand, by right. He can accept
that benefit accruing from his wife, which she shares with him by her own choice and
willingness. By the way, that also concerns her work at home. A husband has no right to
force her to do housework.
68

Tips to Look After Your Husband
(Extract from -1960 Home Economics Book)
Source: Love, K., Pigdon, K., Baker, G., and Hampston, J. (2001). BUILT. Building
Understandings in Literacy and Teaching. Melbourne: The University of Melbourne;
http://www.edfac.unimelb.edu.au/LLAE
Have dinner ready: Plan ahead, even the night before, to have a delicious meal ready on
time. This is a way of letting him know that you have been thinking about him and that you
are concerned about his needs. Most men are hungry when they come home and the prospect
of a good meal is part of the warm welcome needed.
Prepare yourself: Take 10 minutes to rest so that you will be refreshed when he arrives.
Touch up your make up, put a ribbon in your hair and be fresh looking. He has been with a
lot of work-weary people. Be a little gay and a little more interesting. His boring day may
need a lift.
Clear away the clutter: Make one last trip through the main part of the house just before your
husband arrives, gathering up school books, toys, paper etc. Then run a dust cloth over
tables. Your husband will feel he has reached a heaven of rest and order, and it will give you
a lift too.
Prepare the children: Take a few minutes to wash the children’s hand and faces (if they are
small), comb her hair, and if necessary change their clothes. They are little treasures and he
would like to see them playing the part.
Minimise all noise: At the time of his arrival, eliminate all noise of washer, dryer, diswasher
or vacuum. Try to encourage the children to be quiet. Greet him with a warm smile and be
glad to see him.
Some don’ts: Don’t greet him with problems of complaints. Don’t complain if he’s late for
dinner. Count this as minor compared with what he might have gone through that day.
Make him comfortable: Have him lean back in a comfortable chair or suggest he lie down in
the bedroom. Have a cool or warm drink ready for him. Arrange his pillow for him and offer
to take off his shoes. Speak in a low, soft, soothing and pleasant voice. Allow him to relax-
unwind.
Listen to him: You may have a dozen things to tell him, but the moment of his arrival is not
the time. Let him talk first. Make the evening his: Never complain if he does not take you
out to dinner or to other place of entertainment. Instead, try to understand his world of strain
and pressure, his need to be home and to relax.
The Goal
Try to make your home a place of peace and order where your husband can renew himself in
body and spirit.
69

Working Women Face High Risks
From Work Stress, Musculoskeletal Injuries, Other Disorders
(http://www.okhighered.org/training-center/newsletters/campus/working-
women.html )
Working women compose an increasingly large proportion of the U.S. work force. They
also face high risk from job-related stress, musculoskeletal injuries, violence, and other
hazards of the modern workplace, new reports by the National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH) conclude. In many respects, the risks are higher than those for
male workers.
NIOSH researchers describe their findings in two articles and an editorial in the Spring 2000
issue of The Journal of the American Medical Women's Association. The editorial provides
an overview of occupational health and safety hazards for working women. One of the
articles addresses work stress and women. The other article, co-written by authors from
NIOSH and two other organizations, examines health and safety concerns for working
women in construction.
"Many factors heighten certain risks of work-related injury, illness, and death for female
workers," said NIOSH Director Linda Rosenstock, M.D., M.P.H. "It is important to
recognize these hazards and to keep all workers, women and men alike, safe on the job."
Women currently make up almost half of the general U.S. work force. In the growing health
care industry, where a complex range of hazards exists, including latex allergy, back
injuries, and needle-stick injuries, about 80 percent of the work force is female.
Increasingly, women are moving into occupations once held exclusively by men, such as the
construction trades. In such instances, physiological differences between women and men
can translate into occupational hazards, as when women operate equipment designed for
male workers of larger stature.
Women workers are at disproportionately high risk for musculoskeletal injuries on the job,
suffering 63 percent of all work-related repetitive motion injuries. Hazards such as radiation,
glycol ethers, lead, and strenuous physical labor can affect a woman's reproductive health,
including pregnancy outcomes. Violence is also a special concern for women workers.
Homicide is the leading cause of job-related death for women, and women also are at
increased risk of non-fatal assault.
The NIOSH article "Working Women and Stress" finds that:
• Gender-specific work stress factors, such as sex discrimination and balancing work
and family demands, may have an effect on women workers above and beyond the
impact of general job stressors such as job overload and skill under-utilization.
• Discriminatory barriers to financial and career advancement have been linked to
more frequent physical and psycho-logical symptoms and more frequent visits to the
doctor.
• The most effective way of reducing work stress is through organizational change in
the work-place. This holds true for reducing work stress in female and male workers
70

alike. Workplaces that actively discourage sexual discrimination and harassment, and
promote family-friendly policies, appear to foster worker loyalty and attachment
regardless of gender, studies indicate. Organizational changes effective for reducing
job stress among women workers include expanding promotion and career ladders,
introducing family-support programs and policies, and enforcing policies against sex
discrimination and sexual harassment.
The article "Women in Construction: Occupational Health and Working Conditions," finds
that:
• Women may receive less on-the-job safety mentoring than men from supervisors and
co-workers. This can create a potentially dangerous cycle in which trades-women are
asked to do jobs for which they are not properly trained, and then are injured when
they do them or are seen as incompetent when they are unable to do them.
• Women in construction have reported harassment and verbal abuse by co-workers
and isolation on the job severe enough that some women have looked for other
employment.
• Patterns of work-related construction fatalities differ for men and women. For
example, women construction laborers are at higher risk than male laborers of death
from motor vehicle injuries, but less likely being at risk of death from falls,
machinery related injuries, or being struck by objects. Further research is needed to
determine why these differences exist.
Further information on job-related stress appears in a NIOSH document, "Stress ... At
Work," DHHS (NIOSH) Publication 99-101, issued in 1999. Additional information on
protecting the health and safety of women in construction appears in another NIOSH
document, "Providing Safety and Health Protection for a Diverse Construction Workforce:
Issues and Ideas," DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 99-140. For copies of those documents
or for other information on the health and safety of working women, call the toll-free
NIOSH information number, 1-800-35-NIOSH (1-800-356-4674), or visit NIOSH on the
World Wide Web at www.cdc.gov/niosh.
The Regents’ Training Center has many excellent videos and other resource materials
available on a variety of subjects. Videos include those on ergonomics that addresses
musculoskeletal problems and video display terminal stress. Other videos cover subjects
such safe lifting techniques, minimizing back strain, accident causes and prevention, and fall
prevention. These videos and other resource materials are available free of charge from the
Regents’ Training Center. Contact the training center at (405) 325-8069 for more
information.
71

Working Mothers in General Review-“We All Benefit”
By Toarvin (2002).
(http://www.dooyoo.co.uk/kids_and_family/parenting_issues/working_mothers_in_gen
eral/_reviews/351772)
I went back to work when my son was 7 months old and I haven’t looked back since.
I search around for a day nursery ... the thought of a child minder made me cringe, too many
stories and the thought of one person doing her ironing and then picking children up from
school with another few in tow just put me off (only my opinion ... sure there are some good
ones out there too). I found one which also came highly recommended.
After the settling in days ... at no extra cost which took three weeks of a few hours and days
here and there, Oliver started his 3 days a week.
Now at a year old, he has great social skills, his development is excellent and he’s been in
his first nativity play.
I cannot praise enough the way the nursery is run and the benefits to Oliver and my self ... I
work and earn a wage for days which helps the cause and have my brain back in use, also
my friends at work are great company ... and I ‘m sure a lot will understand this, as much as
I love Oliver, I need to have adult company and escape the baby talk ... .
Even if you don’t want to work I highly recommend taking your baby/toddler to a private
nursery for a day a week as it is the best start they can have into the big wild world to
interact.
72

Texts in Bahasa Indonesia
Ibu Bekerja di Luar Rumah: Apa Manfaat dan risikonya?
By: Jacinta . F. Rini (http://www.balipost.co.id/balipost ceatk/2002/12/22/html).
Banyak persoalan yang dialami ibu rumah tangga yang bekerja di luar rumah, seperti
bagaimana mengatur waktu dengan suami dan anak-anak hingga mengurus tugas-tugas
rumah tangga dengan baik. Ada yang bisa menikmati peran gandanya, namun ada yang
merasa kesulitan hingga akhirnya persoalan-persoalan rumit kian berkembang dalam hidup
sehari-hari. Nah, jika dengan bekerja ternyata mendatangkan problem yang cukup
memusingkan, apakah manfaatnya jika seorang ibu bekerja mencari nafkah di luar rumah?
Sejak dulu persoalan yang dihadapi kaum ibu yang bekerja di luar rumah sepertinya tidak
jauh berbeda. Berbagai hambatan dan kesulitan yang mereka alami dari masa ke masa,
berasal dari sumber-sumber yang sama. Faktor-faktor yang biasanya menjadi sumber
persoalan bagi para ibu yang bekerja, sebagaimana ditulis e-psikologi.com, dapat dibedakan
sbb:
1. Faktor internal, persoalan yang timbul dalam diri pribadi sang ibu. Ada di antara para ibu
yang lebih senang jika dirinya benar-benar hanya menjadi ibu rumah tangga, sehari-hari
berkutat mengatur rumah tangga. Namun keadaan menuntutnya untuk bekerja, untuk
menyokong keuangan keluarga. Kondisi ini mudah menimbulkan stres, karena bekerja
bukanlah timbul dari keinginan diri namun seakan tidak punya pilihan lain demi
membantu ekonomi rumah tangga. Biasanya, para ibu yang mengalami masalah ini
cenderung merasa sangat lelah (terutama secara psikis), karena seharian “memaksakan
diri” untuk bertahan di tempat kerja.
Selain itu, ada pula tekanan yang timbul sebagai akibat dari pelaksanaan peran ganda itu
sendiri. Memang kemampuan “manajemen waktu dan rumah tangga” merupakan salah
satu kesulitan yang paling sering dihadapi para ibu bekerja. Mereka harus dapat
memainkan peran sebaik mungkin di tempat kerja maupun di rumah. Mereka sadar harus
bisa jadi ibu yang sabar dan bijaksana untuk anak-anak, istri yang baik bagi suami, serta
ibu yang bertanggung jawab atas keperluan dan urusan rumah tangga. Di tempat kerja,
mereka pun punya komitmen dan tanggung jawab atas pekerjaan hingga mereka harus
menunjukkan prestasi kerja yang baik. Sementara itu, dari dalam diri mereka pun sudah
ada keinginan ideal untuk berhasil melaksanakan kedua peran itu secara proporsional
dan seimbang.
Namun kenyataan ideal itu cukup sulit dicapai karena beberapa faktor, misalnya
pekerjaan di kantor sangat berat, sedangkan suami di rumah kurang bisa “bekerja sama”
untuk ikut menyelesaikan pekerjaan rumah, sementara anak-anak juga menuntut
perhatian dirinya. Akhirnya, sang ibu akan merasa sangat lelah karena dirinya merasa
dituntut untuk terus memberi dan memenuhi kebutuhan orang lain. Belum lagi, jika
ternyata suami dan anak-anak merasa “kurang mendapat perhatian”, tidak heran jika
73

lama-kelamaan dirinya mulai dihinggapi depresi, karena merasa tidak bisa
membahagiakan keluarganya.
2. Faktor eksternal seperti (a) dukungan suami, (b) kehadiran anak, dan (c) masalah
pekerjaan.
3. Faktor relasional. Dengan bekerjanya suami dan istri, maka otomatis waktu untuk
keluarga jadi terbagi. Memang penganan terhadap pekerjaan rumah tangga bisa
diselesaikan dengan disediakannya pengasuh serta pembantu rumah tangga. Namun ada
hal-hal yang sulit dicari substitusinya, seperti masalah kebersamaan bersama suami dan
anak-anak. Padahal kebersamaan dalam suasana rileks, santai dan hangat merupakan
kegiatan penting yang tak bisa diabaikan, untuk membina, mempertahankan dan
menjaga kedekatan relasi serta keterbukaan komunikasi satu dengan yang lain. Tidak
jarang, kurangnya waktu untuk keluaraga, membuat seorang ibu merasa diri tak bisa
berbicara secara terbuka dengan suaminya, atau merasa suaminya tak lagi bisa mengerti
dirinya, dan akhirnya merasa asing dengan pasangan sendiri sehingga mulai mencari
orang lain yang dianggap lebih bisa mengerti. Inilah yang bisa membuka peluang
terhadap perselingkuhan di tempat kerja.
Motivasi
Apakah yang sebenarnya melandasi tindakan para ibu bekerja di luar rumah, atau motif-
motif apa saja yang mendasari kebutuhan mereka bekerja di luar rumah, hingga mereka
mau menghadapi berbagai risiko ataupun konsekuensi yang bakal dihadapi? Beberapa
diantaranya sbb:
1. Kebutuhan finansial. Seringkali kebutuhan rumah tangga yang begitu besar dan
mendesak, membuat suami dan istri harus bekerja untuk bisa mencukupi kebutuhan
sehari-hari. Kondisi ini membuat istri tak punya pilihan lain kecuali ikut mencari
pekerjaan di luar rumah, meskipun “hati”-nya tidak ingin bekerja.
2. Kebutuhan sosial relasional. Ada pula ibu yang tetap memilih bekerja, karena punya
kebutuhan sosial relasional yang tinggi, dan tempat mereka bekerja sangat
mencukupi kebutuhan mereka itu. Dalam diri mereka tersimpan suatu kebutuhan
akan penerimaan sosial, akan adanya identitas sosial yang diperoleh melalui
komunitas kerja. Bergaul dengan rekan-rekan di kantor, menjadi agenda yang lebih
menyenagkan daripada tinggal di rumah. Faktor psikologis seorang serta keadaan
internal keluarag, turut mempengaruhi seorang ibu untuk tetap mempertahankan
pekerjaannya.
3. Kebutuhan aktualisasi diri. Abraham Maslow pada tahun 1960 mengembangkan teori
hirarki kebutuhan, yang salah satunya mengungkapkan bahwa manusia punya
kebutuhan akan aktualisasi diri, dan menemukan makna hidupnya melalui aktivitas
yang dijalaninya. Bekerja adalah salah satu “jalan” manusia dalam menemukan
makna hidupnya. Dengan berkarya, berkreasi, mencipta, mengekspresikan diri,
mengembangkan diri dan orang lain, membagikan ilmu dan pengalaman,
menemukan sesuatu, menghasilkan sesuatu, serta mendapatkan penghargaan,
penerimaan, prestasi – adalah bagian dari proses penemuan dan pencapaian
kepenuhan diri.
74

Kebutuhan akan aktualisasi diri melalui profesi atau karir, merupakan salah satu
pilihan yang banyak diambil oleh para wanita kini-terutama dengan makin
terbukanya kesempatan yang sama pada wanita untuk meraih jenjang karir yang
tinggi. Bagi wanita yang sejak sebelum menikan sudah bekerja karena dilandasi
kebutuhan aktualisasi diri yang tinggi, maka ia akan cenderung kembali bekerja
setelah menikah dan punya anak. Nereka merasa bekerja dan pekerjaan adalah hal
yang sangat bermanfaat untuk memenuhi kebutuhan aktualisasi diri.
4. Lain-lain. Pada beberapa kasus, ada pula ibu bekerja yang memang jauh lebih
menyukai dunia kerja ketimbang hidup dalam keluarga. Mereka merasa lebih rileks
dan nyaman jika sedang bekerja daripada di rumah sendiri. Pada kenyataannya,
mereka bekerja agar dapat pergi dan menghindar dari keluarga. Kasus ini memang
dilandasi persoalan psokologis yang lebih mendalam yang terjadi dalam diri orang
yang bersangkutan maupun dalam hubungan antara anggota keluaraga.
Bagaimanapun, kerja mempunyai manfaat positif bagi ibu bekerja maupun bagi
keluarga. Beberapa segi positifnya adalah:
1. Mendukung ekonomi rumah tangga. Dengan bekerjanya sang ibu, berarti sumber
pemasukan keluarag jadi berganda. Pasangan suami istri dapat mengupayakan
kualitas hidup yang lebih baik untuk keluarga.
2. Meningkatnya harga diri dan pemantapan identitas. Bekerja memungkinkan seorang
wanita mengekspresikan dirinya sendiri, dengan cara yang kreatif dan produktif,
untuk menghasilkan sesuatu yang mendatangkan kebanggaan terhadap diri sendiri,
terutama jika prestasinya tersebut mendapatkan penghargaan dan umpan balik yang
positif.
3. Relasi yang sehat dan positif dengan keluarga.Wanita yang bekerja, cenderung punya
ruang lingkup yang lebih luas dan bervariasi, sehingga punya pola piker yang lebih
terbuka, lebih energik, mempunyai wawasan yang luas dan lebih dinamis.
Keberadaan istri bias jadi partner bagi suami, teman bertukar pikiran, saling
membagi harapan, pandangan dan tanggung jawab.
4. Pemenuhan kebutuhan social, para ibu punya kebutuhan menjalin relasi social
dengan orang lain. Dengan bekerja, seorang wanita juga dapat memenuhi kebutuhan
akan “kebersamaan” dan untuk menjadi bagian dari suatu komunitas. Sosialisasi
penting bagi setiap orang agar punya wawasan dan cara berpikir yang luas,
meningkatkan kemampuan empati dan kepekaan social.
5. Peningkatan skill dan kompetensi. Dengan bekerja, seorang ibu harus bias
menyesuaikan diri dengan tuntutan tanggung jawab maupun skill dan kompetensi.
Untuk itu, ibu dituntut secara kreatif menemukan segi-segi yang bias dikembangkan
demi kemajuan dirinya.
Penelitian
Berikut ini diungkap beebrapa hasil penelitian menyangkut situasi-situasi keluarga jika
suami-istrinya sama-sama bekerja.
75

1. Kepuasan hidup. Studi tentang kepuasan hidup wanita bekerja yang pernah dilakukan
oleh Ferree (1976) menunjukkan wanita yang bekerja menunjukkan tingkat kepuasan
hidup yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan wanita yang tidak bekerja.
2. Kebahagiaan perkawinan. Hasil penelitian Freudiger, P. (1983) tentang ukuran
kebahagiaan hidup wanita yang sudah menikah, ditinjau dari tiga kategori-wanita
bekerja, wanita pernah bekerja dan wanita yang belum pernah bekerja-menunjukkan
bahwa bagi para istri dan ibu bekerja, kebahagiaan perkawinan adalah tetap jadi hal
yang utama, dibandingkan dengan kepuasan kerja.
Studi lain yang dilakukan Walters dan McKenry (1985) menunjukkan, mereka
cenderung merasa bahagia selama para ibu bekerja tersebut dapat mengintegrasikan
kehidupan keluarga dan kehidupan kerja secara harmonis. Jadi, adanya konflik peran
yang dialami ibu bekerja ibu bekerja, akan menghambat kepuasan dalam hidupnya.
Perasaan bersalah (meninggalkan perannya sementara waktu sebagai ibu rumah
tangga) yang tersimpan, membuat sang ibu tidak dapat menikmati perannya dalam
dunia kerja.
3. Dukungan suami. Menurut penelitian Jones dan Jones (1980), terungkap bahwa sikap
suami merupakan factor yang penting dalam menentukan keberhasilan dual-career
marriage. Suami yang merasa terancam, tersaingi dan cemburu dengan status
“bekerja” istrinya, tak bias bersikap toleran terhadap keberadaan istri yang bekerja.
Ada pula suami yang tidak menganggap pekerjaan istri menjadi masalah, selama
istrinya tetap dapat memenuhi dan melayani kebutuhan suami. Namun ada pula suami
yang justru mendukung karir istrinys, dan ikut bekerja sama dalam mengurusi
pekerjaan rumah tangga sehari-hari. Dalam kondisi yang terakhir ini, pada umumnya
sang istri akan lebih dapat merasakan kepuasan dan kebahagiaan dalam hidup,
keluarag dan karirnya.
Sementara penelitian Scanzoni (1980) menungkap, perkawinan dual-career dikatakan
berhasil jika di antara kedua belah pihak saling memperlakukan pasangannya sebagai
partner yang setara. Umumnya, mereka tidak hanya akan berbagi dalam hal income,
namun tidak segan-segan berbagi dalam urusan rumah tangga dan mengurus anak-
anak. (*/tin).
76

Appendix 13.3: Reading Materials about Capital Punishment
Thoughts on Death Penalty
(http://www.richard.clark32.btinternet.co.uk/thoughts.html)
Contents.
Is capital punishment ethically acceptable?
Arguments for capital punishment
Arguments against capital punishment
Future of capital punishment in Britain
Should capital punishment be re-introduced in Britain?
Alternatives to capital punishment
Life without parole
Death versus deterrence
Mad or bad?
Capital punishment and the media
Can capital punishment ever be humane?
Conclusions
Background.
Capital punishment is the lawful infliction of death as a punishment and since ancient times
it has been used for a wide variety of offences. The Bible prescribes death for murder and
many other crimes, including kidnapping and witchcraft. By 1500 in England, only major
felonies carried the death penalty - treason, murder, larceny, burglary, rape, and arson. By
1700, however, Parliament had enacted many new capital offences, and hundreds of persons
were being put to death each year.
Reform of the death penalty began in Europe by the 1750s, and was championed by
academics such as the Italian jurist Cesare Beccaria, the French philosopher Voltaire, and
the English law reformers Jeremy Bentham and Samuel Romilly. They argued that the death
penalty was needlessly cruel, overrated as a deterrent, and occasionally imposed in fatal
error. Along with Quaker leaders and other social reformers, they defended life
imprisonment as a more rational alternative.
By the 1850s these reform efforts began to bear fruit. Venezuela (1853) and Portugal (1867)
were the first nations to abolish the death penalty altogether. In the United States Michigan
was first state to abolish it for murder in 1847. Today, it is virtually abolished in all of
Western Europe and most of Latin America.
Britain effectively abolished capital punishment in 1965 (for the full story of abolition click
here)
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In America, Asia, Africa, and the Middle East (except Israel) most countries still retain the
death penalty for certain crimes and impose it with varying frequency.
Shooting and hanging are the two most common methods of execution followed by
beheading and lethal injection which is becoming almost universal in America and is also
used in the Philippines and Guatemala. Electrocution and the gas chamber are used only in
America and seem to be disappearing rapidly. Stoning for sexual offences including adultery
occurs in some Islamic countries. China with a quarter of the world's population carries out
the most executions (by shooting) for a wide variety of offences. Since 1998 China has been
experimenting with lethal injection and like Thailand plans to make it the sole form of
execution in the next few years.
Is capital punishment ethically acceptable?
The state clearly has no absolute right to put its subjects to death although, of course, almost
all countries do so in some form or other, (but not necessarily in the conventional form of
capital punishment.) In most countries it is by arming their police forces and accepting the
fact that people will from time to time killed as a result and therefore at the State's behest.
A majority of a state's subjects may wish to confer the right to put certain classes of criminal
to death through referendum or voting in state elections for candidates favouring capital
punishment. Majority opinion in many democratic countries tends to be in favour of the
death penalty.
It is reasonable to assume that if a majority is in favour of a particular thing, in a democratic
society their wishes should be seriously considered with equal consideration given to the
down side of their views.
A fact that is conveniently overlooked by anti capital punishment campaigners is that we are
all ultimately going to die. In many cases we will know of this in advance and suffer great
pain and emotional anguish in the process. This is particularly true of those diagnosed as
having terminal cancer. It is apparently acceptable to be "sentenced to death" by one's family
doctor without having committed any crime at all but totally unacceptable to be sentenced to
death by a judge having been convicted of murder or drug trafficking (the crimes for which
the majority of executions are carried out).
However there are obvious merits to both the pro and anti arguments.
Arguments for the death penalty.
• Incapacitation of the criminal.
Capital punishment permanently removes the worst criminals from society and should prove
much cheaper and safer for the rest of us than long term or permanent incarceration. It is self
evident that dead criminals can not commit any further crimes, either within prison or after
escaping or being released from it.
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• Cost
Money is not an inexhaustible commodity and the state may very well better spend our
(limited) resources on the old, the young and the sick rather than the long term
imprisonment of murderers, rapists etc. Anti capital punishment campaigners in America
sight the higher cost of executing someone over life in prison but this is (whilst true for
America) has to do with the endless appeals and delays in carrying out death sentences that
are allowed under the American legal system where the average time spent on death row is
over 11 years. In Britain in the 20th
century the average time in the condemned cell was less
than 8 weeks and there was only one appeal.
• Retribution.
Execution is a very real punishment rather than some form of "rehabilitative" treatment, the
criminal is made to suffer in proportion to the offence. Although whether there is a place in
a modern society for the old fashioned principal of "lax talens" (an eye for an eye) is a
matter of personal opinion. Retribution is seen by many as an acceptable reason for the
death penalty, according to my survey results.
• Deterrence.
Does the death penalty deter? It is hard to prove one way or the other because in most
retentionist countries the number of people actually executed per year (as compared to those
sentenced to death) is usually a very small proportion. It would however seem that in those
countries (e.g. Singapore) which almost always carry out death sentences there is generally
far less serious crime. This tends to indicate that the death penalty is a deterrent, but only
where execution is an absolute certainty. Anti death penalty campaigners always argue that
death is not a deterrent and usually site studies based upon American states to prove their
point. This is, in my view, flawed and probably chosen to be deliberately misleading. Let us
examine the situation in three countries.
• Britain.
In Britain, between abolition in, the murder rate more than doubled (to around 750 per
annum) and is now around a 1000 a year as we enter 2004. There have been 71 murders
committed by people who have been released after serving "life sentences" in the period
between 1965 and 1998, according to Home Office statistics. Statistics were kept for the 5
years that capital punishment was suspended in Britain (1965 - 1969) and these showed a
125% rise in murders that would have attracted a death sentence. Whilst statistically all this
is true it does not tell one how society has changed over nearly 40 years. It may well be that
the murder rate would be the same today if we had retained and continued to use the death
penalty. It impossible to say that only this one factor affects the murder rate. Easier divorce
has greatly reduced the number of domestic murders, unavailability of poisons has seen
poisoning become almost extinct, whilst tight gun control had begun to reduce the number
of shootings, however drug related gun crime is on the increase and there have been a spate
of child murders recently. Stabbings have increased dramatically as have the kicking and
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beating to death of people who have done something as minor arguing with someone or
jostling them in a crowd, i.e. vicious and virtually motiveless killings. As in most Western
countries greatly improved medical techniques have saved many victims who would have
previously died from their injuries (e.g. Josie Russell).
• America.
In most states, other than Texas, the number of executions as compared to death sentences
and murders is infinitesimally small. Of the 598 executions carried out in the whole of the
USA from 1977 to the end of 1999 Texas accounts for 199 or 33%.
Interestingly the murder rate in the U. S. dropped from 24,562 in 1993 to 18,209 in 1997 the
lowest for years (a 26% reduction) - during a period of increased use of the death penalty.
311 (62%) of the 500 executions have been carried out in this period.
America still had 5 times as many murders per head of population as did Britain in 1997,
whilst Singapore had 15 times fewer murders per head of population than Britain. How can
one account for this? There are obvious cultural differences between the three countries
although all are modern and prosperous. It is dangerously simplistic to say that the rise in
executions is the only factor in the reduction of homicides in America. There has been a
general trend to a more punitive society (e.g. the "three strikes and your out" law) over this
period and cities such as New York claim great success in reducing crime rates through the
use of "zero tolerance" policing policies. But otherwise that has been political and economic
stability over the period and no obvious social changes. Improvements in medical techniques
have also saved many potential deaths.
• Texas.
As stated above Texas carries out far more executions than any other American state
(between 1982 and 2000 it executed 254 men and 2 women) and there is now clear evidence
of a deterrent effect. My friend Rob Gallagher (author of Before the Needles website) has
done an analysis of the situation using official FBI homicide figures. Between 1980 and
2000 there were 41,783 murders in Texas. In 1980 alone, 2,392 people died by homicide,
giving it a murder rate of 16.88 for every 100,000 of the population. (The US average
murder rate in 1980 was 10.22, falling to 5.51 per 100,000 by the year 2000. Over the same
period Texas had a population increase of 32%, up 6,681,991 from 14,169,829 to
20,851,820. There were only 1,238 murders in 2000 giving it a rate of 5.94, just slightly
higher than the national rate which had dropped to 5.51/100,000. In the base year (1980)
there was 1 murder for every 5,924 Texans. By the year 2000 this had fallen to 1 murder for
every 16,843 people, or 35.2% of the 1980 value. If the 1980 murder rate had been allowed
to maintain there would have been, by interpolation, a total of 61,751 murders. On this basis
19,968 people are not dead today who would have potentially been homicide victims,
representing 78 lives saved for each one of the 256 executions. The overall US murder rate
declined by 54% during the period. Therefore, to achieve a reasonable estimate of actual
lives saved we must multiply 19,968 by 0.54, giving a more realistic figure of 10,783 lives
saved or 42 lives per execution. Even if this estimate was off by a factor of 10, (which is
highly unlikely), there would still be over 1,000 innocent lives saved or 4 lives per
80

execution. One can see a drop in the number of murders in 1983, the year after Charlie
Brooks became the first person to be executed by lethal injection in America.
In 2000 Texas had 1238 murders (an average of 23.8 murders per week), but in 2001 only
31 people were given the death sentence and 17 prisoners executed (down from 40 the
previous year). This equates to a capital sentencing rate of 2.5% or 1 death sentence for
every 40 murders.
• Singapore.
Singapore always carries out death sentences where the appeal has been turned down so its
population knows precisely what will happen to them if they are convicted of murder or
drug trafficking - is this concept deeply embedded into the sub consciousness of most of its
people, acting as an effective deterrent?
In 1995 Singapore hanged an unusually large number of 7 murderers with 4 in 1996, 3 in
1997 and only 1 in 1998 rising to 6 in 1999 (3 for the same murder). Singapore takes an
equally hard line on all other forms of crime with stiff on the spot fines for trivial offences
such as dropping litter and chewing gum in the street, caning for males between 18 and 50
for a wide variety of offences and rigorous imprisonment for all serious crimes.
Arguments against the death penalty
There are a number of incontrovertible arguments against the death penalty.
The most important one is the virtual certainty that genuinely innocent people will be
executed and that there is no possible way of compensating them for this miscarriage of
justice. There is also another significant danger here. The person convicted of the murder
may have actually killed the victim and may even admit having done so but does not agree
that the killing was murder. Often the only people who know what really happened are the
accused and the deceased. It then comes down to the skill of the prosecution and defence
lawyers as to whether there will be a conviction for murder or for manslaughter. It is thus
highly probable that people are convicted of murder when they should really have only been
convicted of manslaughter.
A second reason, that is often overlooked, is the hell the innocent family and friends of
criminals must also go through in the time leading up to and during the execution and which
will often cause them serious trauma for years afterwards. It is often very difficult for people
to come to terms with the fact that their loved one could be guilty of a serious crime and no
doubt even more difficult to come to terms with their death in this form. However strongly
you may support capital punishment two wrongs do not make one right. One cannot and
should not deny the suffering of the victim's family in a murder case but the suffering of the
murderer's family is surely equally valid.
There must always be the concern that the state can administer the death penalty justly, most
countries have a very poor record on this. In America a prisoner can be on death row for
81

many years (on average eleven years {2000 figure}) awaiting the outcome of numerous
appeals and their chances of escaping execution are better if they are wealthy and/or white
rather than poor and/or black irrespective of the actual crimes they have committed which
may have been largely forgotten by the time the final decision is taken. Although racism is
claimed in the administration of the death penalty in America, statistics show that white
prisoners are more liable to be sentenced to death on conviction for first degree murder and
are also less likely to have their sentences commuted than black defendants.
It must be remembered that criminals are real people too, who have life and with it the
capacity to feel pain, fear and the loss of their loved ones and all the other emotions that the
rest of us are capable of feeling. It is easier to put this thought on one side when discussing
the most awful multiple murderers but less so when discussing, say, an eighteen-year-old
girl convicted of drug trafficking. (Singapore hanged two girls for this crime in 1995 who
were both only eighteen at the time of their offences and China shot an 18 year old girl for
the same offence in 1998.)
There is no such thing as a humane method of putting a person to death irrespective of what
the State may claim (see later). Every form of execution causes the prisoner suffering, some
methods perhaps cause less than others, but be in no doubt that being executed is a terrifying
and gruesome ordeal for the criminal. What is also often overlooked is the extreme mental
torture that the criminal suffers in the time leading up to the execution. How would you feel
knowing that you were going to die tomorrow morning at 8.00 a.m.?
There may be a brutalising effect upon society by carrying out executions - this was
apparent in this country during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries when people turned
out to enjoy the spectacle. They still do today in those countries where executions are
carried out in public. It is hard to prove this one way or the other - people stop and look at
car crashes but it doesn't make them go and have an accident to see what it is like. I think
there is a natural voyeurism in most people.
The death penalty is the bluntest of "blunt instruments" it removes the individual's humanity
and with it any chance of rehabilitation and their giving something back to society. In the
case of the worst criminals this may be acceptable but is more questionable in the case of
less awful crimes.
Will Britain restore capital punishment in the future?
My 2003 survey shows just over two out of three people would like capital punishment
reinstated. (Click here for the detailed results) Support for the death penalty in Britain
seems to be growing and is equally strong among young people too. In the short term (say
the next 10 years) there is no realistic chance of reinstatement however, despite majority
public support for such a move. Re-introduction of something that has been abolished is
always much more difficult than introducing something entirely new.
Successive free votes on the issue in the House of Commons during the 1980’s failed to get
anywhere near a majority for restoration. Politically it would be impossible at present, given
our membership of the EU and our commitment to European Convention on Human Rights,
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both of which are totally against capital punishment. The EU contains no member states that
practice it and will not allow retentionist states to join. The present Labour government is
implacably opposed to capital punishment and has removed it from the statute book for the
few remaining offences for which it was still theoretically allowed. The Conservative party
seems to be split on the issue and the Liberal Democrats firmly against. There is no doubt
that capital punishment is a very emotive issue but there is a strong anti death penalty lobby
in this country who would put every obstacle in the way of it's return should it ever become
likely. There is concern at the number of convictions that are being declared unsafe by the
Courts, particularly for the most serious offences such as murder and terrorism. Yet we live
in a time of ever-rising serious crime.
Will people become so fed up with escalating levels of crime and what they see in, most
cases, as derisory punishments that they will support anything that appears likely to reduce
crime and redress the balance? Or do they see the return of capital punishment as a return to
barbarity?
Should capital punishment be re-introduced in Britain?
There are very real issues of human rights that will affect us all if it were to be re-
introduced. Will the government introduce laws that are just and contain sufficient
safeguards and will the judiciary administer them properly?
We are all potentially capable of murder (a lot of domestic murders, where one partner
murders the other during a row, are first time crimes) and therefore we must each consider
whether we and our loved ones are more at risk of being murdered or being executed for
committing murder.
We must also consider what the likelihood is of innocent people being executed - it is
inevitable that it will happen sooner or later.
Can the police, the courts and the system generally, be trusted to get things right on every
occasion? They never have been able to previously.
Will juries be willing to convict in capital cases? Would you like to have to make the
decision as to whether the person in the dock should live or die?
Will the government really be willing to carry out death sentences or will they find every
excuse for not doing so thus returning to the injustices of earlier centuries?
Will executions really prove to be the deterrent that the supporters of capital punishment
expect them to be? This is a very important point as the pro-capital punishment lobby as the
principal benefit always puts it forward from re-introduction. It is unlikely the very worst
murderers would be deterred because they are typically psychopaths or of such dubious
sanity that they are incapable of rational behaviour (often taking their own lives immediately
after the crime as in the Hungerford and Dunblane massacres) Certain criminals e.g. drug
traffickers may be deterred because they have a clear option with defined risks but would the
83

person who has a violent argument with their partner give a second thought to what will
happen to them when in the heat of the moment they pick up the carving knife?
It is unlikely that a handful of executions a year will have any real deterrent effect
particularly on the people whom society would most like to be deterred, e.g. serial killers,
multiple rapists and drugs barons. Yet these particular criminals are the least likely to be
executed, the serial killers will be found insane and the drug barons will use any means to
avoid conviction e.g. intimidation of witnesses. So we go back to the situation where only
"sane" murderers can be executed. Thus a modern day Ruth Ellis would hang because she
was sane whilst Beverley Allitt, who murdered four small children, would be reprieved after
because she has Munchausen's Syndrome by Proxy, or so she and certain psychiatrists claim.
Can these scenarios ever be seen as justice?
Should we only execute people for the most awful multiple murders as a form of
compulsory euthanasia rather than as a punishment or should we execute all murderers
irrespective of the degree of guilt purely as a retributive punishment for taking another
person's life and in the hope of deterring others?
What about crimes such as violent rape, terrorism and drug trafficking - are these as bad as
murder? How should we punish such offences?
Should executions be carried out in such a way as to punish the criminal and have maximum
deterrent effect on the rest of us (e.g. televised hangings) would this be a deterrent or merely
become a morbid show for the voyeuristic?
Or should they be little more than a form of euthanasia carried out in such a way as to
remove from the criminal all physical and as much emotional suffering as possible?
Does it make any sense to imprison someone for the rest of their life or is it really more
cruel than executing them?
If we do not keep them in prison for life will they come out only to commit other dreadful
crimes? A small but significant number do.
What is the cost to society of keeping people in prison? (£600.00 per week at present for an
ordinary prisoner which is around £468,000 for a typical 15 years of a life sentence)
These questions need to be thought about carefully and a balanced opinion arrived at.
If the general conclusion is that capital punishment is desirable then the first step toward
restoration is for the Government to present a fully thought out set of proposals, that can be
put to the people in a referendum, stating precisely what offences should carry the death
penalty, how it should be carried out, etc. and what effect on crime is expected to follow
from re-introduction.
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If such a referendum produced a clear yes vote, the Government would have a genuine
mandate to proceed upon, and could claim the support of the people, thus substantially
reducing the influence of the anti-capital punishment lobby. There should be another
referendum about five years later, so that the effects of re-introduction could be reviewed
and voted on again. Referenda have the advantage of involving the public in the decision
making process and raising awareness through the media of the issues for and against the
proposed changes.
The alternatives.
What are the realistic alternatives to the death penalty?
Any punishment must be fair, just, adequate and most of all, enforceable. Society still views
murder as a particularly heinous crime which should justify the most severe punishment.
Whole life imprisonment could fit the bill for the worst murders with suitable gradations for
less awful murders.
I am personally against the mandatory life sentence for murder as it fails, in my view, to
distinguish between really dreadful crimes and those crimes which, whilst still homicide, are
much more understandable to the rest of us. Therefore it is clearly necessary to give juries
the option of finding the prisoner guilty, but in a lower degree of murder and to give judges
the ability to pass sensible, determinate sentences based upon the facts of the crime as
presented to the court.
Imprisonment, whilst expensive and largely pointless, except as means of removing
criminals from society for a given period, is at least enforceable upon anyone who commits
murder (over the age of ten years). However it appears to many people to be a soft option
and this perception needs to be corrected.
In modern times we repeatedly see murderers being able to "get off" on the grounds of
diminished responsibility and their alleged psychiatric disorders or by using devices such as
plea bargaining. This tends to remove peoples' faith in justice which is very dangerous.
Are there any other real, socially acceptable, options for dealing with murderers? One
possible solution (that would enrage the civil liberties groups) would be to have everyone's'
DNA profile databased at birth (not beyond the wit of modern computer systems) thus
making detection of many murders and sex crimes much easier. If this was done and
generally accepted as the main plank of evidence against an accused person and a suitable,
determinate sentence of imprisonment passed, involving a sensible regime combining both
punishment and treatment, it would I am sure, considerably reduce the incidence of the most
serious and most feared crimes. The reason for this is that for most people, being caught is a
far greater deterrent tha

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