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African Swine Fever: Nature, Impacts and Threats to the Global Pig Industry

Garry D. Lasaga, profile picture
Garry D. Lasaga

African swine fever (ASF) is a highly contagious viral disease in pigs, with significant impacts on global pig production, especially following recent outbreaks in China leading to extensive culling and trade restrictions. The disease is caused by a resilient virus with high mortality rates, and it poses a potential threat of spreading to neighboring regions in Southeast Asia. To mitigate the impact, countries such as the Philippines have implemented strict measures against the feeding of swill to pigs and banned the importation of affected swine products.

Health & Medicine
Related topics:
Veterinary Medicine • animal-science
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African Swine Fever: Nature, Impacts and Threats to the Global Pig Industry GARRY D. LASAGA
African Swine Fever • ASF is a contagious, febrile, hemorrhagic & systemic viral disease of swine. • It is regarded as the one of the most serious constraints of pig production worldwide. Penrith, 2009; OIE, 2010; Sánchez-Vizcaíno, 2010; Spickler, 2015; Sánchez- Cordón et al., 2017
Overview  Current Updates  Organism  Epidemiology  Transmission  Clinical Signs/Necropsy  Diagnosis  Prevention and Control  Economic Impact Actions to Take
Current Updates
Patton (2018) As of September 7, 2018
CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011 As of September 6, 2018 Nepveux (2018)
Impacts of the outbreak in China • Culling herds • Ban on transporting pigs and pork products • Price increase (7%) [9/4/2018] Nepveux, 2018
Global impact in 2018 More than 361,000 infected wild boars and domestic pigs have been reported to the organization*, with more than 119,000 deaths in 2018. World Organization for Animal Health
CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011 Nepveux, 2018
As of October 19, 2018 • 41 cases of ASF had been reported in China – more than 100,000 pigs culled • Challenges:  China possesses almost half of the world's pig population  ASF – hardy virus  Backyard farms (27%)  Wild boar population – 33.5 million  Access to untreated or uncooked food waste and swill The Pig Site, 2018
As of November 2, 2018 • China has reported almost 50 outbreaks in 13 provinces since early August. • China has ordered enhanced supervision of vehicles transporting live pigs as reported by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs. The Pig Site, 2018
Potential threat • One of the most crucial threats that the virus may produce is its potential to spread to neighboring Southeast Asian countries and the Korean Peninsula, where hog production is proliferating. The Pig Site, 2018
In the Philippines… • DA issued memorandum that prohibits the use of catering food wastes/left-overs from international and domestic airports and seaports for swill feeding of local swine throughout the country. Louise Maureen Simeon (The Philippine Star) - September 3, 2018 Tacio, H. D. 2018. Agritrends – September 6, 2018
In the Philippines… • The second memorandum temporarily bans the importation of domestic and wild pigs and their products, including pork, meat, and semen particularly those originating from Latvia, Poland, Romania, Russia, Ukraine and China. Louise Maureen Simeon (The Philippine Star) - September 3, 2018 Tacio, H. D. 2018. Agritrends – September 6, 2018
CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011
In the Philippines… • “Historically, the country is free from ASF,” the agriculture department pointed. •“Thus, incursion of the disease in the Philippines will result to great economic loss due to direct and indirect damages to the industry.” Louise Maureen Simeon (The Philippine Star) - September 3, 2018 Tacio, H. D. 2018. Agritrends – September 6, 2018
In the Philippines… • “The public is enjoined to support the government’s efforts by reporting to veterinary authorities any unusual pig mortalities, pork smuggling activities or meat items hand-carried by travelers from affected countries,” the DA technical advisory said. Louise Maureen Simeon (The Philippine Star) - September 3, 2018 Tacio, H. D. 2018. Agritrends – September 6, 2018
Species Affected Domestic pigs Feral swine Wild pigs ◦ Eurasian wild boars ◦ Warthogs (reservoir) ◦ Bush pigs (reservoir) ◦ Giant forest hogs bush pig warthog European boar Penrith and Vosloo, 2009; FAO, 2012; Cisek et al., 2016
CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011 Warthog act as the reservoirs of the ASFV in Africa without clinical symptoms.
Ornithodoros erraticus (male & female) Giant forest hog Source: Beltran-Alcrudo et al., 2017
Distribution of ASF virus genotypes (Source: Gallardo et al., 2015).
The Organism
African Swine Fever Virus Asfarviridae: Asfivirus ◦ Large, enveloped DNA virus ◦ Only arbo-DNA virus More than 20 genotypes ◦ Vary in virulence ◦ High virulence: up to 100% mortality ◦ Low virulence: seroconversion Infects monocytes and macrophages Misinzo et al., 2012; Gallardo et al., 2015; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
African Swine Fever Virus Highly resistant in environment, especially at lower temperatures Survival ◦ Several days in feces ◦ Month(s) in contaminated pens ◦ Up to 18 months in blood ◦ Over 140 days in some pork products ◦ Salted dried hams ◦ Years in frozen carcasses (Penrith and Vosloo, 2009; FAO, 2012; Gallardo et al., 2015
Virus Inactivation Most disinfectants ineffective Disinfectants on nonporous surfaces ◦ Sodium hypochlorite, citric acid, some iodine and quaternary ammonium solutions Meat/tissue products (unprocessed) ◦ High temp (70oC/150oF) for 30 min Can be inactivated ◦ pH below 3.9 or above 11.5 ◦ Higher pH needed if serum present Gallardo et al., 2015; Spickler, 2015:
History and Importance
History 1921: Discovered in Kenya ◦ Today: endemic in most of sub-Saharan Africa including the island of Madagascar Penrith and Vosloo, 2009; Gallardo et al., 2015; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2017
History 1957: First occurrence outside Africa - Portugal 1960s: - Portugal and Spain 1970-1980s: Spread to Europe ◦ The Netherlands, Italy, France, Belgium 1990s: Disease eradicated Remains endemic on the Island of Sardinia Penrith and Vosloo, 2009; Penrith, 2009; Gallardo et al., 2015; Cisek et al., 2016; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
2929 Outbreaks reported in Eastern Europe (2007) Armenia Georgia Russia
3030 Outbreaks reported in Eastern Europe (2008) Azerbaijan Georgia Russia
3131 Outbreaks reported in Eastern Europe (2009) Russia
3232 Outbreaks reported in Eastern Europe (2010) Armenia Russia
3333 Outbreaks reported in Eastern Europe (2011) Armenia Russia
Impact: Russia (2011- 2012) • Total damages $110 million US •50% decrease in # of large farms (compared to 2010) •Decrease of pigs by 35% between 2010-2012 • Cancellation of licenses of many producers Becton (PorkCheckoff) ASF killed 800,000 pigs (Mason, 2018 Reuters)
3535 Outbreaks reported in Eastern Europe (2012) Russia Ukraine
3636 Outbreaks reported in Eastern Europe (2013) Russia Belarus
3737 Outbreaks reported in Eastern Europe (Jan-May 2014) Russia Belarus Lithuania Poland Ukraine
3838 Outbreaks reported in Eastern Europe (2007 - May 2014)
History: Tick Vector 1963: Virus isolated from soft tick ◦ Ornithodoros erraticus 1971: Western Hemisphere ◦ Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Brazil ◦ Eradicated Penrith, 2009; Gallardo et al., 2015; Cisek et al., 2016; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
History 2007: Republic of Georgia ◦ Spread in Caucasus Region (Eurasia), including Russia Federation 2015: Eastern Europe ◦ Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, Romania ◦ Wild boar in Iran Spickler, 2015 Cisek et al., 2016 Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2017 Cappai et al., 2018
CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011
CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011 Geographic distribution of ASF worldwide as of 2015. In red, countries in which ASF is currently present from 2010 to date. In grey, countries in which ASF was reported in the past. In white, countries in which ASF has not been never reported. (Source: Gallardo et al., 2015).
2018 Outbreaks • China: First time reported, domestic pigs • Belgium: Wild boars • Hungary, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Russia, Poland, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Romania OIE and USDA
Economic Impact Animal health ◦ High morbidity and mortality ◦ Highly contagious Import and export bans Movement restrictions Quarantine and depopulation ◦ Required for eradication ◦ 1971-Cuba: 400,000 pigs ◦ 2018-Romania: over 120,000 pigs Can become prolonged epidemic Fortune, 2018; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
Epidemiology
Geographic Distribution Endemic ◦ Sub-Saharan Africa ◦ Island of Sardinia (feral swine) Continued outbreaks ◦ Central and Eastern Europe ◦ Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania, Ukraine ◦ Eurasia: Russia, Caucasus ◦ Belgium Never been reported in United States, Canada, Mexico, Australia, New Zealand Penrith, 2009; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
Reported Outbreaks OIE: Jan-Sept 2018 Source: OIE, 2018
CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011 The specific provinces of China where the first ever outbreak of ASF transpired since August 3, 2018. (Source: Reuters, Maps4News as cited by Patton, 2018)
Morbidity and Mortality Morbidity up to 100% ◦ Previously unexposed herds Mortality varies with genotype virulence ◦ Ranges from <5% to 100% All ages affected Subacute mortality = 30% to 70% May be asymptomatic in wild pigs Sánchez-Vizcaíno, 2010; Gallardo et al., 2015
Transmission
Transmission Direct contact with infected pig ◦ Usually oronasal ◦ All secretions/excretions, blood, tissues ◦ Environmental contamination with products Ingestion of contaminated pork products ◦ Fed to pigs – swill, waste, garbage ◦ Carcasses Penrith and Vosloo, 2009; Cisek et al., 2016
Transmission Fomites ◦ Clothing, vehicles, equipment ◦ Environmental contamination ◦ Blood, diarrhea, feces Vectors ◦ Biological: Bite from soft ticks Ornithodoros ◦ Mechanical: Other insects ◦ Mosquitoes, biting flies (Stomoxys), lice Penrith and Vosloo, 2009; Cisek et al., 2016
Transmission Ornithodoros soft ticks ◦ Transstadial ◦ Transovarial ◦ Sexual transmission ◦ Infected for life ◦ Colonies maintain virus for years Tick-to-pig transmission ◦ Important in Africa ◦ Maintained between warthogs and tick Penrith and Vosloo, 2009; Cisek et al., 2016
CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011 Potential transmission routes for ASFV in Europe. Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011 The three ASF transmission cycle.
Warthog burrow The natural habitat for Ornithodoros moubata ticks, Murchinson Falls national Park, Uganda.
Eggs Adult Sylvatic Cycle Domestic Cycle Persistent infection Blood and sera from warthogs Blood and sera from domestic pigs Ticks from warthog burrows and pig pens Trans-Stadial transmission
CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011 Wild boar density in Europe (Source: FAO, 2015). Half-eaten carcass of wild boar (©State Food and Veterinary Service, lithuania/A. Marius Masiulis). Wild boar in Europe
History: Virus Introduction for Outbreaks Uncooked/undercooked pork products fed to pigs (imported, illegal) ◦ Portugal , Spain (1960); Italy (1983); Belgium (1985); Russia (2008); Romania, China (2018) Raw pork waste/garbage at airport or shipping ports ◦ Lisbon (1957), Malta, Sardinia (1978), Georgia (2007) Movement of infected wild boars ◦ Russia (2008) Penrith, 2009; FAO, 2012; Gallardo et al., 2015; Cisek et al., 2016; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011 Year Country Source 1960 Portugal Imported meat products 1978 Brazil Raw waste from an international airport 1978 Malta Raw waste from a sea port 1978 Sardinia Raw waste from a sea port 1980 Cuba Importation of live pigs/pig products 1983 Italy Importation of pig products Table 1. Primary source of African swine fever outbreaks in various countries* *Adapted from Sánchez-Vizcaíno, J. M. 2010. Early detection and contingency plans for African Swine Fever. Conf. OIE 2010, 139-147.
Humans are not susceptible to African Swine Fever THERE IS NO PUBLIC HEALTH OR FOOD SAFETY CONCERN. OIE, 2010
African Swine Fever in Animals
Clinical Disease Incubation period ◦ 5-21 days following direct contact ◦ < 5 days after tick bite Forms of disease ◦ Peracute – sudden death ◦ Acute ◦ Subacute ◦ Chronic Sánchez-Vizcaíno, 2010; Gallardo et al., 2015
Acute Disease High fever Anorexia Lethargy Weakness, recumbency Erythema, cyanosis Hemorrhages ◦ Skin, snout Sánchez-Vizcaíno, 2010; Cisek et al., 2016; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
Clinical Signs: Acute Disease Diarrhea Abortion Respiratory ◦ Dyspnea ◦ Nasal discharge Death ◦ 7-10 days CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2018 Sánchez-Vizcaíno, 2010; Cisek et al., 2016; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
Clinical Signs: Subacute Disease Moderately virulent isolates Similar signs to acute form, but less severe – Thrombocytopenia – Leukopenia – Death or recovery within 3-4 weeks – Abortion – Fever – Erythema, cyanosis – Hemorrhages may occur Sánchez-Vizcaíno, 2010; Cisek et al., 2016; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
Clinical Signs: Chronic Disease Intermittent, low fever Anorexia, depression Emaciation, stunting Respiratory: coughing Joint swelling Diarrhea Occasional vomiting Skin lesions May be fatal Sánchez-Vizcaíno, 2010; Cisek et al., 2016; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
Post-Mortem Lesions Numerous hemorrhagic internal organs Skin ◦ Discoloration ◦ Hemorrhages Signs of bloody diarrhea or internal hemorrhages Sánchez-Vizcaíno, 2010; Cisek et al., 2016; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
Post-Mortem Lesions Spleen ◦ Enlarged ◦ Friable ◦ Dark red/ black Sánchez-Vizcaíno, 2010; Cisek et al., 2016; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
Post-Mortem Lesions: Most Common Lymph nodes ◦ Swollen ◦ Hemorrhagic ◦ Gastrohepatic and renal LN common ◦ Tonsils: swollen, reddened CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2018 Sánchez-Vizcaíno, 2010; Cisek et al., 2016; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
Post-Mortem Lesions: Most Common Kidneys ◦ Petechiae on cortical and cut surfaces ◦ Perirenal edema possible Sánchez-Vizcaíno, 2010
Post Mortem Lesions Other organs ◦ Hemorrhages, petechiae, ecchymoses Edema ◦ Lungs, gall bladder Brain/meninges ◦ Congested, edema Cisek et al., 2016; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
Post Mortem Lesions: Chronic Infection Focal skin necrosis Skin ulcers Consolidated lung Caseous pneumonia Fibrinous pericarditis Pleural adhesions Lymphadenopathy Swollen joints CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2018Cisek et al., 2016; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
Differential Diagnosis Classical swine fever (hog cholera) Acute PRRS Porcine dermatitis and nephropathy syndrome Erysipelas Salmonellosis Eperythrozoonosis Actinobacillosis Glasser’s disease Aujeszky’s disease (pseudorabies) Thrombocytopenic purpura Warfarin poisoning Heavy metal toxicity Spickler, 2015
Sampling Before collecting or sending any samples, the proper authorities should be contacted Samples should only be sent under secure conditions and to authorized laboratories to prevent the spread of the disease Spickler, 2015
Samples • Tissue from lymph nodes, spleen and tonsils collected aseptically and kept separate and chilled (never frozen). •Lung, liver, kidney and brain may be kept in 10% formalin as well. • Aseptic blood samples, with or without an anti-coagulant. Spickler, 2015
Actions To Take Reportable disease If ASF suspected, IMMEDIATELY notify animal health authorities Isolate/quarantine animals until definitive diagnosis received (Gallardo et al., 2015; Spickler, 2015; Cisek et al., 2016
Treatment No treatment available ◦ No treatment should be attempted No vaccine available Response should be directed by animal health authorities Depopulation Restrictions on pig movements Spickler, 2015
Risk factors CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011 Scavenging and tethering are common Producer DIONE et al. (2016) Value chain actors’ practices associated with the spread of ASF disease in smallholder pig systems in Uganda Trade and movement of sick pigs without movement permits Trader
Risk factors CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011 DIONE et al. (2016) Value chain actors’ practices associated with the spread of ASF disease in smallholder pig systems in Uganda Backyard slaughtering w/ improper disposal of slaughter waste Butcher Poor hygiene at butchery and lack of inspection Pork retailer
Risk factors CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011 DIONE et al. (2016) Value chain actors’ practices associated with the spread of ASF disease in smallholder pig systems in Uganda Lack of application of biosecurity measures (e.g., absence of disinfection of work equipment) Poor feeds and feeding strategies (e.g., use of contaminated feeds)
Prevention
Prevention Prevent direct transmission between infected and susceptible swine ◦ Isolate ill pigs ◦ Prevent contact with feral or wild hogs; when possible house pigs indoors ◦ Keep newly acquired pigs separate from the herd for at least 30 days to assure health Penrith and Vosloo, 2009; Spickler, 2015
Prevention Do not feed uncooked pork products to pigs ◦ Swill, garbage, waste Disinfection ◦ Vehicles, equipment, footwear, clothing Appropriate disposal of manure and carcasses Avoid hunting wild hogs prior to contact with domestic pigs Control tick and other insect vectors May be difficult in endemic areas Prevent indirect transmission Prevent vector transmission Penrith and Vosloo, 2009; Spickler, 2015
During an outbreak • Infected and suspected infected farms must be placed under quarantine • No movement of pigs or any products of pig origin should be allowed • All infected and in-contact pigs must be humanely slaughtered • Carcasses, animal products and bedding must be burnt or buried deeply on site (Gallardo et al., 2015; Spickler, 2015; Cisek et al., 2016
During an outbreak • Vehicles should be disinfected on entering and leaving farms • Personnel should ensure that shoes, clothes and equipment are disinfected between farms • Farms should not be restocked for at least 40 days following above procedures. • Sentinel pigs should be used for at least 6 weeks while being monitored clinically and serologically. (Gallardo et al., 2015; Spickler, 2015; Cisek et al., 2016
CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011 Humane killing and proper burial of infected pigs Sentinel pigs contained in a sty with controlled entry Disinfecting boot bath at entrance to farm
Diagnosis Virus isolation ◦ Blood, tissues PCR ◦ Clinical samples, putrefied samples, fresh tissues/blood ◦ Tonsils for FAD investigation Serological ◦ ELISA ◦ Immunoblotting ◦ Indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA) ◦ Smears, cryostat, buffy coat ◦ Endemic regions Spickler, 2015; Cisek et al., 2016
Control
Control Measures Quarantine of farm Authorities notified Movement restrictions Investigation Rapid diagnosis Determine source of virus Penrith and Vosloo, 2009; Sánchez-Vizcaíno, 2010; Spickler, 2015
Roadblocks & signs limiting access to outbreak area & protection zone in Lithuania Beltran-Alcrudo et al., 2017
Fencing of farm premises Double fencing pig-proof barriers in Sardinia (A) and South Africa (B).
Disinfection Many disinfectants ineffective ◦ Use an product approved for the virus ◦ Feces and organic debris can increase resistance of virus Disinfectants on nonporous surfaces ◦ Sodium hypochlorite, citric acid, some iodine and quats Disinfect premises, equipment, vehicles, footwear Penrith and Vosloo, 2009; Sánchez-Vizcaíno, 2010; Spickler, 2015
Eradication Euthanize/depopulation of infected and in- contact animals Proper carcass disposal ◦ To avoid further spread Sanitation/disinfection Movement controls/quarantines Avoid contact with wild suids Penrith and Vosloo, 2009; Sánchez-Vizcaíno, 2010; Spickler, 2015
EU: measures to control ASF • Farm biosecurity • Swill feeding ban • Identification and registration of pigs • Animal movement control • Surveillance • Stamping out policy • Zoning and regionalization • Cleansing and disinfection EU Commisision on Health & Consumers
Stamping out & disposal Culling in a CO chamber in Lithuania. Disposal in Russia Disposal in Lithuania Beltran-Alcrudo et al., 2017
Challenges for control & eradication • Suboptimal farm registration animal identification • Free ranging pigs • Poor bio-security (fencing, swill feeding) • Home slaughtering • Deficient pig movements control • Poor epidemiological investigations (tracing) • Wild boars EU Commisision on Health & Consumers
Removal & decontamination of ASF- suspected wild boar in Lithuania Beltran-Alcrudo et al., 2017
Authorities inspect a dead boar during an ASF outbreak exercise in Germany in June 2018. Wild boars and human behavior are believed to be the main causes of spread in Europe Authorities inspect a dead boar as part of a swine fever outbreak practice in Germany in June 2018.
Conclusion  Since no vaccine is currently available, prevention and control must be based on early detection and strict sanitary measures.  It is therefore crucial for control of diseases like ASF that all stakeholders understand the disease and know what they themselves must do to prevent it.
References Beltran-Alcrudo, D., M. Arias, C. Gallardo, S. A. Kramer, and M.-L. Penrith. 2017. African Swine Fever: Detection and diagnosis a manual for veterinarians. FAO Animal Production and Health. Brown, S. 2018. Seventh case of African Swine Fever in China; Pig transport banned. Cappai, S., S. Rolesu, A. Coccollone, A. Laddomada, and F. Loi. 2018. Evaluation of biological and socio-economic factors related to persistence of African swine fever in Sardinia. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 152 (2018) 1-11. doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2018.01.004 Chenais, E., S. Boqvist, U. Emanuelson, C. von Brömssen, E. Ouma, T. Aliro, C. Masembe, K. Ståhl, and S. Sternberg-Lewerin. 2017. Quantitative assessment of social and economic impact of African swine fever outbreaks in northern Uganda. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 144:134–148. Cisek, A. A., I. Dąbrowska, K. P. Gregorczyk, and Z. Wyżewski. 2016. African swine fever virus: a new old enemy of Europe. Annals of Parasitology, 62(3): 161– 167. doi: 10.17420/ap6203.49
References Cristea, C. 2018. Measures to curtail the impact of African swine fever. http://www.rri.ro/en_gb/measures_to_curtail_the_impact_of_the_africa n_swine_fever-2585952 (Accessed 8 September 2018) Dutch Wildlife Health Centre. 2017. African swine fever in wild boar and African wild suids. EFSA AHAW Panel (EFSA Panel on Animal Health and Welfare). 2014. Scientific opinion on African swine fever. EFSA Journal;12(4):3628, 77 pp. doi: 10.2903/j.efsa.2014.3628 Fasina, F. O., D. D. Lazarus, B. T. Spencer, A. A. Makinde, and A. D. S. Bastos. 2011. Cost implications of African swine fever in smallholder farrow-to-finish units: economic benefits of disease prevention through biosecurity. doi:10.1111/j.1865-1682.2011. 01261.x
References FAO. 2018a. African Swine Fever threatens People’s Republic of China, A rapid risk assessment of ASF introduction. FAO Animal Health Risk Analysis – Assessment, Issue No. 5. Rome, FAO FAO. 2018b. UN FAO convenes emergency meeting of animal health experts in Asia in response to African Swine Fever threat. http://www.fao.org/asiapacific/news/detail-events/en/c/1151566/ (Accessed 3 November 2018) FAO. 2012. African swine fever (ASF) recent developments and timely updates - Worrisome dynamics: Steady spread towards unaffected areas could have disastrous impact. In Focus on No. 6. [electronic bulletin]. Rome, FAO. http://www.fao.org/docrep/016/ap372e/ ap372e.pdf (Accessed 8 September 2018) Fortune, A. 2018. Global battle against ASF steps up a gear. https://www.globalmeatnews.com/Article/2018/09/07/Battle-against- ASF-goes-global (Accessed 8 September 2018)
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African Swine Fever: Nature, Impacts and Threats to the Global Pig Industry

  • 1. African Swine Fever: Nature, Impacts and Threats to the Global Pig Industry GARRY D. LASAGA
  • 2. African Swine Fever • ASF is a contagious, febrile, hemorrhagic & systemic viral disease of swine. • It is regarded as the one of the most serious constraints of pig production worldwide. Penrith, 2009; OIE, 2010; Sánchez-Vizcaíno, 2010; Spickler, 2015; Sánchez- Cordón et al., 2017
  • 3. Overview  Current Updates  Organism  Epidemiology  Transmission  Clinical Signs/Necropsy  Diagnosis  Prevention and Control  Economic Impact Actions to Take
  • 5. Patton (2018) As of September 7, 2018
  • 6. CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011 As of September 6, 2018 Nepveux (2018)
  • 7. Impacts of the outbreak in China • Culling herds • Ban on transporting pigs and pork products • Price increase (7%) [9/4/2018] Nepveux, 2018
  • 8. Global impact in 2018 More than 361,000 infected wild boars and domestic pigs have been reported to the organization*, with more than 119,000 deaths in 2018. World Organization for Animal Health
  • 9. CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011 Nepveux, 2018
  • 10. As of October 19, 2018 • 41 cases of ASF had been reported in China – more than 100,000 pigs culled • Challenges:  China possesses almost half of the world's pig population  ASF – hardy virus  Backyard farms (27%)  Wild boar population – 33.5 million  Access to untreated or uncooked food waste and swill The Pig Site, 2018
  • 11. As of November 2, 2018 • China has reported almost 50 outbreaks in 13 provinces since early August. • China has ordered enhanced supervision of vehicles transporting live pigs as reported by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs. The Pig Site, 2018
  • 12. Potential threat • One of the most crucial threats that the virus may produce is its potential to spread to neighboring Southeast Asian countries and the Korean Peninsula, where hog production is proliferating. The Pig Site, 2018
  • 13. In the Philippines… • DA issued memorandum that prohibits the use of catering food wastes/left-overs from international and domestic airports and seaports for swill feeding of local swine throughout the country. Louise Maureen Simeon (The Philippine Star) - September 3, 2018 Tacio, H. D. 2018. Agritrends – September 6, 2018
  • 14. In the Philippines… • The second memorandum temporarily bans the importation of domestic and wild pigs and their products, including pork, meat, and semen particularly those originating from Latvia, Poland, Romania, Russia, Ukraine and China. Louise Maureen Simeon (The Philippine Star) - September 3, 2018 Tacio, H. D. 2018. Agritrends – September 6, 2018
  • 15. CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011
  • 16. In the Philippines… • “Historically, the country is free from ASF,” the agriculture department pointed. •“Thus, incursion of the disease in the Philippines will result to great economic loss due to direct and indirect damages to the industry.” Louise Maureen Simeon (The Philippine Star) - September 3, 2018 Tacio, H. D. 2018. Agritrends – September 6, 2018
  • 17. In the Philippines… • “The public is enjoined to support the government’s efforts by reporting to veterinary authorities any unusual pig mortalities, pork smuggling activities or meat items hand-carried by travelers from affected countries,” the DA technical advisory said. Louise Maureen Simeon (The Philippine Star) - September 3, 2018 Tacio, H. D. 2018. Agritrends – September 6, 2018
  • 18. Species Affected Domestic pigs Feral swine Wild pigs ◦ Eurasian wild boars ◦ Warthogs (reservoir) ◦ Bush pigs (reservoir) ◦ Giant forest hogs bush pig warthog European boar Penrith and Vosloo, 2009; FAO, 2012; Cisek et al., 2016
  • 19. CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011 Warthog act as the reservoirs of the ASFV in Africa without clinical symptoms.
  • 20. Ornithodoros erraticus (male & female) Giant forest hog Source: Beltran-Alcrudo et al., 2017
  • 21. Distribution of ASF virus genotypes (Source: Gallardo et al., 2015).
  • 23. African Swine Fever Virus Asfarviridae: Asfivirus ◦ Large, enveloped DNA virus ◦ Only arbo-DNA virus More than 20 genotypes ◦ Vary in virulence ◦ High virulence: up to 100% mortality ◦ Low virulence: seroconversion Infects monocytes and macrophages Misinzo et al., 2012; Gallardo et al., 2015; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
  • 24. African Swine Fever Virus Highly resistant in environment, especially at lower temperatures Survival ◦ Several days in feces ◦ Month(s) in contaminated pens ◦ Up to 18 months in blood ◦ Over 140 days in some pork products ◦ Salted dried hams ◦ Years in frozen carcasses (Penrith and Vosloo, 2009; FAO, 2012; Gallardo et al., 2015
  • 25. Virus Inactivation Most disinfectants ineffective Disinfectants on nonporous surfaces ◦ Sodium hypochlorite, citric acid, some iodine and quaternary ammonium solutions Meat/tissue products (unprocessed) ◦ High temp (70oC/150oF) for 30 min Can be inactivated ◦ pH below 3.9 or above 11.5 ◦ Higher pH needed if serum present Gallardo et al., 2015; Spickler, 2015:
  • 27. History 1921: Discovered in Kenya ◦ Today: endemic in most of sub-Saharan Africa including the island of Madagascar Penrith and Vosloo, 2009; Gallardo et al., 2015; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2017
  • 28. History 1957: First occurrence outside Africa - Portugal 1960s: - Portugal and Spain 1970-1980s: Spread to Europe ◦ The Netherlands, Italy, France, Belgium 1990s: Disease eradicated Remains endemic on the Island of Sardinia Penrith and Vosloo, 2009; Penrith, 2009; Gallardo et al., 2015; Cisek et al., 2016; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
  • 29. 2929 Outbreaks reported in Eastern Europe (2007) Armenia Georgia Russia
  • 30. 3030 Outbreaks reported in Eastern Europe (2008) Azerbaijan Georgia Russia
  • 31. 3131 Outbreaks reported in Eastern Europe (2009) Russia
  • 32. 3232 Outbreaks reported in Eastern Europe (2010) Armenia Russia
  • 33. 3333 Outbreaks reported in Eastern Europe (2011) Armenia Russia
  • 34. Impact: Russia (2011- 2012) • Total damages $110 million US •50% decrease in # of large farms (compared to 2010) •Decrease of pigs by 35% between 2010-2012 • Cancellation of licenses of many producers Becton (PorkCheckoff) ASF killed 800,000 pigs (Mason, 2018 Reuters)
  • 35. 3535 Outbreaks reported in Eastern Europe (2012) Russia Ukraine
  • 36. 3636 Outbreaks reported in Eastern Europe (2013) Russia Belarus
  • 37. 3737 Outbreaks reported in Eastern Europe (Jan-May 2014) Russia Belarus Lithuania Poland Ukraine
  • 38. 3838 Outbreaks reported in Eastern Europe (2007 - May 2014)
  • 39. History: Tick Vector 1963: Virus isolated from soft tick ◦ Ornithodoros erraticus 1971: Western Hemisphere ◦ Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Brazil ◦ Eradicated Penrith, 2009; Gallardo et al., 2015; Cisek et al., 2016; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
  • 40. History 2007: Republic of Georgia ◦ Spread in Caucasus Region (Eurasia), including Russia Federation 2015: Eastern Europe ◦ Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, Romania ◦ Wild boar in Iran Spickler, 2015 Cisek et al., 2016 Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2017 Cappai et al., 2018
  • 41. CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011
  • 42. CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011 Geographic distribution of ASF worldwide as of 2015. In red, countries in which ASF is currently present from 2010 to date. In grey, countries in which ASF was reported in the past. In white, countries in which ASF has not been never reported. (Source: Gallardo et al., 2015).
  • 43. 2018 Outbreaks • China: First time reported, domestic pigs • Belgium: Wild boars • Hungary, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Russia, Poland, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Romania OIE and USDA
  • 44. Economic Impact Animal health ◦ High morbidity and mortality ◦ Highly contagious Import and export bans Movement restrictions Quarantine and depopulation ◦ Required for eradication ◦ 1971-Cuba: 400,000 pigs ◦ 2018-Romania: over 120,000 pigs Can become prolonged epidemic Fortune, 2018; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
  • 46. Geographic Distribution Endemic ◦ Sub-Saharan Africa ◦ Island of Sardinia (feral swine) Continued outbreaks ◦ Central and Eastern Europe ◦ Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania, Ukraine ◦ Eurasia: Russia, Caucasus ◦ Belgium Never been reported in United States, Canada, Mexico, Australia, New Zealand Penrith, 2009; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
  • 47. Reported Outbreaks OIE: Jan-Sept 2018 Source: OIE, 2018
  • 48. CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011 The specific provinces of China where the first ever outbreak of ASF transpired since August 3, 2018. (Source: Reuters, Maps4News as cited by Patton, 2018)
  • 49. Morbidity and Mortality Morbidity up to 100% ◦ Previously unexposed herds Mortality varies with genotype virulence ◦ Ranges from <5% to 100% All ages affected Subacute mortality = 30% to 70% May be asymptomatic in wild pigs Sánchez-Vizcaíno, 2010; Gallardo et al., 2015
  • 51. Transmission Direct contact with infected pig ◦ Usually oronasal ◦ All secretions/excretions, blood, tissues ◦ Environmental contamination with products Ingestion of contaminated pork products ◦ Fed to pigs – swill, waste, garbage ◦ Carcasses Penrith and Vosloo, 2009; Cisek et al., 2016
  • 52. Transmission Fomites ◦ Clothing, vehicles, equipment ◦ Environmental contamination ◦ Blood, diarrhea, feces Vectors ◦ Biological: Bite from soft ticks Ornithodoros ◦ Mechanical: Other insects ◦ Mosquitoes, biting flies (Stomoxys), lice Penrith and Vosloo, 2009; Cisek et al., 2016
  • 53. Transmission Ornithodoros soft ticks ◦ Transstadial ◦ Transovarial ◦ Sexual transmission ◦ Infected for life ◦ Colonies maintain virus for years Tick-to-pig transmission ◦ Important in Africa ◦ Maintained between warthogs and tick Penrith and Vosloo, 2009; Cisek et al., 2016
  • 54. CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011 Potential transmission routes for ASFV in Europe. Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
  • 55. CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011 The three ASF transmission cycle.
  • 56. Warthog burrow The natural habitat for Ornithodoros moubata ticks, Murchinson Falls national Park, Uganda.
  • 57. Eggs Adult Sylvatic Cycle Domestic Cycle Persistent infection Blood and sera from warthogs Blood and sera from domestic pigs Ticks from warthog burrows and pig pens Trans-Stadial transmission
  • 58. CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011 Wild boar density in Europe (Source: FAO, 2015). Half-eaten carcass of wild boar (©State Food and Veterinary Service, lithuania/A. Marius Masiulis). Wild boar in Europe
  • 59. History: Virus Introduction for Outbreaks Uncooked/undercooked pork products fed to pigs (imported, illegal) ◦ Portugal , Spain (1960); Italy (1983); Belgium (1985); Russia (2008); Romania, China (2018) Raw pork waste/garbage at airport or shipping ports ◦ Lisbon (1957), Malta, Sardinia (1978), Georgia (2007) Movement of infected wild boars ◦ Russia (2008) Penrith, 2009; FAO, 2012; Gallardo et al., 2015; Cisek et al., 2016; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
  • 60. CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011 Year Country Source 1960 Portugal Imported meat products 1978 Brazil Raw waste from an international airport 1978 Malta Raw waste from a sea port 1978 Sardinia Raw waste from a sea port 1980 Cuba Importation of live pigs/pig products 1983 Italy Importation of pig products Table 1. Primary source of African swine fever outbreaks in various countries* *Adapted from Sánchez-Vizcaíno, J. M. 2010. Early detection and contingency plans for African Swine Fever. Conf. OIE 2010, 139-147.
  • 61. Humans are not susceptible to African Swine Fever THERE IS NO PUBLIC HEALTH OR FOOD SAFETY CONCERN. OIE, 2010
  • 63. Clinical Disease Incubation period ◦ 5-21 days following direct contact ◦ < 5 days after tick bite Forms of disease ◦ Peracute – sudden death ◦ Acute ◦ Subacute ◦ Chronic Sánchez-Vizcaíno, 2010; Gallardo et al., 2015
  • 64. Acute Disease High fever Anorexia Lethargy Weakness, recumbency Erythema, cyanosis Hemorrhages ◦ Skin, snout Sánchez-Vizcaíno, 2010; Cisek et al., 2016; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
  • 65. Clinical Signs: Acute Disease Diarrhea Abortion Respiratory ◦ Dyspnea ◦ Nasal discharge Death ◦ 7-10 days CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2018 Sánchez-Vizcaíno, 2010; Cisek et al., 2016; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
  • 66. Clinical Signs: Subacute Disease Moderately virulent isolates Similar signs to acute form, but less severe – Thrombocytopenia – Leukopenia – Death or recovery within 3-4 weeks – Abortion – Fever – Erythema, cyanosis – Hemorrhages may occur Sánchez-Vizcaíno, 2010; Cisek et al., 2016; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
  • 67. Clinical Signs: Chronic Disease Intermittent, low fever Anorexia, depression Emaciation, stunting Respiratory: coughing Joint swelling Diarrhea Occasional vomiting Skin lesions May be fatal Sánchez-Vizcaíno, 2010; Cisek et al., 2016; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
  • 68. Post-Mortem Lesions Numerous hemorrhagic internal organs Skin ◦ Discoloration ◦ Hemorrhages Signs of bloody diarrhea or internal hemorrhages Sánchez-Vizcaíno, 2010; Cisek et al., 2016; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
  • 69. Post-Mortem Lesions Spleen ◦ Enlarged ◦ Friable ◦ Dark red/ black Sánchez-Vizcaíno, 2010; Cisek et al., 2016; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
  • 70. Post-Mortem Lesions: Most Common Lymph nodes ◦ Swollen ◦ Hemorrhagic ◦ Gastrohepatic and renal LN common ◦ Tonsils: swollen, reddened CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2018 Sánchez-Vizcaíno, 2010; Cisek et al., 2016; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
  • 71. Post-Mortem Lesions: Most Common Kidneys ◦ Petechiae on cortical and cut surfaces ◦ Perirenal edema possible Sánchez-Vizcaíno, 2010
  • 72. Post Mortem Lesions Other organs ◦ Hemorrhages, petechiae, ecchymoses Edema ◦ Lungs, gall bladder Brain/meninges ◦ Congested, edema Cisek et al., 2016; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
  • 73. Post Mortem Lesions: Chronic Infection Focal skin necrosis Skin ulcers Consolidated lung Caseous pneumonia Fibrinous pericarditis Pleural adhesions Lymphadenopathy Swollen joints CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2018Cisek et al., 2016; Sánchez-Cordón et al., 2018
  • 74. Differential Diagnosis Classical swine fever (hog cholera) Acute PRRS Porcine dermatitis and nephropathy syndrome Erysipelas Salmonellosis Eperythrozoonosis Actinobacillosis Glasser’s disease Aujeszky’s disease (pseudorabies) Thrombocytopenic purpura Warfarin poisoning Heavy metal toxicity Spickler, 2015
  • 75. Sampling Before collecting or sending any samples, the proper authorities should be contacted Samples should only be sent under secure conditions and to authorized laboratories to prevent the spread of the disease Spickler, 2015
  • 76. Samples • Tissue from lymph nodes, spleen and tonsils collected aseptically and kept separate and chilled (never frozen). •Lung, liver, kidney and brain may be kept in 10% formalin as well. • Aseptic blood samples, with or without an anti-coagulant. Spickler, 2015
  • 77. Actions To Take Reportable disease If ASF suspected, IMMEDIATELY notify animal health authorities Isolate/quarantine animals until definitive diagnosis received (Gallardo et al., 2015; Spickler, 2015; Cisek et al., 2016
  • 78. Treatment No treatment available ◦ No treatment should be attempted No vaccine available Response should be directed by animal health authorities Depopulation Restrictions on pig movements Spickler, 2015
  • 79. Risk factors CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011 Scavenging and tethering are common Producer DIONE et al. (2016) Value chain actors’ practices associated with the spread of ASF disease in smallholder pig systems in Uganda Trade and movement of sick pigs without movement permits Trader
  • 80. Risk factors CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011 DIONE et al. (2016) Value chain actors’ practices associated with the spread of ASF disease in smallholder pig systems in Uganda Backyard slaughtering w/ improper disposal of slaughter waste Butcher Poor hygiene at butchery and lack of inspection Pork retailer
  • 81. Risk factors CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011 DIONE et al. (2016) Value chain actors’ practices associated with the spread of ASF disease in smallholder pig systems in Uganda Lack of application of biosecurity measures (e.g., absence of disinfection of work equipment) Poor feeds and feeding strategies (e.g., use of contaminated feeds)
  • 83. Prevention Prevent direct transmission between infected and susceptible swine ◦ Isolate ill pigs ◦ Prevent contact with feral or wild hogs; when possible house pigs indoors ◦ Keep newly acquired pigs separate from the herd for at least 30 days to assure health Penrith and Vosloo, 2009; Spickler, 2015
  • 84. Prevention Do not feed uncooked pork products to pigs ◦ Swill, garbage, waste Disinfection ◦ Vehicles, equipment, footwear, clothing Appropriate disposal of manure and carcasses Avoid hunting wild hogs prior to contact with domestic pigs Control tick and other insect vectors May be difficult in endemic areas Prevent indirect transmission Prevent vector transmission Penrith and Vosloo, 2009; Spickler, 2015
  • 85. During an outbreak • Infected and suspected infected farms must be placed under quarantine • No movement of pigs or any products of pig origin should be allowed • All infected and in-contact pigs must be humanely slaughtered • Carcasses, animal products and bedding must be burnt or buried deeply on site (Gallardo et al., 2015; Spickler, 2015; Cisek et al., 2016
  • 86. During an outbreak • Vehicles should be disinfected on entering and leaving farms • Personnel should ensure that shoes, clothes and equipment are disinfected between farms • Farms should not be restocked for at least 40 days following above procedures. • Sentinel pigs should be used for at least 6 weeks while being monitored clinically and serologically. (Gallardo et al., 2015; Spickler, 2015; Cisek et al., 2016
  • 87. CENTER FOR FOOD SECURITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 2011 Humane killing and proper burial of infected pigs Sentinel pigs contained in a sty with controlled entry Disinfecting boot bath at entrance to farm
  • 88. Diagnosis Virus isolation ◦ Blood, tissues PCR ◦ Clinical samples, putrefied samples, fresh tissues/blood ◦ Tonsils for FAD investigation Serological ◦ ELISA ◦ Immunoblotting ◦ Indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA) ◦ Smears, cryostat, buffy coat ◦ Endemic regions Spickler, 2015; Cisek et al., 2016
  • 90. Control Measures Quarantine of farm Authorities notified Movement restrictions Investigation Rapid diagnosis Determine source of virus Penrith and Vosloo, 2009; Sánchez-Vizcaíno, 2010; Spickler, 2015
  • 91. Roadblocks & signs limiting access to outbreak area & protection zone in Lithuania Beltran-Alcrudo et al., 2017
  • 92. Fencing of farm premises Double fencing pig-proof barriers in Sardinia (A) and South Africa (B).
  • 93. Disinfection Many disinfectants ineffective ◦ Use an product approved for the virus ◦ Feces and organic debris can increase resistance of virus Disinfectants on nonporous surfaces ◦ Sodium hypochlorite, citric acid, some iodine and quats Disinfect premises, equipment, vehicles, footwear Penrith and Vosloo, 2009; Sánchez-Vizcaíno, 2010; Spickler, 2015
  • 94. Eradication Euthanize/depopulation of infected and in- contact animals Proper carcass disposal ◦ To avoid further spread Sanitation/disinfection Movement controls/quarantines Avoid contact with wild suids Penrith and Vosloo, 2009; Sánchez-Vizcaíno, 2010; Spickler, 2015
  • 95. EU: measures to control ASF • Farm biosecurity • Swill feeding ban • Identification and registration of pigs • Animal movement control • Surveillance • Stamping out policy • Zoning and regionalization • Cleansing and disinfection EU Commisision on Health & Consumers
  • 96. Stamping out & disposal Culling in a CO chamber in Lithuania. Disposal in Russia Disposal in Lithuania Beltran-Alcrudo et al., 2017
  • 97. Challenges for control & eradication • Suboptimal farm registration animal identification • Free ranging pigs • Poor bio-security (fencing, swill feeding) • Home slaughtering • Deficient pig movements control • Poor epidemiological investigations (tracing) • Wild boars EU Commisision on Health & Consumers
  • 98. Removal & decontamination of ASF- suspected wild boar in Lithuania Beltran-Alcrudo et al., 2017
  • 99. Authorities inspect a dead boar during an ASF outbreak exercise in Germany in June 2018. Wild boars and human behavior are believed to be the main causes of spread in Europe Authorities inspect a dead boar as part of a swine fever outbreak practice in Germany in June 2018.
  • 100. Conclusion  Since no vaccine is currently available, prevention and control must be based on early detection and strict sanitary measures.  It is therefore crucial for control of diseases like ASF that all stakeholders understand the disease and know what they themselves must do to prevent it.
  • 101. References Beltran-Alcrudo, D., M. Arias, C. Gallardo, S. A. Kramer, and M.-L. Penrith. 2017. African Swine Fever: Detection and diagnosis a manual for veterinarians. FAO Animal Production and Health. Brown, S. 2018. Seventh case of African Swine Fever in China; Pig transport banned. Cappai, S., S. Rolesu, A. Coccollone, A. Laddomada, and F. Loi. 2018. Evaluation of biological and socio-economic factors related to persistence of African swine fever in Sardinia. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 152 (2018) 1-11. doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2018.01.004 Chenais, E., S. Boqvist, U. Emanuelson, C. von Brömssen, E. Ouma, T. Aliro, C. Masembe, K. Ståhl, and S. Sternberg-Lewerin. 2017. Quantitative assessment of social and economic impact of African swine fever outbreaks in northern Uganda. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 144:134–148. Cisek, A. A., I. Dąbrowska, K. P. Gregorczyk, and Z. Wyżewski. 2016. African swine fever virus: a new old enemy of Europe. Annals of Parasitology, 62(3): 161– 167. doi: 10.17420/ap6203.49
  • 102. References Cristea, C. 2018. Measures to curtail the impact of African swine fever. http://www.rri.ro/en_gb/measures_to_curtail_the_impact_of_the_africa n_swine_fever-2585952 (Accessed 8 September 2018) Dutch Wildlife Health Centre. 2017. African swine fever in wild boar and African wild suids. EFSA AHAW Panel (EFSA Panel on Animal Health and Welfare). 2014. Scientific opinion on African swine fever. EFSA Journal;12(4):3628, 77 pp. doi: 10.2903/j.efsa.2014.3628 Fasina, F. O., D. D. Lazarus, B. T. Spencer, A. A. Makinde, and A. D. S. Bastos. 2011. Cost implications of African swine fever in smallholder farrow-to-finish units: economic benefits of disease prevention through biosecurity. doi:10.1111/j.1865-1682.2011. 01261.x
  • 103. References FAO. 2018a. African Swine Fever threatens People’s Republic of China, A rapid risk assessment of ASF introduction. FAO Animal Health Risk Analysis – Assessment, Issue No. 5. Rome, FAO FAO. 2018b. UN FAO convenes emergency meeting of animal health experts in Asia in response to African Swine Fever threat. http://www.fao.org/asiapacific/news/detail-events/en/c/1151566/ (Accessed 3 November 2018) FAO. 2012. African swine fever (ASF) recent developments and timely updates - Worrisome dynamics: Steady spread towards unaffected areas could have disastrous impact. In Focus on No. 6. [electronic bulletin]. Rome, FAO. http://www.fao.org/docrep/016/ap372e/ ap372e.pdf (Accessed 8 September 2018) Fortune, A. 2018. Global battle against ASF steps up a gear. https://www.globalmeatnews.com/Article/2018/09/07/Battle-against- ASF-goes-global (Accessed 8 September 2018)