![• Conduct of private persons may be
attributable to State in 2 circumstances if [Art
8 DA]:
• a) It was carried out on instructions of the
State
• b) It was under direction or control of State](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/a8hcqdusfighmnagsobw-signature-c86a07381c552e271ea067ec05fb574d1661495ea080c40bcd252c78b051e9d8-poli-151120185646-lva1-app6892/85/A8hcqdusfighmnagsobw-signature-c86a07381c552e271ea067ec05fb574d1661495ea080c40bcd252c78b051e9d8-poli-141208120551-conversion-gate02-15-320.jpg)
![DEFENCES (Art 20-27 DA)
• a) Consent [Art 20 DA]
• b) self-defense [Art 21 DA]
• c) countermeasures [Art 22 DA]
• d) force majeure [Art 23 DA]
There must be unforeseen circumstances to perform the obligation.
Rainbow Warrior: New Zealand argued that French breached its
obligation because French failed to seek consent of NZ before
removing NZ's soldiers from the island. French said that NZ soldiers
were sick and need medical attention, so it was a force majeure. It
was held that this situation does not suffice to amount to force
majeure.
• e) Distress [Art 24 DA]
• f) Necessity [Art 25 DA]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/a8hcqdusfighmnagsobw-signature-c86a07381c552e271ea067ec05fb574d1661495ea080c40bcd252c78b051e9d8-poli-151120185646-lva1-app6892/85/A8hcqdusfighmnagsobw-signature-c86a07381c552e271ea067ec05fb574d1661495ea080c40bcd252c78b051e9d8-poli-141208120551-conversion-gate02-20-320.jpg)
A8hcqdusfighmnagsobw signature-c86a07381c552e271ea067ec05fb574d1661495ea080c40bcd252c78b051e9d8-poli-141208120551-conversion-gate02
- 2. • A state may incur liability if it violate a rule of customary international law or ignore its obligation under a treaty.
- 3. • However, to make a state responsible, Art 2 of Draft Articles (DA) put 2 requirements:
- 4. 1) THE WRONGFUL CONDUCT IN QUESTION MUST BE ATTRIBUTABLE TO THE STATE • State cannot act on its own. State Organs shall represent the State in any matters. • Art 4 DA provides that the conduct of any state organ shall be considered an act of that state under international law whether the organ exercises legislative, executive or judiciary function. An organ includes any person or entity. • Conduct in Art 4 DA means action or omission. E.g.: Diplomatic and Consular Staff case: Iran was responsible because of omission to act when it should have done so.
- 5. • Corfu Channel case: Albanian was responsible because it should have known about presence of mines in its territorial waters and failed to inform the 3rd state about it.
- 6. a) Wrongful conduct of judiciary attributable to the state • Judicial organ can be the cause of state responsibility because of ‘denial of justice'. • Janes Claim case: Mexico failed to arrest and punish an offender which caused death to an American citizen. ICJ held that this is ‘a denial of justice' and Mexico should be liable.
- 7. b) Wrongful conduct of the executive attributable to the state e.g. conduct of police, army, gov officers. • Massey claim case: a US citizen who was working in Mexico was killed. Mexican authority failed to punish the offender. Mexico is liable and should pay damages to US.
- 8. • Does the state be responsible if wrongful conduct committed by its organ when off duty? No. A state would only be attributable to such wrongful conduct when it is committed on duty. If committed off duty, it cannot be attributable to the State.
- 9. • Mallen case: A consul has been attacked by American police officer 2 times. 1st attack was when he was off duty. 2nd attack he showed his badge to assert his official capacity. US was responsible for the 2nd attack.
- 10. • A state may also be liable for de facto State organs i.e. public corporations or private company performing element of governmental authority
- 11. • SEDCO case: there was a seizure of vehicle. The claimant argued that a state owned company took it. However, argument was rejected because there was no proof to show that government directed it to be seized.
- 12. • Foremost Tehran Inc v Iran case: Iranian company did not pay dividends to shareholders. The conduct was attributable to Iran because it had been influenced by Government representatives on the board of directors.
- 13. • Ultra vires conduct cannot be a defense to exclude state responsibility • Refer Art 7 DA
- 14. • US v Mexico: Mexican soldiers ignored their orders and attacked on a house where Americans was seeking refuge. It was held Mexico liable.
- 15. • Conduct of private persons may be attributable to State in 2 circumstances if [Art 8 DA]: • a) It was carried out on instructions of the State • b) It was under direction or control of State
- 16. • However, what is the degree of control that State need to exercise over the persons?
- 17. • 2 views: • i) According to Nicaragua case, State needs to exercise effective control. Control by State is effective when, for example: • State finances the persons • State coordinates the conduct of such persons • State issued specific instruction to such persons
- 18. • ii) According to Prosecutor v Tadic, State only need to exercise overall control. State does not necessarily need issue instructions concerning each specific action.
- 19. 2) THE CONDUCT MUST CONSTITUTE A BREACH OF AN INTERNATIONAL LEGAL OBLIGATION • Art 12 DA: A State is in breach of its obligation when any act of the State does not conform to its obligation.
- 20. DEFENCES (Art 20-27 DA) • a) Consent [Art 20 DA] • b) self-defense [Art 21 DA] • c) countermeasures [Art 22 DA] • d) force majeure [Art 23 DA] There must be unforeseen circumstances to perform the obligation. Rainbow Warrior: New Zealand argued that French breached its obligation because French failed to seek consent of NZ before removing NZ's soldiers from the island. French said that NZ soldiers were sick and need medical attention, so it was a force majeure. It was held that this situation does not suffice to amount to force majeure. • e) Distress [Art 24 DA] • f) Necessity [Art 25 DA]
- 21. NATIONALITY OF CLAIM • Every state has the right to protect its nationals. However, it is up to the state whether to take up the claim or not. • Nottebohm: a state's right to extend diplomatic protection to its individual is not unlimited. • However, according to Art 1 of Hague Convention, there must be a genuine link between the State and the national.
- 22. • Nottebohm case: • Mr. N was born in Germany & had German nationality until his naturalisation with Liechtenstein. Later he went to Guatemala and resided & conducts business there. L sued GU for unlawfully expelled and seized property of Mr N who had been neutralised by L. Court said that for the claim to succeed, a genuine link between L and Mr N must be proven. • Court said that for a genuine link to exist, there must be dominant nationality. Here, Mr. N's link with L is not dominant.
- 23. EXHAUSTION OF LOCAL REMEDIES • Art 44 (b) DA: responsibility of a state cannot be invoked if local remedies still available. • This principle was confirmed in ELSI case and Interhandel Case.
- 24. • However, there is no need to exhaust all local remedies in the following situations: • The remedies are ineffective in municipal law • Remedies in municipal law are futile • There are already judicial precedents, which will be followed in your case & does not favour you • There has been an unreasonable delay • Local processes are biased against the individual • The injury is to the state itself • The local remedies requirement has been waived