Analysis of Algorithum
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The document discusses algorithm analysis and asymptotic analysis. It introduces key concepts like best case, worst case, and average case running times. It explains that worst case analysis is most important and easiest to analyze. The document covers analyzing algorithms using pseudocode, counting primitive operations, and determining asymptotic running time using Big-O notation. Examples are provided to illustrate these concepts, including analyzing algorithms for finding the maximum element in an array and computing prefix averages.
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![Analysis of Algorithms 6© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia
Pseudocode (§3.2)
High-level description
of an algorithm
More structured than
English prose
Less detailed than a
program
Preferred notation for
describing algorithms
Hides program design
issues
Algorithm arrayMax(A, n)
Input array A of n integers
Output maximum element of A
currentMax ← A[0]
for i ← 1 to n − 1 do
if A[i] > currentMax then
currentMax ← A[i]
return currentMax
Example: find max
element of an array](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/lec7-140316022624-phpapp01/85/Analysis-of-Algorithum-6-320.jpg)
![Analysis of Algorithms 7© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia
Pseudocode Details
Control flow
if … then … [else …]
while … do …
repeat … until …
for … do …
Indentation replaces braces
Method declaration
Algorithm method (arg [, arg…])
Input …
Output …
Method call
var.method (arg [, arg…])
Return value
return expression
Expressions
← Assignment
(like = in Java)
= Equality testing
(like == in Java)
n2
Superscripts and other
mathematical formatting
allowed](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/lec7-140316022624-phpapp01/85/Analysis-of-Algorithum-7-320.jpg)
![Analysis of Algorithms 10© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia
Counting Primitive
Operations (§3.4)
By inspecting the pseudocode, we can determine the
maximum number of primitive operations executed by
an algorithm, as a function of the input size
Algorithm arrayMax(A, n)
currentMax ← A[0] 2
for i ← 1 to n − 1 do 2n
if A[i] > currentMax then 2(n − 1)
currentMax ← A[i] 2(n − 1)
{ increment counter i } 2(n − 1)
return currentMax 1
Total 8n − 2](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/lec7-140316022624-phpapp01/85/Analysis-of-Algorithum-10-320.jpg)
![Analysis of Algorithms 21© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia
Computing Prefix Averages
We further illustrate
asymptotic analysis with
two algorithms for prefix
averages
The i-th prefix average of
an array X is average of the
first (i + 1) elements of X:
A[i] = (X[0] + X[1] + … + X[i])/(i+1)
Computing the array A of
prefix averages of another
array X has applications to
financial analysis
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
X
A](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/lec7-140316022624-phpapp01/85/Analysis-of-Algorithum-21-320.jpg)
![Analysis of Algorithms 22© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia
Prefix Averages (Quadratic)
The following algorithm computes prefix averages in
quadratic time by applying the definition
Algorithm prefixAverages1(X, n)
Input array X of n integers
Output array A of prefix averages of X #operations
A ← new array of n integers n
for i ← 0 to n − 1 do n
s ← X[0] n
for j ← 1 to i do 1 + 2 + …+ (n − 1)
s ← s + X[j] 1 + 2 + …+ (n − 1)
A[i] ← s / (i + 1) n
return A 1](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/lec7-140316022624-phpapp01/85/Analysis-of-Algorithum-22-320.jpg)
![Analysis of Algorithms 24© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia
Prefix Averages (Linear)
The following algorithm computes prefix averages in
linear time by keeping a running sum
Algorithm prefixAverages2(X, n)
Input array X of n integers
Output array A of prefix averages of X #operations
A ← new array of n integers n
s ← 0 1
for i ← 0 to n − 1 do n
s ← s + X[i] n
A[i] ← s / (i + 1) n
return A 1
Algorithm prefixAverages2 runs in O(n) time](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/lec7-140316022624-phpapp01/85/Analysis-of-Algorithum-24-320.jpg)
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Attribution Theory
Attribution TheoryAin-ul-Moiz Khawaja Attribution theory examines how people explain the causes of behavior. There are two types of attribution theory: internal attribution theory, which attributes a person's behavior to internal characteristics like ability or effort, and external attribution theory, which attributes behavior to outside factors such as other people or circumstances. Managers make attributions about employees' job performance through selective perception, only seeing certain attributes, and through halo and contrast effects, where they judge employees based on one trait or in comparison to others. Proper attribution is important for managers since their judgments guide decision-making that impacts employees.
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Analysis of Algorithum
- 1. © 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms AlgorithmInput Output An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem in a finite amount of time.
- 2. Analysis of Algorithms 2© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Running Time (§3.1) Most algorithms transform input objects into output objects. The running time of an algorithm typically grows with the input size. Average case time is often difficult to determine. We focus on the worst case running time. Easier to analyze Crucial to applications such as games, finance and robotics 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 RunningTime 1000 2000 3000 4000 I nput Size best case average case worst case
- 3. Analysis of Algorithms 3© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Experimental Studies Write a program implementing the algorithm Run the program with inputs of varying size and composition Use a method like System.currentTimeMillis() to get an accurate measure of the actual running time Plot the results 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 0 50 100 I nput Size Time(ms)
- 4. Analysis of Algorithms 4© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Limitations of Experiments It is necessary to implement the algorithm, which may be difficult Results may not be indicative of the running time on other inputs not included in the experiment. In order to compare two algorithms, the same hardware and software environments must be used
- 5. Analysis of Algorithms 5© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Theoretical Analysis Uses a high-level description of the algorithm instead of an implementation Characterizes running time as a function of the input size, n. Takes into account all possible inputs Allows us to evaluate the speed of an algorithm independent of the hardware/software environment
- 6. Analysis of Algorithms 6© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Pseudocode (§3.2) High-level description of an algorithm More structured than English prose Less detailed than a program Preferred notation for describing algorithms Hides program design issues Algorithm arrayMax(A, n) Input array A of n integers Output maximum element of A currentMax ← A[0] for i ← 1 to n − 1 do if A[i] > currentMax then currentMax ← A[i] return currentMax Example: find max element of an array
- 7. Analysis of Algorithms 7© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Pseudocode Details Control flow if … then … [else …] while … do … repeat … until … for … do … Indentation replaces braces Method declaration Algorithm method (arg [, arg…]) Input … Output … Method call var.method (arg [, arg…]) Return value return expression Expressions ← Assignment (like = in Java) = Equality testing (like == in Java) n2 Superscripts and other mathematical formatting allowed
- 8. Analysis of Algorithms 8© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia The Random Access Memory (RAM) Model A CPU An potentially unbounded bank of memory cells, each of which can hold an arbitrary number or character 0 1 2 Memory cells are numbered and accessing any cell in memory takes unit time.
- 9. Analysis of Algorithms 9© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Primitive Operations Basic computations performed by an algorithm Identifiable in pseudocode Largely independent from the programming language Exact definition not important (we will see why later) Assumed to take a constant amount of time in the RAM model Examples: Evaluating an expression Assigning a value to a variable Indexing into an array Calling a method Returning from a method
- 10. Analysis of Algorithms 10© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Counting Primitive Operations (§3.4) By inspecting the pseudocode, we can determine the maximum number of primitive operations executed by an algorithm, as a function of the input size Algorithm arrayMax(A, n) currentMax ← A[0] 2 for i ← 1 to n − 1 do 2n if A[i] > currentMax then 2(n − 1) currentMax ← A[i] 2(n − 1) { increment counter i } 2(n − 1) return currentMax 1 Total 8n − 2
- 11. Analysis of Algorithms 11© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Estimating Running Time Algorithm arrayMax executes 8n − 2 primitive operations in the worst case. Define: a = Time taken by the fastest primitive operation b = Time taken by the slowest primitive operation Let T(n) be worst-case time of arrayMax. Then a (8n − 2) ≤ T(n) ≤ b(8n − 2) Hence, the running time T(n) is bounded by two linear functions
- 12. Analysis of Algorithms 12© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Growth Rate of Running Time Changing the hardware/ software environment Affects T(n) by a constant factor, but Does not alter the growth rate of T(n) The linear growth rate of the running time T(n) is an intrinsic property of algorithm arrayMax
- 13. Analysis of Algorithms 13© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Seven Important Functions (§3.3) Seven functions that often appear in algorithm analysis: Constant ≈ 1 Logarithmic ≈ log n Linear ≈ n N-Log-N ≈ n log n Quadratic ≈ n2 Cubic ≈ n3 Exponential ≈ 2n In a log-log chart, the slope of the line corresponds to the growth rate of the function 1E+0 1E+2 1E+4 1E+6 1E+8 1E+10 1E+12 1E+14 1E+16 1E+18 1E+20 1E+22 1E+24 1E+26 1E+28 1E+30 1E+0 1E+2 1E+4 1E+6 1E+8 1E+10 n T(n) Cubic Quadratic Linear
- 14. Analysis of Algorithms 14© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Constant Factors The growth rate is not affected by constant factors or lower-order terms Examples 102 n + 105 is a linear function 105 n2 + 108 n is a quadratic function 1E+0 1E+2 1E+4 1E+6 1E+8 1E+10 1E+12 1E+14 1E+16 1E+18 1E+20 1E+22 1E+24 1E+26 1E+0 1E+2 1E+4 1E+6 1E+8 1E+10 n T(n) Quadratic Quadratic Linear Linear
- 15. Analysis of Algorithms 15© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Big-Oh Notation (§3.4) Given functions f(n) and g(n), we say that f(n) is O(g(n)) if there are positive constants c and n0 such that f(n) ≤ cg(n) for n ≥ n0 Example: 2n + 10 is O(n) 2n + 10 ≤ cn (c − 2) n ≥ 10 n ≥ 10/(c − 2) Pick c = 3 and n0= 10 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 1 10 100 1,000 n 3n 2n+10 n
- 16. Analysis of Algorithms 16© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Big-Oh Example Example: the function n2 is not O(n) n2 ≤ cn n ≤ c The above inequality cannot be satisfied since c must be a constant 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 1 10 100 1,000 n n^ 2 100n 10n n
- 17. Analysis of Algorithms 17© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia More Big-Oh Examples 7n-2 7n-2 is O(n) need c > 0 and n0 ≥ 1 such that 7n-2 ≤ c•n for n ≥ n0 this is true for c = 7 and n0 = 1 3n3 + 20n2 + 5 3n3 + 20n2 + 5 is O(n3 ) need c > 0 and n0 ≥ 1 such that 3n3 + 20n2 + 5 ≤ c•n3 for n ≥ n0 this is true for c = 4 and n0 = 21 3 log n + 5 3 log n + 5 is O(log n) need c > 0 and n0 ≥ 1 such that 3 log n + 5 ≤ c•log n for n ≥ n0 this is true for c = 8 and n0 = 2
- 18. Analysis of Algorithms 18© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Big-Oh and Growth Rate The big-Oh notation gives an upper bound on the growth rate of a function The statement “f(n) is O(g(n))” means that the growth rate of f(n) is no more than the growth rate of g(n) We can use the big-Oh notation to rank functions according to their growth rate f(n) is O(g(n)) g(n) is O(f(n)) g(n) grows more Yes No f(n) grows more No Yes Same growth Yes Yes
- 19. Analysis of Algorithms 19© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Big-Oh Rules If is f(n) a polynomial of degree d, then f(n) is O(nd ), i.e., 1. Drop lower-order terms 2. Drop constant factors Use the smallest possible class of functions Say “2n is O(n)” instead of “2n is O(n2 )” Use the simplest expression of the class Say “3n + 5 is O(n)” instead of “3n + 5 is O(3n)”
- 20. Analysis of Algorithms 20© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Asymptotic Algorithm Analysis The asymptotic analysis of an algorithm determines the running time in big-Oh notation To perform the asymptotic analysis We find the worst-case number of primitive operations executed as a function of the input size We express this function with big-Oh notation Example: We determine that algorithm arrayMax executes at most 8n − 2 primitive operations We say that algorithm arrayMax “runs in O(n) time” Since constant factors and lower-order terms are eventually dropped anyhow, we can disregard them when counting primitive operations
- 21. Analysis of Algorithms 21© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Computing Prefix Averages We further illustrate asymptotic analysis with two algorithms for prefix averages The i-th prefix average of an array X is average of the first (i + 1) elements of X: A[i] = (X[0] + X[1] + … + X[i])/(i+1) Computing the array A of prefix averages of another array X has applications to financial analysis 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X A
- 22. Analysis of Algorithms 22© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Prefix Averages (Quadratic) The following algorithm computes prefix averages in quadratic time by applying the definition Algorithm prefixAverages1(X, n) Input array X of n integers Output array A of prefix averages of X #operations A ← new array of n integers n for i ← 0 to n − 1 do n s ← X[0] n for j ← 1 to i do 1 + 2 + …+ (n − 1) s ← s + X[j] 1 + 2 + …+ (n − 1) A[i] ← s / (i + 1) n return A 1
- 23. Analysis of Algorithms 23© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Arithmetic Progression The running time of prefixAverages1 is O(1 + 2 + …+ n) The sum of the first n integers is n(n + 1) / 2 There is a simple visual proof of this fact Thus, algorithm prefixAverages1 runs in O(n2 ) time 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6
- 24. Analysis of Algorithms 24© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Prefix Averages (Linear) The following algorithm computes prefix averages in linear time by keeping a running sum Algorithm prefixAverages2(X, n) Input array X of n integers Output array A of prefix averages of X #operations A ← new array of n integers n s ← 0 1 for i ← 0 to n − 1 do n s ← s + X[i] n A[i] ← s / (i + 1) n return A 1 Algorithm prefixAverages2 runs in O(n) time
- 25. Analysis of Algorithms 25© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia properties of logarithms: logb(xy) = logbx + logby logb (x/y) = logbx - logby logbxa = alogbx logba = logxa/logxb properties of exponentials: a(b+c) = ab a c abc = (ab )c ab /ac = a(b-c) b = a log a b bc = a c*log a b Summations Logarithms and Exponents Proof techniques Basic probability Math you need to Review
- 26. Analysis of Algorithms 26© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Relatives of Big-Oh big-Omega f(n) is Ω(g(n)) if there is a constant c > 0 and an integer constant n0 ≥ 1 such that f(n) ≥ c•g(n) for n ≥ n0 big-Theta f(n) is Θ(g(n)) if there are constants c’ > 0 and c’’ > 0 and an integer constant n0 ≥ 1 such that c’•g(n) ≤ f(n) ≤ c’’•g(n) for n ≥ n0
- 27. Analysis of Algorithms 27© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Intuition for Asymptotic Notation Big-Oh f(n) is O(g(n)) if f(n) is asymptotically less than or equal to g(n) big-Omega f(n) is Ω(g(n)) if f(n) is asymptotically greater than or equal to g(n) big-Theta f(n) is Θ(g(n)) if f(n) is asymptotically equal to g(n)
- 28. Analysis of Algorithms 28© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Example Uses of the Relatives of Big-Oh f(n) is Θ(g(n)) if it is Ω(n2 ) and O(n2 ). We have already seen the former, for the latter recall that f(n) is O(g(n)) if there is a constant c > 0 and an integer constant n0 ≥ 1 such that f(n) < c•g(n) for n ≥ n0 Let c = 5 and n0 = 1 5n2 is Θ(n2 ) f(n) is Ω(g(n)) if there is a constant c > 0 and an integer constant n0 ≥ 1 such that f(n) ≥ c•g(n) for n ≥ n0 let c = 1 and n0 = 1 5n2 is Ω(n) f(n) is Ω(g(n)) if there is a constant c > 0 and an integer constant n0 ≥ 1 such that f(n) ≥ c•g(n) for n ≥ n0 let c = 5 and n0 = 1 5n2 is Ω(n2 )
Editor's Notes
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