An introduction to digital crimes

International Journal in Foundations of Computer Science & Technology (IJFCST), Vol.5, No.3, May 2015
DOI:10.5121/ijfcst.2015.5302 13
AN INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL CRIMES
Safiia Mohammed
B.Sc (honours) of Computer Science, University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan
ABSTRACT
Because the technology is used largely in the last decades; cybercrimes have become a significant
international issue as a result of the huge damage that it causes to the business and even to the ordinary
users of technology. The main aims of this paper is to shed light on digital crimes and gives overview about
what a person who is related to computer science has to know about this new type of crimes. The paper has
three sections: Introduction to Digital Crime which gives fundamental information about digital crimes,
Digital Crime Investigation which presents different investigation models and the third section is about
Cybercrime Law.
KEYWORDS
Digital Crime, Cybercrime, Digital Evidence, Digital Crime investigation, Digital Crime Scene.
1. INTRODUCTION
Digital crimes or cybercrimes is not a secret particularly during the last ten years. People are
depend on computers or mobiles devices to do their work every day, they also use them in social
networks to communicate with their friends and families, all these activities produce a massive
amounts of data and information on computers/ mobile devices or pass through different kinds of
computer networks. If these data and information did not have enough security and protection
then it will be exposed to theft and destruction. Digital crime begins when there is illegal activity
done to data or information on computers or networks. In the early days of cybercrimes, the crime
was committed usually in the financial field, but Cybercrime now has evolved to include other
forms, for example information systems for one reason or another can be stolen or damaged -by
some one- in companies, also computer or mobile devices can used as a tool to committee the
crime and in general the rate of digital crime is increased clearly after the advent of the Internet.
Networks also play a significant role in increasing the rate of cybercrimes. The high cost of
cybercrimes and the damages resulting from it called the international community and law
specialists to enact cybercrime laws ,some countries started to enact national cybercrime law and
other have not enact it yet.
2. INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL CRIMES
2.1 What Is Digital Crime?
Digital crime has many synonymies for example: cybercrime, electronic crime and computer
crime are changeable words. Firstly computer crime term was used to denote to any criminal
activity that done against computers and networks or using computer as tool to do that activity.
But in the last few years these crimes extend to encompass other digital devices like cell phone,
so the term was extend to digital crime. There is no one definition for digital crime until now and
it’s difficult to form standard one, however what can be said is that: digital crime is focused on

14
offences against computer data or systems, unauthorized access, modification or impairment of a
computer or digital system [1]
2.2 Characteristics of Digital Crime:
Unlike traditional crime digital crime has unique Characteristics. For example it has no
geographic boundaries, so digital crime can be committed in one country or region against other
country or region, further more in digital crimes Offenders usually don’t leave physical trace
instead of that they leave digital trace.
2.3 Digital Crime Environment:
In usual the environment of digital crime is described as virtual environment because the crime is
done on computer data, digital systems or networks.
2.4 Brief History of Digital Crimes:
Digital crimes were differed and varied since 1960(in that time the telecommunications systems
were affected by attacks) to now. In the early era of information systems, computer crimes were
committed by some employees, also physical attacks on computer system was common in the
time between 1960 and 1980. In 1980 malicious software was begun to appear against personal
computers.
In the beginning of 1990s the internet had been a significant factor of increasing digital crimes;
criminals were access to poorly protected systems using unauthorized way usually for financial
gain, credit-card fraud for example was grown rapidly in the middle of 1990s. By the end of 20th
century and the beginning of 21th credit-card fraud was involved into broader category called
identity theft. Criminals were thieving identities of other people to do illegal activities. In 2008 it
was being the fastest growing form of fraud.
Cell phone crimes are being increasing these last few years, beside these, nowadays a new type of
criminal activities is being done on cloud computing. [2]
2.4.1. Roles of Computer in the Crimes:
According to Donn Parker (a computer crime researcher) Computer has four different rules in
crimes (this is taken from an investigative point of view):
• A computer as an object of a crime (e.g. computer can be stolen as itself).
• A computer as a subject of a crime, that is computer is an environment of a crime.
• A computer may be used as a tool for conducting a crime (e.g. to access to anther
computer and commit a crime there).
• Using a symbol of the computer to doing illegal activities. [3]
2.5. Types of Digital Crimes:
Offenders committed different kinds of digital crimes or cybercrimes such as:
• Assault by Threat: Threat the lives of others or Attempt to vilify other people by using
computers, networks or phones.
• Child Pornography: using computers, networks and other digital devices in Sexual
exploitation of children.

15
• Cyber laundering: electronic transfer of illegal money to hide its source or destination.
• Cyber theft is using a computer to steal: use a computer in Criminal activities, for
example: DNS cache poisoning, espionage, identity theft, fraud, malicious hacking and
plagiarism. [4]
2.6. Digital Evidence:
There is no complete crime; the offenders have to leave traces behind them. Since these crimes
are digital crimes, these traces will be mostly digital evidences. These evidences will help
significantly to find out the identity of the offender.
What is Digital Evidence?
“Digital evidence is defined as any data stored or transmitted using a computer that support or
refute a theory of how an offense occurred or that address critical elements of the offense such as
intent or alibi”. Data here refers to different types of information like text, number audio or video
[3].
These different types of digital data are useful in the process of investigation. Sources of digital
data can be divided into three categories:
• Open computer systems: are computer systems that known to the majority of people such
as laptops, desktops, and servers. The increasing of storage space in these computer
systems guarantees that we can obtain a large amount of digital evidences (e.g. one file
could contain a significant amount of digital data).
• Communication systems: Traditional and advance telephone systems, wireless
telecommunication systems (SMS/MMS messages,) and the internet (e-mail) are rich
sources of digital evidences. The content of messages transferring between these
communications systems is important in the investigation.
• Embedded computer systems: many embedded computer systems like Mobile
Devices, Navigation systems, Microwave ovens and others systems can contain many
valuable digital evidences. [3]
2.7. Challenging Aspects of Digital Evidence:
Like physical evidence, digital evidence has several challenges:
• Digital evidence is a kind of evidence that is very difficult to handle. For example a hard
drive has many platters each of them consists of many amount of messy and disorderly
data it’s very difficult to extract available data from it.
• Digital evidence is an abstraction of some digital object or event. For instance, if
computer is used to perform some tasks not all aspects of these tasks will be remaining,
only a few of them give us partial view of what is occurred.
• Digital evidence is usually circumstantial. If a case only depends on single digital
evidence usually it will be unacceptable and additional information is needed to support
that case, otherwise it will be considered as a case with weak evidences.
• One problem that is faced by Investigators is that digital evidence can be altered,
obscured or deleted by offenders or even unintended during the investigation process.[3]
2.8. Impacts of Digital Crimes:
As the number of the internet and computer users is increased, this leads the digital crimes to
grow up fastly, and subsequently, there will be many impacts of them. Digital crime or

16
cybercrime is becoming now one of the challengeable issues for governments, Legal institutions,
organizations, companies - which their work depend directly on computers and the Internet - and
even the public opinion; because it is in a steady increase and Caused heavy losses. In United
States and other countries digital crimes have become on the national level, they created groups
and regional centres to investigate this type of crimes, but the intensive requests had led it to
become unsustainable as the result of the pressure of the work.
2.8.1. Economic Impact:
Economic impact consider as one of the significant impact of digital crimes. Cybercrime has
direct and indirect financial cost impacts, for instance Theft of user accounts-direct impact- and
reset back these accounts -indirect impact-.[5] the report of the global council on organized
crime(2012) said that the economic impact of cybercrimes in business reached multibillions
dollars. If we return back one year (2011) the cost of global cybercrime activities was estimated
between 300 billion to 1 trillion dollars, Just in America it was estimated at about $24 billion to
$120 billion [6]. In 2011, a report made by United Kingdom government reveals that the overall
economic effect of cybercrime in UK was £27bn a year [7]. In 2013 the cost of cybercrime and
cyber espionage done by the McAfee security firm in the US was estimated by $100 billion per
year, while global impact was around $300 billion annually [8]. In South Africa according to
Symantec’s report that was done between July and August (2013) there are over 1 million victims
in South Africans. Cybercrime costing the country about $337 million or $233 per victim. [9]
In United Arab Emirates the statistic data shows that in 2011 the economic cost of cybercrime
reached over $600 million per year [10]. In Saudi Arabia the overall cost of cybercrime in 2013
exceeded $6 billion [11]. In 2014 cyber crime In Arab region is considered as the second type of
economic crime (according to PwC Middle East Economic Crime Survey 2014).[12]
3. DIGITAL CRIME INVESTIGATION
3.1. Why Digital Crime Investigation?
The new terms in crime language like digital crime create new type of crime investigations that
related directly to cybercrimes [3]. Digital crime investigation like other type of investigations
tries to answer common questions like: who, what, when, where, why and how [13]. Investigator
firstly asks these questions and tries to solve them; in the end the ultimate goal behind the
investigation is to discover the truth and the real criminals by tracing back what they leave behind
them. But here the crime scene which will be investigated is not a traditional one it is a digital
scene.
3.2. What is the Role of the Digital Crime Investigator?
A cybercrime investigator has to be able to collect the significant evidences from crime scene;
evidences mean in particular digital evidences which criminal can leave them behind in
computers, networks or any digital device. An investigator has to be able to discover these
evidences and deal with them in a proper way because digital evidences are sensitive to any
changes; also he/she has to well understand the legal issues that related to digital crimes
investigation and be ready to any risks through his/her work. [14]
3.3. Investigation Process (General Glances)
Investigation process begins when someone report that there is a criminal activity takes place,
when investigator arrived to crime scene there are many steps have to be done: firstly investigator

should has clear plan to start the investigation including where and how to search, coll
evidences (digital evidences and sometimes physical evidences) and seize them, also he has to
take pictures -for documenting purpose
a warrant to seize evidences if a suspect has essential evide
been finished there must be a report including details describing what happen in the crime and
Note down all his observations, after that
There are many models
process. The main purpose of these models or frameworks is to carry on a successful forensic
investigation, although there is no a clear restrict on choosing which model, but the obvious rule
is to use the most suitable and efficient one
different investigation models:
3.3.1. Computer Forensic Investigative Process (198
This process was proposed by M. M. Pollitt which consists of four phrases as shown in figure 1
below.
Figure 1: Computer Forensic Investigative Process
• Acquisition: Accepted evidence was acquired authoritatively
• Identification: after acquiring
transformed to human format.
• Evaluation: digital components were evaluated to check if they are relevant to case that
is been investigated and if they legitimately acceptable.
• Admission: after all these
3.3.2. DFRWS Investigative Model (2001)
It’s a proposal for an investigation process
Research Workshop (DFRWS), this model has 6 phrases as
should has clear plan to start the investigation including where and how to search, coll
for documenting purpose - for crime scene and evidences. Investigator may require
if a suspect has essential evidence. After investigation process has
after that all these information will be analyzed. [13]
There are many models and frameworks used to conduct digital crime investigation
although there is no a clear restrict on choosing which model, but the obvious rule
is to use the most suitable and efficient one depending on crime case. This part will
Computer Forensic Investigative Process (1984)[15]
Figure 1: Computer Forensic Investigative Process
Acquisition: Accepted evidence was acquired authoritatively
Identification: after acquiring the evidence, digital components was identified and
transformed to human format.
Evaluation: digital components were evaluated to check if they are relevant to case that
been investigated and if they legitimately acceptable.
Admission: after all these phases the evidences will be presented at court.
Investigative Model (2001)[15]
It’s a proposal for an investigation process which presented by the first Digital
Research Workshop (DFRWS), this model has 6 phrases as shown in figure 2.
17
should has clear plan to start the investigation including where and how to search, collect
for crime scene and evidences. Investigator may require
nce. After investigation process has
all these information will be analyzed. [13]
and frameworks used to conduct digital crime investigation
although there is no a clear restrict on choosing which model, but the obvious rule
part will discuss
the evidence, digital components was identified and
Evaluation: digital components were evaluated to check if they are relevant to case that
which presented by the first Digital Forensics

Figure 2: DFRWS Investigative Model
• Identification: identified tasks like profile detection and system monitoring are
accomplished.
• Preservation: the purpose of this phase is to ascertain that the collected data is not a foul
data, e.g. to guarantee that there is an acceptable chain of custody.
• Collection: data that related to the case are collected using recovery techniques.
• Examination and Analysis: after those phases evidences were examined to ensure that
these evidences are validated and related to the case that is focused on also encrypted data
is recovered.
• Presentation: the last phase in which the investigation is documented and expert
testimony is taken.
3.3.3. Abstract Digital Forensics Model (ADFM) (2002)
This model is an enhanced model for previous one (DFRWS Investigative Model). The authors
(Reith, Carr & Gunsch) presented three additional phases (Preparation
Returning Evidence) now it will
Figure 2: DFRWS Investigative Model
Identification: identified tasks like profile detection and system monitoring are
Preservation: the purpose of this phase is to ascertain that the collected data is not a foul
ata, e.g. to guarantee that there is an acceptable chain of custody.
Collection: data that related to the case are collected using recovery techniques.
Examination and Analysis: after those phases evidences were examined to ensure that
validated and related to the case that is focused on also encrypted data
Presentation: the last phase in which the investigation is documented and expert
Abstract Digital Forensics Model (ADFM) (2002) [15]
model is an enhanced model for previous one (DFRWS Investigative Model). The authors
(Reith, Carr & Gunsch) presented three additional phases (Preparation, Approach
will be nine phases. (See figure 3)
18
Identification: identified tasks like profile detection and system monitoring are
Preservation: the purpose of this phase is to ascertain that the collected data is not a foul
Collection: data that related to the case are collected using recovery techniques.
Examination and Analysis: after those phases evidences were examined to ensure that
validated and related to the case that is focused on also encrypted data
Presentation: the last phase in which the investigation is documented and expert
model is an enhanced model for previous one (DFRWS Investigative Model). The authors
Strategy and

Figure 3:
These new phases are mentioned briefly here:
• In preparation phases investigation tools and techniques are perpetrated.
• Approach Strategy phase is aim to ensure that the evidences is free from contamination
and the negative effects for the victims are the least that can be.
• Returning Evidence: this phases check out that if evidences are returned back safely to
their original owners.
3.3.4. Integrated Digital Investigation Process (IDIP) (2003)
It’s introduced by Carrier & Spafford, their aim is to integrate several investigation processes into
one model. In this model the digital crime scene was included to present a virtual environment
where digital evidences of a crime
Figure 4: Integrated Digital Investigation Process
• Readiness phase: in this phase the investigation equipments have to be ready and staff
must be trained. Everything must be ready to begin the investigation process.
• Deployment phase: here the crime or
that there is a crime that has been committed.
Figure 3: Abstract Digital Forensics Model
These new phases are mentioned briefly here:
In preparation phases investigation tools and techniques are perpetrated.
Approach Strategy phase is aim to ensure that the evidences is free from contamination
negative effects for the victims are the least that can be.
Returning Evidence: this phases check out that if evidences are returned back safely to
Integrated Digital Investigation Process (IDIP) (2003) [15]
introduced by Carrier & Spafford, their aim is to integrate several investigation processes into
where digital evidences of a crime are exist. (See figure 4)
Figure 4: Integrated Digital Investigation Process
Readiness phase: in this phase the investigation equipments have to be ready and staff
Deployment phase: here the crime or accident is detected and then investigator knows
that there is a crime that has been committed.
19
Approach Strategy phase is aim to ensure that the evidences is free from contamination
Returning Evidence: this phases check out that if evidences are returned back safely to
introduced by Carrier & Spafford, their aim is to integrate several investigation processes into
Readiness phase: in this phase the investigation equipments have to be ready and staff
accident is detected and then investigator knows

• Physical Crime Scene Investigation phase: this phase is concern on collecting and
analyzing physical evidences.
• Digital Crime Scene Investigation phase: like p
evidences are collected and analyzed.
• Review phase: all previous steps of investigation process are reviewed to make any
addition or enhancement to the investigation procedures if necessary.
Note: It is worth mentioning
phases.
3.3.5. Enhanced Digital Investigation Process Model (EDIP) (2004)
In this investigation model Carrier & Spafford intended to enhance the previous model, two new
phases were added: Traceback and Dynamite. We will explain briefly these new phases:
• Traceback: To Track down the trails that left by offenders
• Dynamite: here the investigation process focus on crime scene and
discover any information about criminals.
Figure 5: Enhanced Digital Investigation Process Model
3.3.6. Computer Forensics Field Triage Process Model (CFFTPM) (2006)
In this process the phrases: identification, analysis and interpretation are provided in short time
on-the-scene. This model has six main phrases and another 6 sub phrases as shown in figure 6:
• Planning phase: Good planning ensures the success of the investigation process.
• Triage phase: here the evidences have been ordered according to their importance, the
most important of them has to process first.
• User Usage Profile phase: in this phase the users’ activities are analyzed in order to
associate evidence to the Suspect.
• Chronology Timeline phase: the purpose of this phrase is to arrange the probable crime
activities in time.
• Internet phase: in this phase the internet related services are examined.
• Case Specific Evidence phase: here the investigator has to adapt the examination to be
focus on specific case.
Physical Crime Scene Investigation phase: this phase is concern on collecting and
analyzing physical evidences.
Digital Crime Scene Investigation phase: like previous phase but here the digital
evidences are collected and analyzed.
Review phase: all previous steps of investigation process are reviewed to make any
addition or enhancement to the investigation procedures if necessary.
Note: It is worth mentioning that readiness and deployment phases have a number of sub
Enhanced Digital Investigation Process Model (EDIP) (2004) [15]
Traceback and Dynamite. We will explain briefly these new phases:
Traceback: To Track down the trails that left by offenders
Dynamite: here the investigation process focus on crime scene and work
discover any information about criminals.
Figure 5: Enhanced Digital Investigation Process Model
Computer Forensics Field Triage Process Model (CFFTPM) (2006) [15]
has six main phrases and another 6 sub phrases as shown in figure 6:
Planning phase: Good planning ensures the success of the investigation process.
Triage phase: here the evidences have been ordered according to their importance, the
them has to process first.
User Usage Profile phase: in this phase the users’ activities are analyzed in order to
associate evidence to the Suspect.
Chronology Timeline phase: the purpose of this phrase is to arrange the probable crime
Internet phase: in this phase the internet related services are examined.
Case Specific Evidence phase: here the investigator has to adapt the examination to be
20
Physical Crime Scene Investigation phase: this phase is concern on collecting and
revious phase but here the digital
Review phase: all previous steps of investigation process are reviewed to make any
that readiness and deployment phases have a number of sub
Traceback and Dynamite. We will explain briefly these new phases:
work hard to
has six main phrases and another 6 sub phrases as shown in figure 6:
Planning phase: Good planning ensures the success of the investigation process.
Triage phase: here the evidences have been ordered according to their importance, the
User Usage Profile phase: in this phase the users’ activities are analyzed in order to
Chronology Timeline phase: the purpose of this phrase is to arrange the probable crime
Case Specific Evidence phase: here the investigator has to adapt the examination to be

21
Figure 6: Computer Forensics Field Triage Process Model
Note: There is no doubt that there are a lot of investigations models and these models are evolved
over time. Some of them are an enhanced model from another one.
3.4. Digital Crime Scene investigation:
After an investigator reach the crime scene the real investigation process is began, the important
part of investigation process and next steps are depended on it. An investigator should recognize
significant evidences in the crime scene; he/she also has to identify these evidences and their
sources. As done in traditional -physical-crime scene evidences must be preserved and
documented. The thing that should be kept in mind is the importance of integration between
physical and digital crime scenes, the scene of the crime has physical part and digital part and
they cannot be separated.[3] (See figure 7)

22
Figure 7: Relationship between physical and digital crime scenes.
3.4.1. Guidelines for Handling Digital Crime Scenes:
There are many guidelines that can be followed by investigators to help them to accomplish the
investigation of digital crime scene. One of the best guidelines is called “The Good Practice
Guide for Computer Based Evidence”, ACPO Guide has four fundamental principles:
Principle 1: No action taken by law enforcement agencies or their agents should change data
held on a computer or storage media which may subsequently be relied upon in court.
Principle 2: In circumstances where a person finds it necessary to access original data held on a
computer or on storage media, that person must be competent to do so and be able to give
evidence explaining the relevance and the implications of their actions.
Principle 3: An audit trail or other record of all processes applied to
Computer-based electronic evidence should be created and preserved. An independent third
party should be able to examine those processes and achieve the same result.
Principle 4: The person in charge of the investigation (the case officer) has overall responsibility
for ensuring that the law and these principles are adhered to. [16]
3.4.2. Authorization issues:
Before beginning to search the crime scene for finding out the evidences, there are some
authorizations issues must be bear in mind:
• The investigation or search process must not go against law.
• Computer security professionals have to hold authorization before any investigation
process inside their organization.
• Sometimes a search warrant is required when evidence is needed to seized. [3]

23
4. CYBERCRIME LAW
There are many laws to control different kinds of crimes and digital crimes or cybercrimes are not
exception. Cybercrime has no Geographical boundaries and the entire world will be affected.
The world and on the united nation level recommended to make effective laws against
cybercrimes, it want to establish “an open-ended intergovernmental expert group to conduct a
comprehensive study of the problem of cybercrime and responses to it by Member States, the
international community and the private sector, including the exchange of information on national
legislation, best practices, technical assistance and international cooperation, with the view to
examining options to strengthen existing and to propose new national and international legal or
other responses to cybercrime”. There are also collaborative works between countries (e.g. United
States and the European Union in 2010) and works groups from institutions to fight cybercrimes
and discus security and legal issues (for instance Cybercrime Legal Working Group established
by The East West Institute in 2010 (EWI)).[17]
This section briefly introduces some about cybercrimes laws in developed countries (as example
here U.S and Europe) and in developing countries (African and Arabic countries as example)
4.1. U.S Cybercrime Law
In the United States and because of its federal nature it has two levels of cybercrime law, one on
the level of whole country and the other on the level of each state. In general Federal Cybercrime
Law concentrates on cybercrimes like: Computer Fraud and Abuse Act, Identity Theft, Child
Pornography, Copyright Infringement, and Trademarks and Trade Secrets but, states may differ in
their legislations.[3]
4.2. European Cybercrime Law
European Cybercrime Law Falls under two legal frameworks: European Union (EU) and the
Council of Europe (CoF), the last one has Cybercrime Convention on cybercrime side, where as
the EU is apolitical union and each country in it has its own implementation for criminal
legislation. [3]
4.3. Cyber Legislation in African countries
African countries start to concentrate with cybercrimes, in the beginning of second millennium
some of countries began to set some laws that control the cyberspace, but in that time these laws
were not took the form of cybercrime law yet. In the middle and end of first decade of the second
millennium some countries were legislated laws for cybercrimes (Sudan is the one of these
countries; in 2007 the cybercrime law was adopted). In general these laws work against
cybercrime like: damage or illegal access to computers, misuse of information systems or
electronic communication service, Computer-related forgery or fraud, child pornography and
other cybercrimes. The penalties range from fines to imprisonment for months or years.
4.4 Cyber Legislation in Arabic Region
Although the cybercrimes rate is not low in Arabic countries but there are still slow procedures
for activating a cybercrime law. Few Arabic countries have particular law for cybercrime (e.g.
Sudan, UAE, Saudi Arabia, and Oman) while some other countries do not enact their cybercrime
law yet.

24
5. CONCLUSION
There is no doubt that computer crime is not like ordinary crime, it has its own aspects that makes
it different, for instance the digital evidence is more fragile than traditional evidence in other
words it can be altered or damaged easily and this firstly caused many problems in particular in
businesses where many people and business man lost their money by direct or indirect way. This
means that digital crime has been a challengeable type of crimes and need big efforts to combat.
Experts and specialists never give up they do their best to fight these crimes that is clear with
many researches about computers crimes, investigation process with different investigation
models and the most important, the cybercrime laws. This is not the end, like any crime digital
crime will continue to be a great threat as the technology continues to be more advanced.
REFERENCES
[1] prashant mahajan & Penelope forbes, (Nov 2012), Digital crime and forensics project
http://www.slideshare.net/prashant3535/digital-crime-forensics
[2] M.E.Kabay, (2008), A Brief History of Computer Crime: An Introduction for Students. MSIA
School of Graduate Studies, Norwich University.
[3] Eoghan Casey (2011). Digital Evidence and Computer Crime (3rd Ed.). Elsevier Inc publisher.
[4] Nabat Arfi, Shalini Agarwal, (2013) “Assessment of Types of Cyber Crime Faced By Elderly Across
Residence”, The International Journal of Engineering and Science (IJES), Vol. 2, No. 6, PP 01-03.
[5] United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), (Feb 2013), Comprehensive Study on
Cybercrime.
[6] Adel Ismail Al-Alawi, (2014), “Cybercrimes.Computer Forensics and their Impact in Business
Climate:Bahrain Status”, Research Journal of Business Management, Vol.8, No. 3, PP 139-156.
[7] Johan Burger, (Sep.2013), National crisis’ of cybercrime poses major threat to SA business
http://www.bdlive.co.za/opinion/2013/09/18/national-crisis-of-cybercrime-poses-major-threat-to-sa-
business
[8] Pierluigi Paganini, (Nov.2013), 2013 – The Impact of Cybercrime.
http://resources.infosecinstitute.com/2013-impact-cybercrime/
[9] 1 million cyber crime victims in SA, (Nov 2013) http://businesstech.co.za/news/general/48854/1-
million-cyber-crime-victims-in-sa/
[10] Daniel Shane, (Sep. 2011), Cybercrime ‘costs UAE $612m’. http://www.itp.net/586045-cybercrime-
costs-uae-612m
[11] George Mason University (School of Public Policy), Virginia Economic Development Partnership’s
(VEDP), (2014), Cyber Security Export Market: Saudi Arabia.
[12] PwC Middle East Economic Crime Survey, (Feb 2014), Economic Crime in the Arab World.
[13] Computer Crime Investigation & Computer Forensic, (1997) Information Systems Security, Vol. 6
No. 2, p56, p25.
[14] AARON PHILIPP, DAVID COWEN, CHRIS DAVIS (2010). Hacking Exposed Computer
Forensics (2nd Ed.). McGraw-Hill
[15] Yunus Yusoff, Roslan Ismail and Zainuddin Hassan, (June 2011) “Common Phases of Computer
Forensic Investigation Models”. International Journal of Computer Science & Information
Technology (IJCSIT), Vol. 3, No. 3
[16] ACPO guidelines,(July 2007)
http://7safe.com/electronic_evidence/ACPO_guidelines_computer_evidence_v4_web.pdf
[17] Judge Stein Schjolberg, (Dec.2011), Global Phenomenon and its Challenges Courmayeur. ISPAC
International Conference on Cybercrime, Italy.
Author
Safiia Mohammed is a computer science graduate who has B.Sc (honors) in computer
science from university of Khartoum - faculty of mathematical science – computer
department (2012). Now she has a big interest in digital forensic and information security
field and this will be a field of her researches in the future.

An introduction to digital crimes

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An introduction to digital crimes