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Savitch, Absolute C++ 5/e: Chapter 7, Instructor’s Manual
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.
Chapter 7
Constructors and Other Tools
Key Terms
constructor
initialization section
default constructor
constant parameter
const with member functions
inline function
static variable
initializing static member variables
nested class
local class
vector
declaring a vector variable
template class
v[i]
push_back
size
size unsigned int
capacity
Brief Outline
7.1 Constructors
Constructor Definitions
Explicit Constructor Calls
Class Type Member Variables
7.2 More Tools
The const Parameter Modifier
Inline Functions
Static Members
Nested and Local Class Definitions
7.3 Vectors – A Preview of the Standard Template Library
Vector Basics
Efficiency Issues.
1. Introduction and Teaching Suggestions
Tools developed in this chapter are the notion of const member functions, inline functions, static
members, nested classes and composition. A const member function is a promise not to change
state of the calling object. A call to an inline function requests that the compiler put the body of
the function in the code stream instead of a function call. A static member of a class is

connected to the class rather than being connected to specific object. The chapter ends with a
brief introduction to the vector container and a preview of the STL.
Students should immediately see the comparison of vectors to arrays and note how it is generally
much easier to work with vectors. In particular, the ability to grow and shrink makes it a much
easier dynamic data structure while the use of generics allows vectors to store arbitrary data
types. If you have given assignments or examples with traditional arrays then it may be
instructive to re-do those same programs with vectors instead.
2. Key Points
Constructor Definitions. A constructor is a member function having the same name as the
class. The purpose of a class constructor is automatic allocation and initialization of resources
involved in the definition of class objects. Constructors are called automatically at definition of
class objects. Special declarator syntax for constructors uses the class name followed by a
parameter list but there is no return type.
Constructor initialization section. The implementation of the constructor can have an
initialization section:
A::A():a(0), b(1){ /* implementation */ }
The text calls the :a(0), b(1) the initialization section. In the literature, this sometimes
called a member initializer list. The purpose of a member initializer list is to initialize the class
data members. Only constructors may have member initializer lists. Much of the time you can
initialize the class members by assignment within the constructor block, but there are a few
situations where this is not possible. In these cases you must use an initialization section, and the
error messages are not particularly clear. Encourage your students to use initialization sections in
preference to assignment in the block of a constructor. Move initialization from the member
initializer list to the body of the constructor when there is a need to verify argument values.
Class Type Member Variables. A class may be used like any other type, including as a type of
a member of another class. This is one of places where you must use the initializer list to do
initialization.
The const Parameter Modifier. Reference parameters that are declared const provide
automatic error checking against changing the caller’s argument. All uses of the const modifier
make a promise to the compiler that you will not change something and a request for the
compiler to hold you to your promise. The text points out that the use of a call-by-value
parameter protects the caller’s argument against change. Call-by-value copies the caller’s
argument, hence for a large type can consume undesirable amounts of memory. Call-by-
reference, on the other hand, passes only the address of the caller’s argument, so consumes little
space. However, call-by-reference entails the danger of an undesired change in the caller’s
argument. A const call-by-reference parameter provides a space efficient, read-only parameter
passing mechanism.
A const call-by-value parameter mechanism, while legal, provides little more than an annoyance
to the programmer.

The const modifier appended to the declaration of a member function in a class definition is a
promise not to write code in the implementation that will change the state of the class. Note that
the const modifier on the function member is part of the signature of a class member function
and is required in both declaration and definition if it is used in either.
The const modifier applied to a return type is a promise not to do anything the returned object to
change it. If the returned type is a const reference, the programmer is promising not to use the
call as an l-value. If the returned type is a const class type, the programmer is promising not to
apply any non-const member function to the returned object.
Inline Functions. Placing the keyword inline before the declaration of a function is a hint to the
compiler to put body of the function in the code stream at the place of the call (with arguments
appropriately substituted for the parameters). The compiler may or may not do this, and some
compilers have strong restrictions on what function bodies will be placed inline.
Static Members. The keyword static is used in several contexts. C used the keyword static
with an otherwise global declaration to restrict visibility of the declaration from within other
files. This use is deprecated in the C++ Standard.. In Chapter 11, we will see that unnamed
namespaces replace this use of static.
In a function, a local variable that has been declared with the keyword static is allocated once
and initialized once, unlike other local variables that are allocated and initialized (on the system
stack) once per invocation. Any initialization is executed only once, at the time the execution
stream reaches the initialization. Subsequently, the initialization is skipped and the variable
retains its value from the previous invocation.
The third use of static is the one where a class member variable or function is declared with the
static keyword. The definition of a member as static parallels the use of static for function local
variables. There is only one member, associated with the class (not replicated for each object).
Nested and Local Classes. A class may be defined inside another class. Such a class is in the
scope of the outer class and is intended for local use. This can be useful with data structures
covered in Chapter 17.
Vectors. The STL vector container is a generalization of array. A vector is a container that is
able to grow (and shrink) during program execution. A container is an object that can contain
other objects. The STL vector container is implemented using a template class (Chapter 16). The
text’s approach is to define some vector objects and use them prior to dealing with templates and
the STL in detail (Chapter 19). Unlike arrays, vector objects can be assigned, and the behavior is
what you want. Similar to an array, you can declare a vector to have a 10 elements initialized
with the default constructor by writing
vector<baseType> v(10);
Like arrays, objects stored in a vector object can be accessed for use as an l-value or as an r-
value using indexing.
v[2] = 3;
x = v[0];

Unlike arrays, however, you cannot (legally) index into a vector, say v[i], to fetch a value or to
assign a value unless an element has already been inserted at every index position up to and
including index position i. The push_back(elem) function can be used to add an element to
the end of a vector.
Efficiency Issues for Vectors. Most implementations of vector have an array that holds its
elements. The array is divided into that used for elements that have been inserted, and the rest is
called reserve. There is a member function that can be used to adjust the reserve up or down.
Implementations vary with regard to whether the reserve member can decrease the capacity of a
vector below the current capacity.
3. Tips
Invoking constructors. You cannot call a constructor as if it were a member function, but
frequently it is useful to invoke a constructor explicitly. In fact this declaration of class A in
object u :
A u(3);
is short hand for
A u = A(3);
Here, we have explicitly invoked the class A constructor that can take an int argument. When we
need to build a class object for return from a function, we can explicitly invoke a constructor.
A f()
{
int i;
// compute a value for i
return A(i);
}
Always Include a Default Constructor. A default constructor will automatically be created for
you if you do not define one, but it will not do anything. However, if your class definition
includes one or more constructors of any kind, no constructor is generated automatically.
Static member variables must be initialized outside the class definition. Static variables may
be initialized only once, and they must be initialized outside the class definition.. The text points
out that the class author is expected to do the initializations, typically in the same file where the
class definition appears.
Example:
class A
{
public:
A();
. . .
private:
static int a;
int b;

};
int A::a = 0; // initialization
A static member is intended to reduce the need for global variables by providing alternatives that
are local to a class. A static member function or variable acts as a global for members of its class
without being available to, or clashing with, global variables or functions or names of members
of other classes.
A static member function is not supplied with the implicit “this” pointer that points to the
instance of a class. Consequently, a static member function can only use nested types,
enumerators, and static members directly. To access a non-static member of its class, a static
member function must use the . or the -> operator with some instance (presumably passed to
the static member function via a parameter).
4. Pitfalls
Attempting to invoke a constructor like a member function. We cannot call a constructor for
a class as if it were a member of the class.
Constructors with No Arguments. It is important not to use any parentheses when you declare
a class variable and want the constructor invoked with no arguments, e.g.
MyClass obj;
instead of
MyClass obj();
Otherwise, the compiler sees it as a prototype declaration of a function that has no parameters
and a return type of MyClass.
Inconsistent Use of const. If you use const for one parameter of a particular type, then you
should use it for every other parameter that has that type and is not changed by the function call.
Attempt to access non-static variables from static functions. Non-static class instance
variables are only created when an object has been created and is therefore out of the scope of a
static function. Static functions should only access static class variables. However, non-static
functions can access static class variables.
Declaring An Array of class objects Requires a Default Constructor. When an array of class
objects is defined, the default constructor is called for each element of the array, in increasing
index order. You cannot declare an array of class objects if the class does not provide a default
constructor.
There is no array bounds checking done by a vector. There is a member function,
at(index) that does do bounds checking. When you access or write an element outside the
index range 0 to (size-1), is undefined. Otherwise if you try to access v[i] where I is greater than
the vector’s size, you may or may not get an error message but the program will undoubtedly
misbehave.

5. Programming Projects Answers
1. Class Month
Notes:
Abstract data type for month.
Need:
Default constructor
constructor to set month using first 3 letters as 3 args
constructor to set month using int value : 1 for Jan etc
input function (from keyboard) that sets month from 1st
3 letters of month name
input function (from keyboard) that sets month from int value : 1 for Jan etc
output function that outputs (to screen) month as 1st
3 letters in the name of the month (C-
string?)
output function that outputs (to screen) month as number, 1 for Jan etc.
member function that returns the next month as a value of type Month.
.int monthNo; // 1 for January, 2 for February etc
Embed in a main function and test.
//file: ch7prb1.cpp
//Title: Month
//To create and test a month ADT
#include <iostream>
#include <cstdlib> // for exit()
#include <cctype> // for tolower()
using namespace std;
class Month
{
public:
//constructor to set month based on first 3 chars of the month name
Month(char c1, char c2, char c3); // done, debugged
//a constructor to set month base on month number, 1 = January etc.
Month( int monthNumber); // done, debugged
//a default constructor (what does it do? nothing)
Month(); // done, no debugging to do
//an input function to set the month based on the month number
void getMonthByNumber(istream&); // done, debugged
//input function to set the month based on a three character input
void getMonthByName(istream&); // done, debugged
//an output function that outputs the month as an integer,
void outputMonthNumber(ostream&); // done, debugged
//an output function that outputs the month as the letters.
void outputMonthName(ostream&); // done, debugged
//a function that returns the next month as a month object

Month nextMonth(); //
//NB: each input and output function have a single formal parameter
//for the stream
int monthNumber();
private:
int mnth;
};
//added
int Month::monthNumber()
{
return mnth;
}
Month Month::nextMonth()
{
int nextMonth = mnth + 1;
if (nextMonth == 13)
nextMonth = 1;
return Month(nextMonth);
}
Month::Month( int monthNumber)
{
mnth = monthNumber;
}
void Month::outputMonthNumber( ostream& out )
{
//cout << "The current month is "; // only for debugging
out << mnth;
}
// This implementation could profit greatly from use of an array!
void Month::outputMonthName(ostream& out)
{
// a switch is called for. We don't have one yet!
if (1 == mnth) out << "Jan";
else if (2 == mnth) out << "Feb";
else if (3 == mnth) out << "Mar";
else if (4 == mnth) out << "Apr";
else if (5 == mnth) out << "May";
else if (6 == mnth) out << "Jun ";
else if (7 == mnth) out << "Jul ";
else if (8 == mnth) out << "Aug";
else if (9 == mnth) out << "Sep";
else if (10 == mnth) out << "Oct";
else if (11 == mnth) out << "Nov";
else if (12 == mnth) out << "Dec";
}
void error(char c1, char c2, char c3)
{
cout << endl << c1 << c2 << c3 << " is not a month. Exitingn";
exit(1);
}
void error(int n)

{
cout << endl << n << " is not a month number. Exiting" << endl;
exit(1);
}
void Month::getMonthByNumber(istream& in)
{
in >> mnth; // int Month::mnth;
}
// use of an array and linear search could help this implementation.
void Month::getMonthByName(istream& in)
{
// Calls error(...) which exits, if the month name is wrong.
// An enhancement would be to allow the user to fix this.
char c1, c2, c3;
in >> c1 >> c2 >> c3;
c1 = tolower(c1); //force to lower case so any case
c2 = tolower(c2); //the user enters is acceptable
c3 = tolower(c3);
if('j' == c1)
if('a' == c2)
mnth = 1; // jan
else
if ('u' == c2)
if('n' == c3)
mnth = 6; // jun
else if ('l' == c3)
mnth = 7; // jul
else error(c1, c2, c3); // ju, not n or
else error(c1, c2, c3); // j, not a or u
else
if('f' == c1)
if('e' == c2)
if('b' == c3)
mnth = 2; // feb
else error(c1, c2, c3); // fe, not b
else error(c1, c2, c3); // f, not e
else
if('m' == c1)
if('a' == c2)
if('y' == c3)
mnth = 5; // may
else
if('r' == c3)
mnth = 3; // mar
else error(c1, c2, c3); // ma not a, r
else error(c1,c2,c3); // m not a or r
else
if('a' == c1)
if('p' == c2)
if('r' == c3)
mnth = 4; // apr
else error(c1, c2, c3 ); // ap not r
else
if('u' == c2)
if('g' == c3)
mnth = 8; // aug

else error(c1,c2,c3); // au not g
else error(c1,c2,c3); // a not u or p
else
if('s' == c1)
if('e' == c2)
if('p' == c3)
mnth = 9; // sep
else error(c1, c2, c3); // se, not p
else error(c1, c2, c3); // s, not e
else
if('o' == c1)
if('c' == c2)
if('t' == c3)
mnth = 10; // oct
else error(c1, c2, c3); // oc, not t
else error(c1, c2, c3); // o, not c
else
if('n' == c1)
if('o' == c2)
if('v' == c3)
mnth = 11; // nov
else error(c1, c2, c3); // no, not v
else error(c1, c2, c3); // n, not o
else
if('d' == c1)
if('e' == c2)
if('c' == c3)
mnth = 12; // dec
else error(c1, c2, c3);// de, not c
else error(c1, c2, c3);// d, not e
else error(c1, c2, c3);//c1,not j,f,m,a,s,o,n,or d
}
Month::Month(char c1, char c2, char c3)
{
c1 = tolower(c1);
c2 = tolower(c2);
c3 = tolower(c3);
if('j' == c1)
if('a' == c2)
mnth=1; // jan
else if ('u' == c2)
if('n' == c3)
mnth = 6; // jun
else if('l' == c3)
mnth = 7; // jul
else error(c1, c2, c3); // ju, not n or
else error(c1, c2, c3); // j, not a or u
else if('f' == c1)
if('e' == c2)
if('b' == c3)
mnth = 2; // feb
else error(c1, c2, c3); // fe, not b
else error(c1, c2, c3); // f, not e
else
if('m' == c1)
if('a' == c2)
if('y' == c3)

mnth = 5; // may
else
if('r' == c3)
mnth = 3; // mar
else error(c1, c2, c3); // ma not a, r
else error(c1,c2,c3); // m not a or r
else
if('a' == c1)
if('p' == c2)
if('r' == c3)
mnth = 4; // apr
else error(c1, c2, c3 ); // ap not r
else
if('u' == c2)
if('g' == c3)
mnth = 8; // aug
else error(c1,c2,c3); // au not g
else error(c1,c2,c3); // a not u or p
else
if('s' == c1)
if('e' == c2)
if('p' == c3)
mnth = 9; // sep
else error(c1, c2, c3); // se, not p
else error(c1, c2, c3); // s, not e
else
if('o' == c1)
if('c' == c2)
if('t' == c3)
mnth = 10; // oct
else error(c1, c2, c3); // oc, not t
else error(c1, c2, c3); // o, not c
else
if('n' == c1)
if('o' == c2)
if('v' == c3)
mnth = 11; // nov
else error(c1, c2, c3); // no, not v
else error(c1, c2, c3); // n, not o
else
if('d' == c1)
if('e' == c2)
if('c' == c3)
mnth = 12; // dec
else error(c1, c2, c3); // de, not c
else error(c1, c2, c3); // d, not e
else error(c1, c2, c3);//c1 not j,f,m,a,s,o,n,or d
}
Month::Month()
{
// body deliberately empty
}
int main()
{
cout << "testing constructor Month(char, char, char)" << endl;

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Month m;
m = Month( 'j', 'a', 'n');
m.outputMonthNumber( cout ); cout << " ";
m.outputMonthName(cout); cout << endl;
m = Month( 'f', 'e', 'b');
m = Month( 'm', 'a', 'r');
m = Month( 'a', 'p', 'r');
m = Month( 'm', 'a', 'y');
m = Month( 'j', 'u', 'n');
m = Month( 'j', 'u', 'l');
m = Month( 'a', 'u', 'g');
m = Month( 's', 'e', 'p');
m = Month( 'o', 'c', 't');
m = Month( 'n', 'o', 'v');
m = Month( 'd', 'e', 'c');
cout << endl << "Testing Month(int) constructor" << endl;
int i = 1;
while (i <= 12)
{
Month mm(i);
mm.outputMonthNumber( cout ); cout << " ";
mm.outputMonthName(cout); cout << endl;
i = i+1;
}
cout << endl
<< "Testing the getMonthByName and outputMonth* n";
i = 1;
Month mm;
while (i <= 12)
{
mm.getMonthByName(cin);
i = i+1;
}

cout << endl
<< "Testing getMonthByNumber and outputMonth* " << endl;
i = 1;
while (i <= 12)
{
mm.getMonthByNumber(cin);
i = i+1;
}
cout << endl << "end of loops" << endl;
cout << endl << "Testing nextMonth member" << endl;
cout << "current month ";
mm.outputMonthNumber(cout); cout << endl;
cout << "next month ";
mm.nextMonth().outputMonthNumber(cout); cout << " ";
mm.nextMonth().outputMonthName(cout); cout << endl;
cout << endl << "new Month created " << endl;
Month mo(6);
cout << "current month ";
mo.outputMonthNumber(cout); cout << endl;
cout << "nextMonth ";
mo.nextMonth().outputMonthNumber(cout); cout << " ";
mo.nextMonth().outputMonthName(cout); cout << endl;
return 0;
}
/*
A partial testing run follows:
$a.out
testing constructor Month(char, char, char)
1 Jan
2 Feb
3 Mar
4 Apr
5 May
6 Jun
7 Jul
8 Aug
9 Sep
10 Oct
11 Nov
12 Dec
Testing Month(int) constructor
1 Jan
Remainder of test run omitted
*/

2. Redefinition of class Month
Same as #1, except state is now the 3 char variables containing the first 3 letters of month name.
Variant: Use C-string to hold month.
Variant 2: Use vector of char to hold month. This has more promise.

3. “Little Red Grocery Store Counter”
A good place to start is with the solution to #2 from Chapter 6.
The class counter should provide:
A default constructor. For example, Counter(9999); provides a counter that can count up
to 9999 and displays 0.
A member function, void reset() that returns count to 0
A set of functions that increment digits 1 through 4:
void incr1() //increments 1 cent digit
void incr10() //increments 10 cent digit
void incr100() //increments 100 cent ($1) digit
void incr1000() //increments 1000 cent ($10)digit
Account for carries as necessary.
A member function bool overflow(); detects overflow.
Use the class to simulate the little red grocery store money counter.
Display the 4 digits, the right most two are cents and tens of cents, the next to are dollars and
tens of dollars.
Provide keys for incrementing cents, dimes, dollars and tens of dollars.
Suggestion: asdfo: a for cents, followed by 1-9
s for dimes, followed by 1-9
d for dollars, followed by 1-9
f for tens of dollars, followed by 1-9
Followed by pressing the return key in each case.
Adding is automatic, and overflow is reported after each operation. Overflow can be requested
with the O key.
Here is a tested implementation of this simulation.
You will probably need to adjust the PAUSE_CONSTANT for your machine, otherwise the
pause can be so short as to be useless, or irritatingly long.
//Ch7prg3.cpp
//
//Simulate a counter with a button for each digit.
//Keys a for units
// s for tens, follow with digit 1-9
// d for hundreds, follow with digit 1-9
// f for thousands, follow with digit 1-9
// o for overflow report.
//
//Test thoroughly
//
//class Counter
//
// default constructor that initializes the counter to 0
// and overflowFlag to 0
// member functions:
// reset() sets count to 0 and overflowFlag to false

// 4 mutators each of which increment one of the 4 digits.
// (carry is accounted for)
// bool overflow() returns true if last operation resulted in
// overflow.
// 4 accessors to display each digit
// a display function to display all 4 digits
//
//
// The class keeps a non-negative integer value.
// It has an accessor that returns the count value,
// and a display member that write the current count value
// to the screen.
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
const int PAUSE_CONSTANT = 100000000; // 1e8
void pause(); // you may need to adjust PAUSE_CONSTANT
class Counter
{
public:
Counter();
//mutators
void reset();
void incr1();
void incr10();
void incr100();
void incr1000();
//accessors
void displayUnits();
void displayTens();
void displayHundreds();
void displayThousands();
int currentCount();
void display();
bool overflow();
private:
int units;
int tens;
int hundreds;
int thousands;
bool overflowFlag;
};
int main()
{
int i;
int j; // digit to follow "asdf"
char ch;
Counter c;
int k = 100;

while(k-- > 0)
{
system("cls");
//system("clear");
if(c.overflow())
cout << "ALERT: OVERFLOW HAS OCCURRED. RESULTS "
<< "ARE NOT RELIABLE. Press Q to quit.n";
cout << endl;
c.displayThousands(); c.displayHundreds();
cout << ".";
c.displayTens(); c.displayUnits();
cout << endl;
cout << "Enter a character followed by a digit 1-9:n"
<< "Enter a for unitsn"
<< " s for tensn"
<< " d for hundredsn"
<< " f for thousandsn"
<< " o to inquire about overflown"
<< "Q or q at any time to quit.n";
cin >> ch;
//vet value of ch, other housekeeping
if(ch != 'a' && ch != 's' && ch != 'd' && ch != 'f')
{
if(ch == 'Q' || ch == 'q')
{
cout << ch << " pressed. Quittingn";
return 0;
}
if(ch == 'o')
{ cout << "Overflow test requestedn";
if(c.overflow())
{
cout << "OVERFLOW HAS OCCURRED. RESULTS "
<< "ARE NOT RELIABLE. Press Q to quit.n";
}
pause();
continue; //restart loop
}
cout << "Character entered not one of a, s, d, f, or o.n";
pause();
continue; //restart loop.
}
cin >> j;
// vet value of j
if( !(0 < j && j <= 9))
{
cout << "Digit must be between 1 and 9n";
continue;
}
switch(ch)
{

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Nature could have an Exact Figure, (but, mistake me not; for I do
not mean the Figure of Matter, but a composed Figure of Parts)
because Nature was composed of Infinite Variety of Figurative Parts:
But considering, that those Infinite Varieties of Infinite Figurative
Parts, were united into one Body; I did conclude, That she must
needs have an Exact Figure, though she be Infinite: As for example,
This World is composed of numerous and several Figurative parts,
and yet the World hath an exact Form and Frame, the same which it
would have if it were Infinite. But, as for Self-knowledg, and Power,
certainly God hath given them to Nature, though her Power be
limited: for, she cannot move beyond her Nature; nor hath she
power to make her self any otherwise than what she is, since she
cannot create, or annihilate any part, or particle: nor can she make
any of her Parts, Immaterial; or any Immaterial, Corporeal: Nor can
she give to one part, the Nature (viz. the Knowledg, Life, Motion, or
Perception) of another part; which is the reason one Creature cannot
have the properties, or faculties of another; they may have the like,
but not the same.
CHAP. XIII. Nature cannot judg her self.
Although Nature knows her self, and hath a free power of her self; (I
mean, a natural Knowledg and Power) yet, Nature cannot be an
upright, and just Judg of her self, and so not of any of her Parts;
because every particular part is a part of her self. Besides, as she is
Self-moving, she is Self-changeing, and so she is alterable:
Wherefore, nothing can be a perfect, and a just Judg, but something
that is Individable, and Unalterable, which is the Infinite GOD, who
is Unmoving, Immutable, and so Unalterable; who is the Judg of the
Infinite Corporeal Actions of his Servant Nature. And this is the
reason that all Nature's Parts appeal to God, as being the only Judg.

CHAP. XIV. Nature Poyses, or Balances her Actions.
Although Nature be Infinite, yet all her Actions seem to be poysed,
or balanced, by Opposition; as for example, As Nature hath dividing,
so composing actions: Also, as Nature hath regular, so irregular
actions; as Nature hath dilating, so contracting actions: In short, we
may perceive amongst the Creatures, or Parts of this World, slow,
swift, thick, thin, heavy, leight, rare, dense, little, big, low, high,
broad, narrow, light, dark, hot, cold, productions, dissolutions,
peace, warr, mirth, sadness, and that we name Life, and Death; and
infinite the like; as also, infinite varieties in every several kind and
sort of actions: but, the infinite varieties are made by the Self-
moving parts of Nature, which are the Corporeal Figurative Motions
of Nature.
CHAP. XV. Whether there be Degrees of Corporeal Strength.
As I have declared, there are (in my Opinion) Two sorts of Self-
moving Parts; the one Sensitive, the other Rational. The Rational
parts of my Mind, moving in the manner of Conception, or
Inspection, did occasion some Disputes, or Arguments, amongst
those parts of my Mind. The Arguments were these: Whether there
were degrees of Strength, as there was of Purity, between their own
sort, as, the Rational and the Sensitive? The Major part of the
Argument was, That Self-motion could be but Self-motion: for, not
any part of Nature could move beyond its power of Self-motion. But
the Minor part argued, That the Self-motion of the Rational, might
be stronger than the Self-motion of the Sensitive. But the Major part
was of the opinion, That there could be no degrees of the Power of
Nature, or the Nature of Nature: for Matter, which was Nature, could
be but Self-moving, or not Self-moving; or partly Self-moving, or not
Self-moving. But the Minor argued, That it was not against the
nature of Matter to have degrees of Corporeal Strength, as well as

degrees of Purity: for, though there could not be degrees of Purity
amongst the Parts of the same sort, as amongst the Parts of the
Rational, or amongst the Parts of the Sensitive; yet, if there were
degrees of the Rational and Sensitive Parts, there might be degrees
of Strength. The Major part said, That if there were degrees of
Strength, it would make a Confusion, by reason there would be no
Agreement; for, the Strongest would be Tyrants to the Weakest, in
so much as they would never suffer those Parts to act methodically
or regularly. But the Minor part said, that they had observed, That
there was degrees of Strength amongst the Sensitive Parts. The
Major part argued, That they had not degrees of Strength by
Nature; but, that the greater Number of Parts were stronger than a
less Number of Parts. Also, there were some sorts of Actions, that
had advantage of other sorts. Also, some sorts of Compositions are
stronger than other; not through the degrees of innate Strength, nor
through the number of Parts; but, through the manner and form of
their Compositions, or Productions. Thus my Thoughts argued; but,
after many Debates and Disputes, at last my Rational Parts agreed,
That, If there were degrees of Strength, it could not be between the
Parts of the same degree, or sort; but, between the Rational and
Sensitive; and if so, the Sensitive was Stronger, being less pure; and
the Rational was more Agil, being more pure.
CHAP. XVI. Of Effects, and Cause.
To treat of Infinite Effects, produced from an an Infinite Cause, is an
endless Work, and impossible to be performed, or effected; only this
may be said, That the Effects, though Infinite, are so united to the
material Cause, as that not any single effect can be, nor no Effect
can be annihilated; by reason all Effects are in the power of the
Cause. But this is to be noted, That some Effects producing other
Effects, are, in some sort or manner, a Cause.

CHAP. XVII. Of INFLUENCE.
An Influence is this; When as the Corporeal Figurative Motions, in
different kinds, and sorts of Creatures, or in one and the same sorts,
or kinds, move sympathetically: And though there be antipathetical
Motions, as well as sympathetical; yet, all the Infinite parts of Matter,
are agreeable in their nature, as being all Material, and Self-moving;
and by reason there is no Vacuum, there must of necessity be an
Influence amongst all the Parts of Nature.
CHAP. XVIII. Of FORTUNE and CHANCE.
Fortune, is only various Corporeal Motions of several Creatures,
design'd to one Creature, or more Creatures; either to that Creature,
or those Creatures Advantage, or Disadvantage: If Advantage, Man
names it Good Fortune; if Disadvantage, Man names it Ill Fortune.
As for Chance, it is the visible Effects of some hidden Cause; and
Fortune, a sufficient Cause to produce such Effects: for, the
conjunction of sufficient Causes, doth produce such or such Effects;
which Effects could not be produced, if any of those Causes were
wanting: So that, Chances are but the Effects of Fortune.
CHAP. XIX. Of TIME and ETERNITY.
Time is not a Thing by it self; nor is Time Immaterial: for, Time is
only the variations of Corporeal Motions; but Eternity depends not
on Motion, but of a Being without Beginning, or Ending.

The Second Part.
CHAP. I. Of CREATURES.
All Creatures are Composed-Figures, by the consent of Associating
Parts; by which Association, they joyn into such, or such a figured
Creature: And though every Corporeal Motion, or Self-moving Part,
hath its own motion; yet, by their Association, they all agree in
proper actions, as actions proper to their Compositions: and, if every
particular Part, hath not a perception of all the Parts of their
Association; yet, every Part knows its own Work.
CHAP. II. Of Knowledg and Perception of different kinds and
sorts of Creatures.
There is not any Creature in Nature, that is not composed of Self-
moving Parts, (viz. both of Rational and Sensitive) as also of the
Inanimate Parts, which are Self-knowing: so that all Creatures, being
composed of these sorts of Parts, must have a Sensitive, and
Rational Knowledg and Perception, as Animals, Vegetables, Minerals,
Elements, or what else there is in Nature: But several kinds, and
several sorts in these kinds of Creatures, being composed after
different manners, and ways, must needs have different Lives,
Knowledges, and Perceptions: and not only every several kind, and
sort, have such differences; but, every particular Creature, through
the variations of their Self-moving Parts, have varieties of Lives,
Knowledges, Perceptions, Conceptions, and the like; and not only so,
but every particular part of one and the same Creature, have
varieties of Knowledges, and Perceptions, because they have
varieties of Actions. But, (as I have declared) there is not any

different kind of Creature, that can have the like Life, Knowledg, and
Perception; not only because they have different Productions, and
different Forms; but, different Natures, as being of different kinds.
CHAP. III. Of Perception of Parts, and United Perception.
All the Self-moving Parts are perceptive; and, all Perception is in
Parts, and is dividable, and compoundable, as being Material; also,
Alterable, as being Self-moving: Wherefore, no Creature that is
composed, or consists of many several sorts of Corporeal Figurative
Motions, but must have many sorts of Perception; which is the
reason that one Creature, as Man, cannot perceive another Man any
otherwise but in Parts: for, the Rational, and Sensitive; nay, all the
Parts of one and the same Creature, perceive their Adjoining Parts,
as they perceive Foreign Parts; only, by their close conjunction and
near relation, they unite in one and the same actions. I do not say,
they always agree: for, when they move irregularly, they disagree:
And some of those United Parts, will move after one manner, and
some after another; but, when they move regularly, then they move
to one and the same Design, or one and the same United Action. So,
although a Creature is composed of several sorts of Corporeal
Motions; yet, these several sorts, being properly united in one
Creature, move all agreeably to the Property and Nature of the
whole Creature; that is, the particular Parts move according to the
property of the whole Creature; because the particular Parts, by
conjunction, make the Whole: So that, the several Parts make one
Whole; by which, a Whole Creature hath both a general Knowledg,
and a Knowledg of Parts; whereas, the Perceptions of Foreign
Objects, are but in the Parts: and this is the reason why one
Creature perceives not the Whole of another Creature, but only
some Parts. Yet this is to be noted, That not any Part hath another
Part's Nature, or Motion, nor therefore, their Knowledg, or

Perception; but, by agreement, and unity of Parts, there is
composed Perceptions.
CHAP. IV. Whether the Rational and Sensitive Parts have a
Perception of each other.
Some may ask the Question, Whether the Rational and Sensitive,
have Perception of each other? I answer: In my Opinion, they have.
For, though the Rational and Sensitive Parts, be of two sorts; yet,
both sorts have Self-motion; so that they are but as one, as, that
they are both Corporeal Motions; and, had not the Sensitive Parts
incumbrances, they would be, in a degree, as agil, and as free as the
Rational. But, though each sort hath perception of each other, and
some may have the like; yet they have not the same: for, not any
Part can have another's Perception, or Knowledg; but, by reason the
Rational and Sensitive, are both Corporeal Motions, there is a strong
sympathy between those sorts, in one Conjunction, or Creature.
Indeed, the Rational Parts are the Designing Parts; and the
Sensitive, the Labouring Parts; and the Inanimate are as the Material
Parts: not but all the three sorts are Material Parts; but the
Inanimate, being not Self-moving, are the Burdensome Parts.
CHAP. V. Of Thoughts, and the whole Mind of a Creature.
AS for Thoughts, though they are several Corporeal Motions, or Self-
moving Parts; yet, being united, by Conjunction in one Creature, into
one whole Mind, cannot be perceived by some Parts of another
Creature, nor by the same sort of Creature, as by another Man. But
some may ask, Whether the whole Mind of one Creature, as the
whole Mind of one Man, may not perceive the whole Mind of another

Man? I answer, That if the Mind was not joyn'd and mix'd with the
Sensitive and Inanimate Parts, and had not interior, as well as
exterior Parts, the whole Mind of one Man, might perceive the whole
Mind of another Man; but, that being not possible, one whole Mind
cannot perceive another whole Mind: By which Observation we may
perceive, there are no Platonick Lovers in Nature. But some may ask,
Whether the Sensitive Parts can perceive the Rational, in one and
the same Creature? I answer, They do; for if they did not, it were
impossible for the Sensitive Parts to execute the Rational Designs; so
that, what the Mind designs, the Sensitive Body doth put in
execution, as far as they have Power: But if, through Irregularities,
the Body be sick, and weak, or hath some Infirmities, they cannot
execute the Designs of the Mind.
CHAP. VI. Whether the Mind of one Creature, can perceive
the Mind of another Creature.
Some may ask the reason, Why one Creature, as Man, cannot
perceive the Thoughts of another Man, as well as he perceives his
exterior Sensitive Parts? I answer, That the Rational Parts of one
Man, perceive as much of the Rational Parts of another Man, as the
Sensitive Parts of that Man doth of the Sensitive Parts of the other
Man; that is, as much as is presented to his Perception: for, all
Creatures, and every part and particle, have those three sorts of
Matter; and therefore, every part of a Creature is perceiving, and
perceived. But, by reason all Creatures are composed of Parts, (viz.
both of the Rational and Sensitive) all Perceptions are in parts, as
well the Rational, as the Sensitive Perception: yet, neither the
Rational, nor the Sensitive, can perceive all the Interior Parts or
Corporeal Motions, unless they were presented to their perception:
Neither can one Part know the Knowledg and Perception of another
Part: but, what Parts of one Creature are subject to the perception
of another Creature, those are perceived.

CHAP. VII. Of Perception, and Conception.
Although the Exterior Parts of one Creature, can but perceive the
Exterior Parts of another Creature; yet, the Rational can make
Conceptions of the Interior Parts, but not Perception: for, neither the
Sense, nor Reason, can perceive what is not present, but by rote, as
after the manner of Conceptions, or Remembrances, as I shall in my
following Chapters declare: So that, the Exterior Rational Parts, that
are with the Exterior Sensitive Parts of an Object, are as much
perceived, the one, as the other: but, those Exterior Parts of an
Object, not moving in particular Parties, as in the whole Creature, is
the cause that some Parts of one Creature, cannot perceive the
whole Composition or Frame of another Creature: that is, some of
the Rational Parts of one Creature, cannot perceive the whole Mind
of another Creature. The like of the Sensitive Parts.
CHAP. VIII. Of Human Suppositions.
Although Nature hath an Infinite Knowledg and Perception; yet,
being a Body, and therefore divisible and compoundable; and
having, also, Self-motion, to divide and compound her Infinite Parts,
after infinite several manners; is the reason that her finite Parts, or
particular Creatures, cannot have a general or infinite Knowledg,
being limited, by being finite, to finite Perceptions, or perceptive
Knowledg; which is the cause of Suppositions, or Imaginations,
concerning Forrein Objects: As for example, A Man can but perceive
the Exterior Parts of another Man, or any other Creature, that is
subject to Human Perception; yet, his Rational Parts may suppose,
or presuppose, what another Man thinks, or what he will act: and for
other Creatures, a Man may suppose or imagine what the innate
nature of such a Vegetable, or Mineral, or Element is; and may

imagine or suppose the Moon to be another World, and that all the
fixed Starrs are Sunns; which Suppositions, Man names Conjectures.
CHAP. IX. Of Information between several Creatures.
No question but there is Information between all Creatures: but,
several sorts of Creatures, having several sorts of Informations, it is
impossible for any particular sort to know, or have perceptions of the
Infinite, or Numberless Informations, between the Infinite and
Numberless Parts, or Creatures of Nature: Nay, there are so many
several Informations amongst one sort (as of Mankind) that it is
impossible for one Man to perceive them all; no, nor can one Man
generally perceive the particular Informations that are between the
particular Parts of his Sensitive Body; or between the particular
Informations of his Rational Body; or between the particular Rational
and Sensitive Parts: much less can Man perceive, or know the
several Informations of other Creatures.
CHAP. X. The Reason of several kinds and sorts of Creatures.
Some may ask, Why there are such sorts of Creatures, as we
perceive there are, and not other sorts? I answer, That, 'tis probable,
we do not perceive all the several kinds and sorts of Creatures in
Nature: In truth, it is impossible (if Nature be Infinite) for a Finite to
perceive the Infinite varieties of Nature. Also they may ask, Why the
Planets are of a Spherical Shape, and Human Creatures are of an
Upright shape, and Beasts of a Bending and stooping shape? Also,
Why Birds are made to flye, and not Beasts? And for what Cause, or
Design, have Animals such and such sorts of shapes and properties?
And Vegetables such and such sorts of shapes and properties? And

so of Minerals and Elements? I answer; That several sorts, kinds,
and differences of Particulars, causes Order, by reason it causes
Distinctions: for, if all Creatures were alike, it would cause a
Confusion.
CHAP. XI. Of the several Properties of several Kinds and
sorts of Creatures.
As I have said, There are several kinds, and several sorts, and
several particular Creatures of several kinds and sorts; whereof there
are some Creatures of a mixt kind, and some of a mixt sort, and
some of a mixture of some particulars. Also, there are some kind of
Creatures, and sorts of Creatures; as also Particulars of a Dense
Nature, others of a Rate Nature; some of a Leight Nature, some of a
Heavy Nature; some of a Bright Nature, some of a Dark Nature;
some of an Ascending Nature, some of a Descending Nature; some
of a Hard Nature, some of a Soft Nature; some of a Loose Nature,
and some of a Fixt Nature; some of an Agil Nature, and some of a
Slow Nature; some of a Consistent Nature, and some of a Dissolving
Nature: All which is according to the Frame and Form of their
Society, or Composition.

The Third Part.
CHAP. I. Of Productions in general.
The Self-moving Parts, or Corporeal Motions, are the Producers of all
Composed Figures, such as we name Creatures: for, though all
Matter hath Figure, by being Matter; for it were non-sense to say,
Figureless Matter; since the most pure Parts of Matter, have Figure,
as well as the grossest; the rarest, as well as the densed: But, such
Composed Figures which we name Creatures, are produced by
particular Associations of Self-moving Parts, into particular kinds,
and sorts; and particular Creatures in every kind, or sort. The
particular kinds, that are subject to Human Perceptions, are those
we name Animals, Vegetables, Minerals, and Elements; of which
kinds, there are numerous sorts; and of every sort, infinite
particulars: And though there be Infinite Varieties in Nature, made
by the Corporeal Motions, or Self-moving Parts, which might cause a
Confusion: Yet, considering Nature is intire in her self, as being only
Material, and as being but one United Body; also, poysing all her
Actions by Opposites; 'tis impossible to be any ways in Extreams, or
to have a Confusion.
CHAP. II. Of Productions in general.
The Sensitive Self-moving Parts, or Corporeal Motions, are the
Labouring Parts of all Productions, or Fabricks of all Creatures; but
yet, those Corporeal Motions, are parts of the Creature they

produce: for, Production is only a Society of particular Parts, that
joyn into particular Figures, or Creatures: but, as Parts produce
Figures, by Association; so they dissolve those Figures by Division:
for, Matter is a perpetual Motion, that is always dividing and
composing; so that not any Creature can be eternally one and the
same: for, if there were no Dissolvings, and Alterings, there would
be no varieties of Particulars; for, though the kinds and sorts may
last, yet not the Particulars. But, mistake me not, I do not say those
Figures are lost,
or annihilated in Nature; but only, their Society is dissolved, or
divided in Nature. But this is to be noted, That some Creatures are
sooner produced and perfected, than others; and again, some
Creatures are sooner decayed, or dissolved.
CHAP. III. Of Productions in general.
There are so many different composed Parts, and so much of variety
of Action in every several Part of one Creature, as 'tis impossible for
Human Perception to perceive them; nay, not every Corporeal
Motion of one Creature, doth perceive all the varieties of the same
Society; and, by the several actions, not only of several Parts, but of
one and the same Parts, cause such obscurity, as not any Creature
can tell, not only how they were produced, but, not how they
consist: But, by reason every Part knows his own Work, there is
Order and Method: For example, In a Human Creature, those Parts
that produce, or nourish the Bones, those of the Sinews, those of
the Veins, those of the Flesh, those of the Brains, and the like, know
all their several Works, and consider not each several composed
Part, but what belongs to themselves; the like, I believe, in
Vegetables, Minerals, or Elements. But mistake me not; for, I do not
say, those Corporeal Motions in those particulars, are bound to those
particular Works, as, that they cannot change, or alter their actions if

they will, and many times do: as some Creatures dissolve before
they are perfect, or quite finished; and some as soon as finished;
and some after some short time after they are finished; and some
continue long, as we may perceive by many Creatures that dye,
which I name Dissolving in several Ages; but, untimely Dissolutions,
proceed rather from some particular Irregularities of some particular
Parts, than by a general Agreement.
CHAP. IV. Of Productions in general.
The Reason that all Creatures are produced by the ways of
Production, as one Creature to be composed out of other Creatures,
is, That Nature is but one Matter, and that all her Parts are united as
one Material Body, having no Additions, or Diminutions; no new
Creations, or Annihilations: But, were not Nature one and the same,
but that her Parts were of different natures; yet, Creatures must be
produced by Creatures, that is, Composed Figures, as a Beast, a
Tree, a Stone, Water, &c. must be composed of Parts, not a single
Part: for, a single Part cannot produce composed Figures; nor can a
single Part produce another single Part; for, Matter cannot create
Matter; nor can one Part produce another Part out of it self:
Wherefore, all Natural Creatures are produced by the consent and
agreement of many Self-moving Parts, or Corporeal Motions, which
work to a particular Design, as to associate into particular kinds and
sorts of Creatures.
CHAP. V. Of Productions in general.
As I said in my former Chapter, That all Creatures are produced, or
composed by the agreement and consent of particular Parts; yet

some Creatures are composed of more, and some of fewer Parts:
neither are all Creatures produced, or composed after one and the
same manner; but some after one manner, and some after another
manner: Indeed, there are divers manners of Productions, both of
those we name Natural, and those we name Artificial; but I only
treat of Natural Productions, which are so various, that it is a wonder
if any two Creatures are just alike; by which we may perceive, that
not only in several kinds and sorts, but in Particulars of every kind,
or sort, there is some difference, so as to be distinguished from each
other, and yet the species of some Creatures are like to their kind,
and sort, but not all; and the reason that most Creatures are in
Species, according to their sort, and kind, is not only, that Nature's
Wisdom orders and regulates her Corporeal Figurative Motions, into
kinds and sorts of Societies and Conjunctions; but, those Societies
cause a perceptive Acquaintance, and an united Love, and good
liking of the Compositions, or Productions: and not only a love to
their Figurative Compositions, but to all that are of the same sort, or
kind; and especially, their being accustom'd to actions proper to their
Figurative Compositions, is the cause that those Parts, that divide
from the Producers, begin a new Society, and, by degrees, produce
the like Creature; which is the cause that Animals and Vegetables
produce according to their likeness. The same may be amongst
Minerals and Elements, for all we can know. But yet, some Creatures
of one and the same sort, are not produced after one and the same
manner: As for example, One and the same sort of Vegetables, may
be produced after several manners, and yet, in the effect, be the
same, as when Vegetables are sowed, planted, engrafted; as also,
Seeds, Roots, and the like, they are several manners, or ways of
Productions, and yet will produce the same sort of Vegetable: but,
there will be much alterations in replanting, which is occasioned by
the change of associating Parts, and Parties; but as for the several
Productions
of several kinds and sorts, they are very different; as for example,
Animals are not produced as Vegetables, or Vegetables as Minerals,
nor Minerals as any of the rest: Nor are all Animals produced alike,

nor Minerals, or Vegetables; but after many different manners, or
ways. Neither are all Productions like their Producers; for, some are
so far from resembling their Figurative Society, that they produce
another kind, or sort of Composed Figures; as for example, Maggots
out of Cheese, other Worms out of Roots, Fruits, and the like: but
these sorts of Creatures, Man names Insects; but yet they are
Animal Creatures, as well as others.
CHAP. VI. Of Productions in general.
All Creatures are Produced, and Producers; and all these Productions
partake more or less of the Producers; and are necessitated so to
do, because there cannot be any thing New in Nature: for,
whatsoever is produced, is of the same Matter; nay, every particular
Creature hath its particular Parts: for, not any one Creature can be
produced of any other Parts than what produced it; neither can the
same Producer produce one and the same double, (as I may say to
express my self:) for, though the same Producers may produce the
like, yet not the same:
for, every thing produced, hath its own Corporeal Figurative Motions;
but this might be, if Nature was not so full of variety: for, if all those
Corporeal Motions, or Self-moving Parts, did associate in the like
manner, and were the very same Parts, and move in the very same
manner; the same Production, or Creature, might be produced after
it was dissolved; but, by reason the Self-moving Parts of Nature are
always dividing and composing from, and to Parts, it would be very
difficult, if not impossible.
CHAP. VII. Of Productions in general.

As there are Productions, or Compositions, made by the Sensitive
Corporeal Motions, so there are of the Rational Corporeal Motions,
which are Composed Figures of the Mind: And the reason the
Rational Productions are more various, as also more numerous, is,
That the Rational is more loose, free, and so more agil than the
Sensitive; which is also the reason that the Rational Productions
require not such degrees of Time, as the Sensitive. But I shall treat
more upon this Subject, when I treat of that Animal we name MAN.
CHAP. VII. Lastly, Of Productions in general.
Though all Creatures are made by the several Associations of Self-
moving Parts, or (as the Learned name them) Corporeal Motions;
yet, there are infinite varieties of Corporeal Figurative Motions, and
so infinite several manners and ways of Productions; as also, infinite
varieties of Figurative Motions in every produced Creature: Also,
there is variety in the difference of Time, of several Productions, and
of their Consistency and Dissolution: for, some Creatures are
produced in few Hours, others not in many Years. Again, some
continue not a Day; others, numbers of Years. But this is to be
noted, That according to the Regularity, or Irregularity of the
Associating Motions, their Productions are more or less perfect. Also,
this is to be noted, That there are Rational Productions, as well as
Sensitive: for, though all Creatures are composed both of Sensitive
and Rational Parts, yet the Rational Parts move after another
manner.
CHAP. VIII. Productions must partake of some Parts of their
Producers.

No Animal, or Vegetable, could be produced, but by such, or such
particular Producers; neither could an Animal, or Vegetable, be
produced without some Corporeal Motions of their Producers; that is,
some of the Producers Self-moving Parts; otherwise the like Actions
might produce, not only the like Creatures, but the same Creatures,
which is impossible: Wherefore, the things produced, are part of the
Producers; for, no particular Creature could be produced, but by
such particular Producers. But this is to be noted, That all sorts of
Creatures are produced by more, or fewer, Producers. Also, the first
Producers are but the first Founders of the things produced, but not
the only Builders: for, there are many several sorts of Corporeal
Motions, that are the Builders; for, no Creature can subsist, or
consist, by it self, but must assist, and be assisted: Yet, there are
some differences in all Productions, although of the same Producers;
otherwise all the Off-springs of one and the same Producer, would
be alike: And though, sometimes, their several Off-springs may be so
alike, as hardly to be distinguished; yet, that is so seldom, as it
appears as a wonder; but there is a property in all Productions, as,
for the Produced to belong as a Right and Property to the Producer.
CHAP. IX. Of Resemblances of several Off-springs, or
Producers.
There are numerous kinds and sorts of Productions, and infinite
manners and ways, in the actions of Productions; which is the cause
that the Off-springs of the same Producers, are not so just alike, but
that they are distinguishable; but yet there may not only be
resemblances between particular Off-springs of the same Producers,
as also of the same sort; but, of different sorts of Creatures: but the
Actions of all Productions that are according to their own Species,
are Imitating Actions, but not Bare Imitations, as by an Incorporeal
Motion; for if so, then a covetous Woman, that loves Gold, might

produce a Wedg of Gold instead of a Child; also, Virgins might be as
Fruitful as Married Wives.
CHAP. X. Of the Several Appearances of the Exterior Parts of
One Creature.
Every altered Action of the Exterior Parts, causes an altered
Appearance: As for example, A Man, or the like Creature, doth not
appear when he is old, as when he was young; nor when he is sick,
as when he is well in health; no, nor when he is cold, as when he is
hot. Nor do they appear in several Passions alike: for, though Man
can best perceive the Alteration of his own Kind, or Sort; yet, other
Creatures have several Appearances, as well as Man; some of which,
Man may perceive, though not all, being of a different sort. And not
only Animals, but Vegetables, and Elements, have altered
Appearances, and many that are subject to Man's perception.

The Fourth Part.
CHAP. I. Of Animal Productions; and of the Differences
between Productions, and Transformations.
I understand Productions to be between Particulars; as, some
particular Creatures to produce other particular Creatures; but not to
transform from one sort of Creature, into another sort of Creature,
as Cheese into Maggots, and Fruit into Worms, &c. which, in some
manner, is like Metamorphosing. So by Transformation, the
Intellectual Nature, as well as the Exterior Form, is transform'd:
Whereas Production transforms only the Exterior Form, but not the
Intellectual Nature; which is the cause that such Transformations
cannot return into their former state; as a Worm to be a Fruit, or a
Maggot a Cheese again, as formerly. Hence I perceive, that all sorts
of Fowls are partly Produced, and partly Transformed: for, though an
Egg be produced, yet a Chicken is but a Transformed Egg.
CHAP. II. Of different Figurative Motions in MAN's
Production.
All Creatures are produced by Degrees; which proves, That not any
Creature is produced, in perfection, by one Act, or Figurative Motion:
for, though the Producers are the first Founders, yet not the
Builders. But, as for Animal Creatures, there be some sorts that are
composed of many different Figurative Motions; amongst which
sorts, is Mankind, who has very different Figurative Parts, as Bones,

Sinews, Nerves, Muscles, Veins, Flesh, Skin, and Marrow, Blood,
Choler, Flegm, Melancholy, and the like; also, Head, Breast, Neck,
Arms, Hands, Body, Belly, Thighs, Leggs, Feet, &c. also, Brains,
Lungs, Stomack, Heart, Liver, Midriff, Kidnies, Bladder, Guts, and the
like; and all these have several actions, yet all agree as one,
according to the property of that sort of Creature named MAN.
CHAP. III. Of the Quickning of a Child, or any other sort of Animal
Creatures.
The Reason that a Woman, or such like Animal, doth not feel her
Child so soon as it is produced, is, That the Child cannot have an
Animal Motion, until it hath an Animal Nature, that is, until it be
perfectly an Animal Creature; and as soon as it is a perfect Child,
she feels it to move, according to its nature: but it is only the
Sensitive Parts of the Child that are felt by the Mother, not the
Rational; because those Parts are as the Designers, not the Builders;
and therefore, being not the Labouring Parts, are not the Sensible
Parts. But it is to be noted, That, according to the Regularity, or
Irregularity of the Figurative Motions, the Child is well shaped, or
mishaped.
CHAP. IV. Of the Birth of a Child.
The reason why a Child, or such like Animal Creature, stays no
longer in the Mother's Body, than to such a certain Time, is, That a
Child is not Perfect before that time, and would be too big after that
time; and so big, that it would not have room enough; and therefore
it strives and labours for liberty.
CHAP. V. Of Mischances, or Miscarriages of Breeding
Creatures.

When a Mare, Doe, Hind, or the like Animal, cast their Young, or a
Woman miscarries of her Child, the Mischance proceeds either
through the Irregularities of the Corporeal Motions, or Parts of the
Child; or through some Irregularity of the Parts of the Mother; or
else of both Mother and Child. If the Irregularities be of the Parts of
the Child, those Parts divide from the Mother, through their
Irregularity: but, if the Irregularity be in the Parts of the Mother,
then the Mother divides in some manner from the Child; and if there
be a distemper in both of them, the Child and Mother divide from
each other: but, such Mischances are at different times, some
sooner, and some later. As for false Conceptions, they are occasioned
through the Irregularities of Conception.
CHAP. VI. Of the Encrease of Growth, and Strength of
Mankind, or such like Creatures.
The reason most Animals, especially Human Creatures, are weak
whilst they are Infants, and that their Strength and Growth
encreases by degrees, is, That a Child hath not so many Parts, as
when he is a Youth; nor so many Parts when he is a Youth, as when
he is a Man: for, after the Child is parted from the Mother, it is
nourished by other Creatures, as the Mother was, and the Child by
the Mother; and according as the nourishing Parts be Regular, or
Irregular, so is the Child, Youth, or Man, weaker, or stronger;
healthful, or diseased; and when the Figurative Motions move (as I
may say for expression sake) curiously, the Body is neatly shaped,
and is, as we say, beautiful. But this is to be noted, That 'tis not
Greatness, or Bulk of Body, makes a Body perfect; for, there are
several sizes of every sort, or kind of Creatures; as also, in every
particular kind, or sort; and every several size may be as perfect,
one, as the other: But, I mean the Number of Parts, according to the
proper size.

CHAP. VII. Of the several Properties of the several Exterior
Shapes of several sorts of Animals.
The several Exterior Shapes of Creatures, cause several Properties,
as Running, Jumping, Hopping, Leaping, Climbing, Galloping,
Trotting, Ambling, Turning, Winding, and Rowling; also Creeping,
Crawling, Flying, Soaring or Towring; Swimming, Diving, Digging,
Stinging or Piercing; Pressing, Spinning, Weaving, Twisting, Printing,
Carving, Breaking, Drawing, Driving, Bearing, Carrying, Holding,
Griping or Grasping, Infolding, and Millions of the like. Also, the
Exterior Shapes cause Defences, as Horns, Claws, Teeth, Bills,
Talons, Finns, &c. Likewise, the Exterior Shapes cause Offences, and
give Offences: As also, the different sorts of Exterior Shapes, cause
different Exterior Perceptions.
CHAP. VIII. Of the Dividing and Uniting Parts of a particular
Creature.
Those Parts (as I have said) that were the First Founders of an
Animal, or other sort of Creature, may not be constant Inhabitants:
for, though
the Society may remain, the particular Parts may remove: Also, all
particular Societies of one kind, or sort, may not continue the like
time; but some may dissolve sooner than others. Also, some alter by
degrees, others of a sudden; but, of those Societies that continue,
the particular Parts remove, and other particular Parts unite; so, as
some Parts were of the Society, so some other Parts are of the
Society, and will be of the Society: But, when the Form, Frame, and
Order of the Society begins to alter, then that particular Creature
begins to decay. But this is to be noted, That those particular
Creatures that dye in their Childhood, or Youth, were never a full

and regular Society; and the dissolving of a Society, whether it be a
Full, or but a Forming Society, Man names DEATH. Also, this is to be
noted, That the Nourishing Motion of Food, is the Uniting Motion;
and the Cleansing, or Evacuating Motions, are the Dividing Corporeal
Motions. Likewise it is to be noted, That a Society requires a longer
time of uniting than of dividing; by reason uniting requires
assistance of Foreign Parts, whereas dividings are only a dividing of
home-Parts. Also, a particular Creature, or Society, is longer in
dividing its Parts, than in altering its Actions; because a Dispersing
Action is required in Division, but not in Alteration of Actions.

The Fifth Part.
CHAP. I. Of MAN.
Now I have discoursed, in the former Parts, after a general manner,
of Animals: I will, in the following Chapters, speak more particularly
of that sort we name Mankind; who believe (being ignorant of the
Nature of other Creatures) that they are the most knowing of all
Creatures; and yet a whole Man (as I may say for expression-sake)
doth not know all the Figurative Motions belonging either to his
Mind, or Body: for, he doth not generally know every particular
Action of his Corporeal Motions, as, How he was framed, or formed,
or perfected. Nor doth he know every particular Motion that
occasions his present Consistence,
or Being: Nor every particular Digestive, or Nourishing Motion: Nor,
when he is sick, the particular Irregular Motion that causes his
Sickness. Nor do the Rational Motions in the Head, know always the
Figurative Actions of those of the Heel. In short, (as I said) Man doth
not generally know every particular Part, or Corporeal Motion, either
of Mind, or Body: Which proves, Man's Natural Soul is not
inalterable, or individable, and uncompoundable.
CHAP. II. Of the variety of Man's Natural Motions.
There is abundance of varieties of Figurative Motions in Man: As,
first, There are several Figurative Motions of the Form and Frame of
Man, as of his Innate, Interior, and Exterior Figurative Parts. Also,

there are several Figures of his several Perceptions, Conceptions,
Appetite, Digestions, Reparations, and the like. There are also
several Figures of several Postures of his several Parts; and a
difference of his Figurative Motions, or Parts, from other Creatures;
all which are Numberless: And yet all these different Actions are
proper to the Nature of MAN.
CHAP. III. Of Man's Shape and Speech.
The Shape of Man's Sensitive Body, is, in some manner, of a mixt
Form: but, he is singular in this, That he is of an upright and straight
Shape; of which, no other Animal but Man is: which Shape makes
him not only fit, proper, easie and free, for all exterior actions; but
also for Speech: for being streight, as in a straight and direct Line
from the Head to the Feet, so as his Nose, Mouth, Throat, Neck,
Chest, Stomack, Belly, Thighs, and Leggs, are from a straight Line:
also, his Organ-Pipes, Nerves, Sinews, and Joynts, are in a straight
and equal posture to each other; which is the cause, Man's Tongue,
and Organs, are more apt for Speech than those of any other
Creature; which makes him more apt to imitate any other Creature's
Voyces, or Sounds: Whereas other Animal Creatures, by reason of
their bending Shapes, and crooked Organs, are not apt for Speech;
neither (in my Opinion) have other Animals so melodious a Sound,
or Voice, as Man: for, though some sorts of Birds Voices are sweet,
yet they are weak, and faint; and Beasts Voices are harsh, and rude:
but of all other Animals, besides Man, Birds are the most apt for
Speech; by reason they are more of an upright shape, than Beasts,
or any other sorts of Animal Creatures, as Fish, and the like; for,
Birds are of a straight and upright shape, as from their Breasts, to
their Heads; but, being not so straight as Man; causes Birds to speak
uneasily, and constrainedly: Man's shape is so ingeniously contrived,
that he is fit and proper for more several sorts of exterior actions,

than any other Animal Creature; which is the cause he seems as
Lord and Sovereign of other Animal Creatures.
CHAP. IV. Of the several Figurative Parts of Human
Creatures.
The manner of Man's Composition, or Form, is of different Figurative
Parts; whereof some of those Parts seem the Supreme, or (as I may
say) Fundamental Parts; as the Head, Chest, Lungs, Stomack, Heart,
Liver, Spleen, Bowels, Reins, Kidnies, Gaul, and many more: also,
those Parts have other Figurative Parts belonging or adjoining to
them, as the Head, Scull, Brains, Pia-mater, Dura-mater, Forehead,
Nose, Eyes, Cheeks, Ears, Mouth, Tongue, and several Figurative
Parts belonging to those; so of the rest of the Parts, as the Arms,
Hands, Fingers, Leggs, Feet, Toes, and the like: all which different
Parts, have different sorts of Perceptions; and yet (as I formerly
said) their Perceptions are united: for, though all the Parts of the
Human Body have different Perceptions; yet those different
perceptions unite in a general Perception, both for the Subsistence,
Consistence, and use of the Whole Man: but, concerning Particulars,
not only the several composed Figurative Parts, have several sorts of
Perceptions; but every Part hath variety of Perceptions, occasioned
by variety of Objects.
CHAP. V. Of the several Perceptions amongst the several
Parts of MAN.
There being infinite several Corporeal Figurative Motions, or Actions
of Nature, there must of necessity be infinite several Self-
knowledges and Perceptions: but I shall only, in this Part of my

Book, treat of the Perception proper to Mankind: And first, of the
several and different Perceptions, proper for the several and
different Parts: for, though every Part and Particle of a Man's Body, is
perceptive; yet, every particular Part of a Man, is not generally
perceived; for, the Interior Parts do not generally perceive the
Exterior; nor the Exterior, generally or perfectly, the Interior; and
yet, both Interior and Exterior Corporeal Motions, agree as one
Society; for, every Part, or Corporeal Motion, knows its own Office;
like as Officers in a Common-wealth, although they may not be
acquainted with each other, yet they know their Employments: So
every particular Man in a Common-wealth, knows his own
Employment, although he knows not every Man in the Common-
wealth. The same do the Parts of a Man's Body, and Mind. But, if
there be any Irregularity, or Disorder in a Common-wealth, every
Particular is disturbed, perceiving a Disorder in the Common-wealth.
The same amongst the Parts of a Man's Body; and yet many of
those Parts do not know the particular Cause of that general
Disturbance. As for the Disorders, they may proceed from some
Irregularities; but for Peace, there must be a general Agreement,
that is, every Part must be Regular.
CHAP. VI. Of Divided and Composed Perceptions.
As I have formerly said, There is in Nature both Divided and
Composed Perceptions; and for proof, I will mention Man's Exterior
Perceptions; As for example, Man hath a Composed Perception of
Seeing, Hearing, Smelling, Tasting, and Touching; whereof every
several sort is composed, though after different manners, or ways;
and yet are divided, being several sorts of Perceptions, and not all
one Perception. Yet again, they are all Composed, being united as
proper Perceptions of one Man; and not only so, but united to
perceive the different Parts of one Object: for, as Perceptions are
composed of Parts, so are Objects; and as there are different

Objects, so there are different Perceptions; but it is not possible for
a Man to know all the several sorts of Perceptions proper to every
Composed Part of his Body or Mind, much less of others.
CHAP. VII. Of the Ignorances of the several Perceptive
Organs.
As I said, That every several composed Perception, was united to
the proper use of their whole Society, as one Man; yet, every several
Perceptive Organ of Man is ignorant of each other; as the Perception
of Sight is ignorant of that of Hearing; the Perception of Hearing, is
ignorant of the Perception of Seeing; and the Perception of Smelling
is ignorant of the Perceptions of the other two, and those of Scent,
and the same of Tasting, and Touching: Also, every Perception of
every particular Organ, is different; but some sorts of Human
Perceptions require some distance between them and the Object: As
for example, The Perception of Sight requires certain Distances, as
also Magnitudes; whereas the Perception of Touch requires a
Joyning-Object, or Part. But this is to be noted, That although these
several Organs are not perfectly, or throughly acquainted; yet in the
Perception of the several parts of one Object, they do all agree to
make their several Perceptions, as it were by one Act, at one point of
time.
CHAP. VIII. Of the particular and general Perceptions of the
Exterior Parts of Human Creatures.
There is amongst the Exterior Perceptions of Human Creatures, both
particular sorts of Perceptions, and general Perceptions: For, though
none of the Exterior Parts, or Organs, have the sense of Seeing, but

the Eyes; of Hearing, but the Ears; of Smelling, but the Nose; of
Tasting, but the Mouth: yet all the Exterior Parts have the Perception
of Touching; and the reason is, That all the Exterior Parts are full of
pores, or at least, of such composed Parts, that are the sensible
Organs of Touching: yet, those several Parts have several Touches;
not only because they have several Parts, but because those Organs
of Touching, are differently composed. But this is to be noted, That
every several part hath perception of the other parts of their Society,
as they have of Foreign parts; and, as the Sensitive, so the Rational
parts have such particular and general perceptions. But it is to be
noted, That the Rational parts, are parts of the same Organs.
CHAP. IX. Of the Exterior Sensitive Organs of Human
Creatures.
As for the manner, or ways, of all the several sorts, and particular
perceptions, made by the different composed parts of Human
Creatures; it is impossible, for a Human Creature, to know any
otherwise, but in part: for, being composed of parts, into Parties, he
can have but a parted knowledg, and a parted perception of himself:
for, every different composed part of his Body, have different sorts of
Self-knowledg, as also, different sorts of Perceptions; but yet, the
manner and way of some Human Perceptions, may probably be
imagined, especially those of the exterior parts, Man names the
Sensitive Organs; which Parts (in my opinion) have their perceptive
actions, after the manner of patterning, or picturing the exterior
Form, or Frame, of Foreign Objects: As for example, The present
Object is a Candle; the Human Organ of Sight pictures the Flame,
Light, Week, or Snuff, the Tallow, the Colour, and the dimension of
the Candle; the Ear patterns out the sparkling noise; the Nose
patterns out the scent of the Candle; and the Tongue may pattern
out the tast of the Candle: but, so soon as the Object is removed,
the figure of the Candle is altered into the present Object, or as

much of one present Object, as is subject to Human Perception.
Thus the several parts or properties, may be patterned out by the
several Organs. Also, every altered action, of one and the same
Organ, are altered Perceptions; so as there may be numbers of
several pictures or Patterns made by the Sensitive Actions of one
Organ; I will not say, by one act; yet there may be much variety in
one action. But this is to be noted, That the Object is not the cause
of Perception, but is only the occasion: for, the Sensitive Organs can
make such like figurative actions, were there no Object present;
which proves, that the Object is not the Cause of the Perception.
Also, when as the Sensitive parts of the Sensitive Organs, are
Irregular, they will make false perceptions of present Objects;
wherefore the Object is not the Cause. But one thing I desire, not to
be mistaken in; for I do not say, that all the parts belonging to any
of the particular Organs, move only in one sort or kind of perception;
but I say, Some of the parts of the Organ, move to such, or such
perception: for, all the actions of the Ears, are not only hearing; and
all the actions of the Eye, seeing; and all the actions of the Nose,
smelling; and all the actions of the Mouth, tasting; but, they have
other sorts of actions: yet, all the sorts of every Organ, are
according to the property of their figurative Composition.
CHAP. X. Of the Rational Parts of the Human Organs.
As for the Rational parts of the Human Organs, they move according
to the Sensitive parts, which is, to move according to the Figures of
Foreign Objects; and their actions are (if Regular) at the same point
of time, with the Sensitive: but, though their Actions are alike, yet
there is a difference in their Degree; for, the figure of an Object in
the Mind, is far more pure than the figure in the Sense. But, to prove
that the Rational (if Regular) moves with the Sense, is, That all the
several Sensitive perceptions of the Sensitive Organs, (as all the

several Sights, Sounds, Scents, Tasts, and Touches) are thoughts of
the same.
CHAP. XI. Of the difference between the Human Conception,
and Perception.
There are some differences between Perception, and Conception:
for, Perception doth properly belong to present Objects; whereas
Conceptions have no such strict dependency: But, Conceptions are
not proper to the Sensitive Organs, or parts of a Human Creature;
wherefore, the Sensitive never move in the manner of Conception,
but after an irregular manner; as when a Human Creature is in some
violent Passion, Mad, Weak, or the like Distempers. But this is to be
noted, That all sorts of Fancies, Imaginations, &c. whether Sensitive,
or Rational, are after the manner of Conceptions, that is, do move
by Rote, and not by Example. Also, it is to be noted, That the
Rational parts can move in more various Figurative Actions than the
Sensitive; which is the cause that a Human Creature hath more
Conceptions than Perceptions; so that the Mind can please it self
with more variety of Thoughts than the Sensitive with variety of
Objects: for variety of Objects consists of Foreign Parts; whereas
variety of Conceptions consists only of their own Parts: Also, the
Sensitive Parts are sooner satisfied with the perception of particular
Objects, than the Mind with particular Remembrances.
CHAP. XII. Of the Several Varieties of Actions of Human
Creatures.
To speak of all the Several Actions of the Sensitive and Rational
parts of one Creature, is not possible, being numberless: but, some

of those that are most notable, I will mention, as, Respirations,
Digestions, Nourishments, Appetites, Satiety, Aversions, Conceptions,
Opinions, Fancies, Passions, Memory, Remembrance, Reasoning,
Examining, Considering, Observing, Distinguishing, Contriving,
Arguing, Approving, Disapproving, Discoveries, Arts, Sciences. The
Exterior Actions are, Walking, Running, Dancing, Turning, Tumbling,
Bearing, Carrying, Holding, Striking, Trembling, Sighing, Groaning,
Weeping, Frowning, Laughing, Speaking, Singing and Whistling: As
for Postures, they cannot be well described; only, Standing, Sitting,
and Lying.
CHAP. XIII. Of the manner of Information between the
Rational and Sensitive Parts.
The manner of Information amongst the Self-moving Parts of a
Human Creature, is after divers and several manners, or ways,
amongst the several parts: but, the manner of Information between
the Sensitive and Rational parts, is, for the most part, by Imitation;
as, imitating each other's actions: As for example, The Rational parts
invent some Sciences; the Sensitive endeavour to put those Sciences
into an Art. If the Rational perceive the Sensitive actions are not
just, according to that Science, they inform the Sensitive; then the
Sensitive Parts endeavour to work, according to the directions of the
Rational: but, if there be some obstruction or hindrance, then the
Rational and Sensitive agree to declare their Design, and to require
assistance of other Associates, which are other Men; as also, other
Creatures. As for the several Manners and Informations between
Man and Man, they are so ordinary, I shall not need to mention
them.

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