Analysis the article from foreign Affairs (April 1945), The Camp.docx

Analysis the article from foreign Affairs (April 1945), The
Campaign in Burma by Horace S.
Sewell. And answer the questions bellow. 2.5 pages. In your
analysis you should address each of the five major points listed
below in one form or another.
a. Author: Who is the author? What is their background?
b. Audience: Who is the audience for the piece? How does the
type of audience impact the ways in which the product takes
shape?
c. Purpose: Why was the piece produced? Is the piece effective
in achieving its purpose? What factors help it and what factors
hinder it?
d. Tone and Language: What is the tone of the source? How is
the tone and the language related to its overall purpose? What
can the tone tell us about the author or his/her relationship to
the audience?
e. Significance: This is the most important element of your
analysis. Why is this source important? Why should scholars
use this source when making historical analyses? What can this
source tell us that other types of sources might not be able to
do? (most important)

OBJECTIVES
In this chapter you will learn ...
• The history of the Internet and World Wide Web
• Fundamental concepts and protocols that support the Internet
• About the hardware and software that supports the Internet
• How a web page is actually retrieved and interpreted
This chapter introduces the World Wide Web (WWW). The
WWW relies on a number of systems, protocols, and
technologies all
working together in unison. Before learning about HTML
markup,
CSS styling, JavaScript, and PHP programming, you must
understand
how the Internet makes web applications possible. This chapter
begins
with a brief history of the Internet and provides an overview of
key
Internet and WWW technologies applicable to the web
developer. To
truly understand these concepts in depth, one would normally
take

courses in computer science or information technology (IT)
covering
networking principles. If you find some of these topics too in-
depth
or advanced, you may decide to skip over some of the details
here
and return to them later.
I
How the Web Works 1
2 CHAPTER 1 How the Web Works
1.1 Definitions and History
The World Wide Web (WWW or simply the Web) is certainly
what most people
think of when they see the word "Internet." But the WWW is
only a subset of the
Internet, as illustrated in Figure 1.1.
1.1.1 A Short History of the Internet
The history of telecommunication and data transport is a long
one. There is a stra-
tegic advantage in being able to send a message as quickly as
possible (or at least,
more quickly than your competition). The Internet is not alone

in providing instan-
taneous digital communication. Earlier technologies like radio,
telegraph, and the
telephone provided the same speed of communication, albeit in
an analog form.
Telephone networks in particular provide a good starting place
to learn about
modern digital communications. In the telephone networks of
old, calls were routed
through operators who physically connected caller and receiver
by connecting a
wire co a switchboard to complete a circuit. These operators
were around in some
areas for almost a century before being replaced with automatic
mechanical
switches, which did the same job: physically connect caller and
receiver.
One of the weaknesses of having a physical connection is that
you must estab-
lish a link and maintain a dedicated circuit for the duration of
the call. This type of
network connection is sometimes referred to as circuit
switching and is shown in
Figure 1.2.
The problem with circuit switching is that it can be difficult to
have multiple
conversations simultaneously (which a computer might want to
do). It also requires
more bandwidth since even the silences are transmitted (chat is,
unused capacity in
the network is not being used efficiently).

FIGURE 1.1 The web as a subset of the Internet
Thou map of woe, that
thus dost talk in signs!
FIGURE 1.2 Telephone network as example of circuit switching
1.1 Definitions and History 3
Bandwidth is a measurement of how much data can (maximally)
be transmitted
along an Internet connection. Normally measured in bits per
second (bps), this mea-
surement differs according to the type of Internet access
technology you are using.
A dial-up 56-Kbps modem has far less bandwidth than a 10-
Gbps fiber optic
connection.
In the 1960s, as researchers explored digital communications
and began to
construct the first networks, the research network ARPANET
was created. ARPANET
did not use circuit switching but instead used an alternative
communications method
called packet switching. A packet-switched network does not
require a continuous
connection. Instead it splits the messages into smaller chunks
called packets and
routes them to the appropriate place based on the destination
address. The packets
can take different routes to the destination, as shown in Figure

1.3. This may seem
a more complicated and inefficient approach than circuit
switching, but is in fact
more robust (it is not reliant on a single pathway that may fail)
and a more efficient
use of network resources (since a circuit can communicate data
from multiple
connections).
This early ARPANET network was funded and controlled by the
United States
government, and was used exclusively for academic and
scientific purposes. The
early network started small with just a handful of connected
university campuses
and research institutions and companies in 1969 and grew to a
few hundred by the
early 1980s.
At the same time, alternative networks were created like X.25 in
1974, which
allowed (and encouraged) business use. USENET, built in 1979,
had fewer restric-
tions still, and as a result grew quickly to 550 hosts by 1981.
Although there was
growth in these various networks, the inability for them to
communicate with each
Sender
address

Original message
broken into
FIGURE 1.3 Internet network as example of packet switching
thus dost talk in signs!
A B 3 talk in signs
Original message
reassembled from
packets
other was a real limitation. To promote the growth and
unification of the disparate
networks, a suite of protocols was invented to unify the
networks. A protocol is the
name given to a formal set of publicly available rules that
manage data exchange
between two points. Communications protocols allow any two
computers to talk to
one another, so long as they implement the protocol.
By 1981 protocols for the Internet were published and ready for
use.1,2 New
networks built in the United States began to adopt the TCP/IP
(Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) communication model
(discussed in the next
section), while older networks were transitioned over to it.
Any organization, private or public, could potentially connect to
this new network

so long as they adopted the TCP/IP protocol. On January 1,
1983, TCP/IP was adopted
across all of ARPANET, marking the end of the research
network that spawned the
lnternet.3 Over the next two decades, TCP/IP networking was
adopted across the globe.
1.1.2 The Birth of the Web
The next decade saw an explosion in the numbers of users, but
the Internet of the late
1980s and the very early 1990s did not resemble the Internet we
know today. During
these early years, email and text-based systems were the extent
of the Internet experience.
This transition from the old terminal and text-only Internet of
the 1980s to
the Internet of today is of course due to the invention and
massive growth of the
World Wide Web. This invention is usually attributed to the
British Tim
Berners-Lee (now Sir Tim Berners-Lee), who, along with the
Belgian Robert
Cailliau, published a proposal in 1990 for a hypertext system
while both were

working at CERN in Switzerland. Shortly thereafter Berners-
Lee developed the
main features of the web. 4
This early web incorporated the following essential elements
that are still the
core features of the web today:
A Uniform Resource Locator (URL) to uniquely identify a
resource on the
WWW.
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) to describe how
requests and
responses operate.
A software program (later called web server software) that can
respond to
HTTP requests.
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) to publish documents.
A program (later called a browser) that can make HTTP requests
from URLs
and that can display the HTML it receives.
HTML will require several chapters to cover in this book. URLs
and the HTTP
are covered in this chapter. This chapter will also provide a
little bit of insight into
the nature of web server software; Chapter 20 will examine the
inner workings of
server software in more detail.
So while the essential outline of today's web was in place in the

early 1990s,
the web as we know it did not really begin until Mosaic, the
first popular graphi-
cal browser application, was developed at the National Center
for Supercomputing
Applications at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
and released in early
1993 by Eric Bina and Marc Andreessen (who was a computer
science under-
graduate student at the time). Andreessen later moved to
California and cofounded
Netscape Communications, which released Netscape Navigator
in late 1994.
Navigator quickly became the principal web browser, a position
it held until the
end of the 1990s, when Microsoft's Internet Explorer (first
released in 1995)
became the market leader, a position it would hold for over a
decade.
Also in late 1994, Berners-Lee helped found the World Wide
Web Consortium
(W3C), which would soon become the international standards
organization that
would oversee the growth of the web. This growth was very
much facilitated by the
decision of CERN to not patent the work and ideas done by its
employee and
instead leave the web protocols and code-base royalty free.

To illustrate the growth of the Internet, Figure 1.4 graphs the
count of hosts
connected to the Internet from 1990 until 2010. You can see
that the last decade in
particular has seen an enormous growth, during which social
networks, web
0 .......
::c: .!!!
+' IU
Q) '-'
C: "'
... '-'
Q) ·-
.... E
.: ..c:
1,000,000,000
100,000,000
10,000,000
o·�
t � ..c 0
E;::.
:,
z

1, 000, 00
�--
1990 1995 2000
Year
2005 2010
FIGURE 1.4 Growth in Internet hosts/servers based on data
from the Internet
Systems Consortium. 5
services, asynchronous applications, the semantic web, and
more have all been cre-
ated (and will be described fully in due course in this textbook).
� BACKGROUND
The Request for Comments (RFC) archive lists all of the
Internet and
WWW protocols, concepts, and standards. It started out as an
unofficial reposi-
tory for ARPANET information and eventually became the de
facto official
record. Even today new standards are published there.
1.1.3. Web Applications in Comparison
to Desktop Applications
The user experience for a website is unlike the user experience
for traditional desk-

top software. The location of data storage, limitations with the
user interface, and
limited access to operating system features are just some of the
distinctions.
However, as web applications have become more and more
sophisticated, the dif-
ferences in the user experience between desktop applications
and web applications
are becoming more and more blurred.
There are a variety of advantages and disadvantages to web-
based applications in
comparison to desktop applications. Some of the advantages of
web applications include:
Accessible from any Internet-enabled computer.
Usable with different operating systems and browser
applications.
Easier to roll out program updates since only software on the
server needs to
be updated and not on every desktop in the organization.
Centralized storage on the server means fewer security concerns
about local
storage (which is important for sensitive information such as
health care data).
Unfortunately, in the world of IT, for every advantage, there is
often a corre-

sponding disadvantage; this is also true of web applications.
Some of these disad-
vantages include:
Requirement to have an active Internet connection (the Internet
is not always
available everywhere at all times).
Security concerns about sensitive private data being transmitted
over the
Internet.
Concerns over the storage, licensing, and use of uploaded data.
Problems with certain websites on certain browsers not looking
quite right.
Restrictions on access to the operating system can prevent
software and
hardware from being installed or accessed (like Adobe Flash on
iOS).
In addition, clients or their IT staff may have additional plugins
added to their
browsers, which provide added control over their browsing
experience, but which
might interfere with JavaScript, cookies, or advertisements. We
will continually try
to address these challenges throughout the book.
BACKGROUND
One of the more common terms you might encounter in web
development is
the term "intranet" (with an "a"), which refers to an Internet
network that is local

to an organization or business. Intranet resources are often
private, meaning that
only employees (or authorized external parties such as
customers or suppliers) have
access to those resources. Thus Internet (with an "e") is a
broader term that
encompasses both private (intranet) and public networked
resources.
Intranets are typically protected from unauthorized external
access via
security features such as firewalls or private IP ranges, as
shown in Figure 1.5.
Because intranets are private, search engines such as Google
have limited or no
access to content within them.
Due to this private nature, it is difficulc to accurately gauge, for
instance,
how many web pages exist within intranets, and what
technologies are more
common in them. Some especially expansive estimates guess
that almost half of
all web resources are hidden in private intranets.
Being aware of intranets is also important when one considers
the job
market and market usage of different web technologies. If one
focuses just on the
( continued)

Customers and corporate
partners might be able to
access internal system.
FIGURE 1.5 Intranet versus Internet
public Internet, it will appear that PHP, MySQL, and WordPress
are the most
commonly used web development stack. But when one adds in
the private world
of corporate intranets, other technologies such as ASP.NET,
JSP, SharePoint,
Oracle, SAP, and IBM WebSphere are just as important.
1.1.4 Static Websites versus Dynamic Websites
In the earliest days of the web, a webmastcr (the term popular in
the 1990s for the
person who was responsible for creating and supporting a
website) would publish
web pages and periodically update them. Users could read the
pages but could not
provide feedback. The early days of the web included many
encyclopedic, collection-
style sites with lots of content to read (and animated icons to
watch).
In those early days, the skills needed to create a website were
pretty basic: one
needed knowledge of the HTML and perhaps familiarity with

editing and creating
images. This type of website is commonly referred to as a static
website, in that it consists
0 Browser
displays files
� E) Server retrieves files ,
_ t from its hard drive
0 Server "sends" HTML
and then later the image
to browser Ji .. lEJ
picture.jpg
FIGURE 1.6 Static website
only of HTML pages that look identical for all users at all
times. Figure 1.6 illustrates a
simplified representation of the interaction between a user and a
static website.
Within a few years of the invention of the web, sites began to
get more compli-
cated as more and more sites began to use programs running on
web servers to
generate content dynamically. These server-based programs
would read content
from databases, interface with existing enterprise computer

systems, communicate
with financial institutions, and then output HTML that would be
sent back to the
users' browsers. This type of website is called here in this text a
dynamic website
because the page content is being created at run time by a
program created by a
programmer; this page content can vary from user to user.
Figure 1. 7 illustrates a
very simplified representation of the interaction between a user
and a dynamic
website.
So while knowledge of HTML was still necessary for the
creation of these
dynamic websites, it became necessary to have programming
knowledge as well.
And by the late 1990s, other knowledge and skills were
becoming necessary, such
as CSS, usability, and security.
1.1.5 Web 2.0 and Beyond
In the mid-2000s, a new buzzword entered the computer
lexicon: Web 2.0. This term
had two meanings, one for users and one for developers. For the
users, Web 2.0

G Browser
displays files
Q Server "sends"
generated HTML
and the image
file to user.
FIGURE 1.7 Dynamic website
0 I want to see
vacation.php
)o '""' """'"
or interprets
h
A
t e script.
v Scripts
"outputs" HTML (
�
vacation.php
referred to an interactive experience where users could
contribute and consume web
content, thus creating a more user-driven web experience. Some
of the most popular
websites fall into this category: Facebook, YouTube, and
Wikipedia. This shift to
allow feedback from the user, such as comments on a story,
threads in a message
board, or a profile on a social networking site has
revolutionized what it means to

use a web application.
For software developers, Web 2.0 also referred to a change in
the paradigm of
how dynamic websites are created. Programming logic, which
previously existed
only on the server, began to migrate to the browser. This
required learning
JavaScript, a rather tricky programming language that runs in
the browser, as well
as mastering the rather difficult programming techniques
involved in asynchronous
communication.
Web development in the Web 2.0 world is significantly more
complicated today
than it was even a decade ago. While this book attempts to
cover all the main topics
in web development, in practice, it is common for a certain
division of labor to exist.
The skills to create a good-looking static web page are not the
same skill set that is
required to write software that facilitates user interactions.
Many programmers are
1.2 Internet Protocols 11
poor visual user interface designers, and most designers can't
program. This separa-
tion of software system and visual user interface is essential to
any Web 2.0

application.
Chapters on HTML and CSS are essential for learning about
layout and design
best practices. Later chapters on server and client-side
programming build on those
design skills, but go far beyond them. To build modern
applications you must have
both sets of skills on your team.
� BACKGROUND
When a system is known by a 1.0 and 2.0, people invariably
speculate on
what the 3.0 version will look like. If there is a Web 3.0, it is
currently uncertain
and still under construction. Some people have, however,
argued that Web 3.0
will be something called the semantic web.
Semantic is a word from linguistics that means, quite literally,
"meaning."
The semantic web thus adds context and meaning to web pages
in the form of
special markup. These semantic elements would allow search
engines and other
data mining agents to make sense of the content.
Currently a block of text on the web could be anything: a poem,
an article,
or a copyright notice. Search engines at present mainly just
match the text you
are searching for with text in the page. Currently these search
engines have to use

sophisticated algorithms to try to figure out the meaning of the
page. The goal of
the semantic web is to make it easier to figure out those
meanings, thereby dra-
matically improving the nature of search on the web. Currently
there are a num-
ber of semi-standardized approaches for adding semantic
qualifiers to HTML;
some examples include RDF (Resource Description
Framework), OWL (Web
Ontology Language), and SKOS (Simple Knowledge
Organization System).
1. 2 Internet Protocols
The Internet exists today because of a suite of interrelated
communications proto-
cols. A protocol is a set of rules that partners in communication
use when they
communicate. We have already mentioned one of these essential
Internet protocols,
namely TCP/IP.
These protocols have been implemented in every operating
system, and make
fast web development possible. If web developers had to keep
track of packet rout-
ing, transmission details, domain resolution, checksums, and
more, it would be hard
to get around to the matter of actually building websites.
Despite the fact that these
protocols work behind the scenes for web developers, having
some general aware-

ness of what the suite of Internet protocols does for us can at
times be helpful.
I. 2 .1 A Layered Architecture
The TCP/IP Internet protocols were originally abstracted as a
four-layer stack.6,7
Later abstractions subdivide it further into five or seven
layers.8 Since we are
focused on the top layer anyhow, we will use the earliest and
simplest four-layer
network model shown in Figure 1.8.
Layers communicate information up or down one level, but
needn't worry
about layers far above or below. Lower layers handle the more
fundamental aspects
of transmitting signals through networks, allowing the higher
layers to think about
how a client and server interact. The web requires all layers to
operate, although in
web development we will focus on the highest layer, the
application layer.
I. 2. 2 Link Layer
The link layer is the lowest layer, responsible for both the
physical transmission
across media (wires, wireless) and establishing logical links. It
handles issues like

FIGURE 1.8 Four-layer network model
packet creation, transm1ss1on, reception, error detection,
collisions, line sharing,
and more. The one term here that is sometimes used in the
Internet context is that
of MAC (media access control) addresses. These are unique 48-
or 64-bit identifiers
assigned to network hardware and which are used at the
physical networking level.
We will not focus on this layer, although you can learn more in
a computer
networking course or text.
1.2.3 Internet Layer
The Internet layer (sometimes also called the IP Layer) routes
packets between com-
munication partners across networks. The Internet layer
provides "best effort"
communication. It sends out the message to the destination, but
expects no reply,
and provides no guarantee the message will arrive intact, or at
all.
The Internet uses the Internet Protocol (IP) addresses to identify
destinations on

the Internet. As can be seen in Figure 1.9, every device
connected to the Internet has
an IP address, which is a numeric code that is meant to uniquely
identify it.
The details of the IP addresses can be important to a web
developer. There are
occasions when one needs to track, record, and compare the IP
address of a given
web request. Online polls, for instance, need to compare IP
addresses to ensure the
same address does not vote more than once.
1Pv4'address 142.108.149.36
IP Address
IP Address
0-_,
IP:
BootP Static
IP: 10.238.28.131
10.239.28.131
FIGURE 1.9 IP addresses and the Internet
IP: 22.15.216.13
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llff"""fr1noft llilndaw5 Ners1on (.:l'..16011
copyright (c) 2009 .. ,crosoh corr,or.:ation. o1,l1 rtght:s.
ru•rved.
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f
1g
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ftit : ; 192.168.123.254
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IP: 142.181.80.3
HANDS-ON
EXERCISES
LAB 1 EXERCISE

Your IP address
1Pv4
2
32
addresses
1Pv6
2
128
addresses
4-8 bit components
(32 bits)
_/11_�
192. 168 . 123. 254
8-16 bit components
(128 bits)
��
3fae:7a10:4545:9:291:e8ff:fe21:37ca
FIGURE 1.10 1Pv4 and 1Pv6 comparison
There are two types of IP addresses: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4
addresses are the IP
addresses from the original TCP/IP protocol. In IPv4, 12
numbers are used (imple-

mented as four 8-bit integers), written with a dot between each
integer (Figure 1.10).
Since an unsigned 8-bit integer's maximum value is 255, four
integers together can
encode approximately 4.2 billion unique IP addresses.
Your IP address will generally be assigned to you by your
Internet service pro-
vider (ISP). In organizations, large and small, purchasing extra
IP addresses from the
ISP is not cost effective. In a local network, computers can
share a single external IP
address between them. IP addresses in the range of 192.168.0.0
to 192.168.255, for
example, are reserved for exactly this local area network use.
Your connection
therefore might have an internal IP of 192.168.0.15 known only
to the internal
network, and another public IP address that is your address to
the world.
The decision to make IP addresses 32 bits limited the number of
hosts to 4.2
billion. As more and more devices connected to the Internet the
supply was becom-
ing exhausted, especially in some local areas that had already
distributed their share.
To future-proof the Internet against the 4.2 billion limit, a new
version of the
IP protocol was created, IPv6. This newer version uses eight 16-
bit integers for 2 128
0 BACKGROUND

You may be wondering who gives an ISP its IP addresses. The
answer is
ultimately the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (JANA).
This group is actu-
ally a department of ICANN, the Internet Corporation for
Assigned Names and
Numbers, which is an internationally organized nonprofit
organization respon-
sible for the global coordination of IP addresses, domains, and
Internet protocols.
IANA allocates IP addresses from pools of unallocated
addresses to Regional
Internet Registries such as AfriNIC (for Africa) or ARIN (for
North America).
unique addresses, over a billion billion times the number in
IPv4. These 16-bit
integers are normally written in hexadecimal, due to their
longer length. This new
addressing system is currently being rolled out with a number of
transition
mechanisms, making the rollout seamless to most users and
even developers.
Figure 1.10 compares the 1Pv4 and 1Pv6 address schemes.
1. 2 .4 Transport Layer
The transport layer ensures transmissions arrive in order and
without error. This is

accomplished through a few mechanisms. First, the data is
broken into packets formatted
according to the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). The data
in these packets can
vary in size from O to 64K, though in practice typical packet
data size is around 0.5 to
lK. Each data packet has a header that includes a sequence
number, so the receiver can
put the original message back in order, no matter when they
arrive. Secondly, each packet
is acknowledged back to the sender so in the event of a lost
packet, the transmitter will
realize a packet has been lost since no ACK arrived for that
packet. That packet is retrans-
mitted, and although out of order, is reordered at the
destination, as shown in Figure
1.11. This means you have a guarantee that messages sent will
arrive and in order. As a
consequence, web developers don't have to worry about pages
not getting to the users.
0 Message broken
into packets with a
sequence number.
thus dost ralk in signs!
[ 1 [ Thou map of woe, I
[ 2 [ that thus dost [
[ 3 J talk in signs! [

C) Eventually. sender will
resend any packets that
didn't get an ACK back.
FIGURE 1.11 TCP packets
f) For each TCP packet
sent, an ACK
(acknowledgement)
must be received back.
thus dost ralk in signs!
() Message reassembled from
packets and ordered according
to their sequence numbers.
Sometimes we do not want guaranteed transmission of packets.
Consider a live multicast of a soccer game, for example.
Millions of sub-
scribers may be streaming the game, and we can't afford to track
and retransmit
every lost packet. A small loss of data in the feed is acceptable,
and the customers
will still see the game. An Internet protocol called User
Datagram Protocol (UDP)
is used in these scenarios in lieu of TCP. Other examples of
UDP services include
Voice Over IP, many online games, and Domain Name System
(DNS).

1.2.5 Application Layer
With the application layer, we are at the level of protocols
familiar to most web
developers. Application layer protocols implement process-to-
process communica-
tion and are at a higher level of abstraction in comparison to the
low-level packet
and IP address protocols in the layers below it.
There are many application layer protocols. A few that are
useful to web
developers include:
HTTP. The Hypertext Transfer Protocol is used for web
communication.
SSH. The Secure Shell Protocol allows remote command-line
connections to
servers.
FTP. The File Transfer Protocol is used for transferring files
between
computers.
POP/IMAP/SMTP. Email-related protocols for transferring and
storing
email.
DNS. The Domain Name System protocol used for resolving
domain names
to IP addresses.
We will discuss the HTTP and the DNS protocols later in this
chapter. SSH

will be covered later in the book in the chapter on security.
1. 3 The Client-Server Model
The web is sometimes referred to as a client-server model of
communications. In the
client-server model, there are two types of actors: clients and
servers. The server is
a computer agent that is normally active 24 hours a day, 7 days
a week, listening
1.3 The Client-Server Model 17
for queries from any client who make a request. A client is a
computer agent that
makes requests and receives responses from the server, in the
form of response
codes, images, text files, and other data.
1.3.1 The Client
Client machines are the desktops, laptops, smart phones, and
tablets you see
everywhere in daily life. These machines have a broad range of
specifications
regarding operating system, processing speed, screen size,
available memory,
and storage. In the most familiar scenario, client requests for
web pages come
through a web browser. But a client can be more than just a web

browser. When
your word processor's help system accesses online resources, it
is a client, as is
an iOS game that communicates with a game server using
HTTP. Sometimes a
server web program can even act as a client. For instance, later
in Chapter 17,
our sample PHP websites will consume web services from
service providers such
as Flickr and Microsoft; in those cases, our PHP application
will be acting as a
client.
The essential characteristic of a client is that it can make
requests to particular
servers for particular resources using URLs and then wait for
the response. These
requests are processed in some way by the server.
1.3.2 The Server
The server in this model is the central repository, the command
center, and the
central hub of the client-server model. It hosts web applications,
stores user and
program data, and performs security authorization tasks. Since
one server may serve
many thousands, or millions of client requests, the demands on
servers can be high.
A site that stores image or video data, for example, will require
many terabytes of
storage to accommodate the demands of users.

The essential characteristic of a server is that it is listening for
requests, and
upon getting one, responds with a message. The exchange of
information between
the client and server is summarized by the request-response
loop.
1.3.3 The Request-Response Loop
Within the client-server model, the request-response loop is the
most basic
mechanism on the server for receiving requests and transmitting
data in
response. The client initiates a request to a server and gets a
response that could
include some resource like an HTML file, an image, or some
other data, as
shown in Figure 1.12. This response can also contain other
information about
the request, or the resource provided such as response codes,
cookies, and other
data.
FIGURE 1.12 Request-response loop
1.3.4 The Peer-to-Peer Alternative
It may help your understanding to contrast the client-server
model with a different
network topology. In the peer-to-peer model, shown in Figure

1.13, where each
computer is functionally identical, each node is able to send and
receive data
directly with one another. In such a model, each peer acts as
both a client and
server, able to upload and download information. Neither is
required to be con-
nected 24/7, and with each computer being functionally equal,
there is less distinc-
tion between peers. The client-server model, in contrast, defines
clear and distinct
roles for the server. Video chat and bit torrent protocols are
examples of the peer-
to-peer model.
1.3.5 Server Types
In Figure 1.12, the server was shown as a single machine, which
is fine from a con-
ceptual standpoint. Clients make requests for resources from a
URL; to the client,
the server is a single machine.
However, most real-world websites are typically not served
from a single
server machine, but by many servers. It is common to split the
functionality of a
website between several different types of server, as shown in
Figure 1.14. These
include:
Web servers. A web server is a computer servicing HTTP

requests. This
typically refers to a computer running web server software such
as Apache
or Microsoft IIS (Internet Information Services).
Reqoest and/
FIGURE 1.13 Peer-to-peer model
Application servers. An application server is a computer that
hosts and
executes web applications, which may be created in PHP,
ASP.NET, Ruby
on Rails, or some other web development technology.
Database servers. A database server is a computer that is
devoted to running
a Database Management System (DBMS), such as MySQL,
Oracle, or SQL
Server, that is being used by web applications.
Mail servers. A mail server is a computer creating and
satisfying mail
requests, typically using the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
(SMTP).
Media servers. A media server (also called a streaming server)
is a special
type of server dedicated to servicing requests for images and
videos . It may

run special software that allows video content to be streamed to
clients.
Authentication servers. An authentication server handles the
most common
security needs of web applications. This may involve interacting
with local
networking resources such as LDAP (Lightweight Directory
Access Protocol)
or Active Directory.
In smaller sites, these specialty servers are often the same
machine as the web
server.
FIGURE 1.14 Different types of server
1.3.6 Real-World Server Installations
The previous section briefly described the different types of
server that one might
find in a real-world website. In such a site, not only are there
different types of
server, but there is often replication of each of the different
server types. A busy site
can receive thousands or even tens of thousands of requests a
second; globally
popular sites such as Facebook receive millions of requests a

second.
A single web server that is also acting as an application or
database server will
be hard-pressed to handle more than a few hundred requests a
second, so the usual
strategy for busier sites is to use a server farm. The goal behind
server farms is to
distribute incoming requests between clusters of machines so
that any given web or
data server is not excessively overloaded, as shown in Figure
1.15. Special devices
called load balancers distribute incoming requests to available
machines.
Even if a site can handle its load via a single server, it is not
uncommon to still use
a server farm because it provides failover redundancy; that is, if
the hardware fails in a
single server, one of the replicated servers in the farm will
maintain the site's availability.
In a server farm, the computers do not look like the ones in your
house. Instead,
these computers are more like the plates stacked in your kitchen
cabinets. That is, a
farm will have its servers and hard drives stacked on top of each
other in server
FIGURE 1.15 Server farm

racks. A typical server farm will consist of many server racks,
each containing many
servers, as shown in Figure 1.16.
Server farms are typically housed in special facilities called
data centers. A data
center will contain more than just computers and hard drives;
sophisticated air con-
ditioning systems, redundancy power systems using batteries
and generators, and
security personnel are all part of a typical data center, as shown
in Figure 1.17.
To prevent the potential for site down times, most large
websites will exist in
mirrored data centers in different parts of the country, or even
the world. As a con-
sequence, the costs for multiple redundant data centers are quite
high (not only due
to the cost of the infrastructure but also due to the very large
electrical power con-
sumption used by data centers), and only larger web companies
can afford to create
and manage their own. Most web companies will instead lease
space from a third-
party data center.
The scale of the web farms and data centers for large websites
can be astonish-

ingly large. While most companies do not publicize the size of
their computing
infrastructure, some educated guesses can be made based on the
publicly known IP
address ranges and published records of a company's energy
consumption and their
power usage effectiveness.
For instance, a 2012 estimate argued that Amazon Web Services
is using almost
half a million servers spread across seven different data
centers.9 In 2012, an
FIGURE 1.16 Sample server rack
Fiber channel switches
Rack management server
Test server
Keyboard tray and flip-up monitor
Patch panel
Production web server
Production data server
RAID HD arrays

Patch panel
Production web server
Production data server
Batteries and UPS
infrastructure engineer at Amazon using a much more
conservative estimation algo-
rithm concluded that Face book is using about 200,000 servers
while Google is using
around a million servers. lo
1.4 Where Is the Internet? 23
Air conditioning
l)ii.l.ttl.
FIG URE 1.17 Hypothetical data center
(f:o BACKGROUND
UPS (batteries)
Backup
generators
It is also common for the reverse to be true-that is, a single
server machine

may host multiple sites. Large commercial web hosting
companies such as
GoDaddy, BlueHost, Dreamhost, and others will typically host
hundreds or even
thousands of sites on a single machine (or mirrored on several
servers).
This type of server is sometimes referred to as a virtual server (
or virtual
private server). In this approach, each virtual server runs its
own copy of the
operating system web server software and thus emulates the
operations of a
dedicated physical server.
1.4 Where Is the Internet?
It is quite common for the Internet to be visually represented as
a cloud, which is
perhaps an apt way to think about the Internet given the
importance of light and
magnetic pulses to its operation. To many people using it, the
Internet does seem to
lack a concrete physical manifestation beyond our computer and
cell phone screens.
But it is important to recognize that our global network of
networks does not
work using magical water vapor, but is implemented via
millions of miles of copper
wires and fiber optic cables, as well as via hundreds of
thousands or even millions
HANDS-ON

EXERCISES
LAB 1 EXERCISE
Tracing a Packet
of server computers and probably an equal number of routers,
switches, and other
networked devices, along with many thousands of air
conditioning units and
specially constructed server rooms and buildings.
The big picture of all the networking hardware involved in
making the Internet
work is far beyond the scope of this text. We should, however,
try to provide at least
some sense of the hardware that is involved in making the web
possible.
1.4.1 From the Computer to the Local Provider
Andrew Blum, in his eye-opening book, Tubes: A Journey to the
Center of the
Internet, tells the reader that he decided to investigate the
question "Where is the
Internet" when a hungry squirrel gnawing on some outdoor
cable wires disrupted his
home connection thereby making him aware of the real-world

texture of the Internet.
While you may not have experienced a similar squirrel problem,
for many of us, our
main experience of the hardware component of the Internet is
that which we experi-
ence in our homes. While there are many configuration
possibilities, Figure 1.18 does
provide an approximate simplification of a typical home to local
provider setup.
The broadband modem (also called a cable modem or DSL
modem) is a bridge
between the network hardware outside the house (typically
controlled by a phone
or cable company) and the network hardware inside the house.
These devices are
often supplied by the ISP.
FIGURE 1.18 Internet hardware from the home computer to the
local Internet provider
The wireless router is perhaps the most visible manifestation of
the Internet in
one's home, in that it is a device we typically need to purchase
and install. Routers
are in fact one of the most important and ubiquitous hardware
devices that make
the Internet work. At its simplest, a router is a hardware device
that forwards data

packets from one network to another network. When the router
receives a data
packet, it examines the packet's destination address and then
forwards it to another
destination by deciding the best path to send the packets.
A router uses a routing table to help determine where a packet
should be sent.
It is a table of connections between target addresses and the
node (typically another
router) to which the router can deliver the packet. In Figure
1.19, the different rout-
ing tables use next-hop routing, in which the router only knows
the address of the
next step of the path to the destination; it leaves it to the next
step to continue rout-
ing the packet to the appropriate destination. The packet thus
makes a variety of
successive hops until it reaches its destination. There are a lot
of details that have
been left out of this particular illustration. Routers will make
use of submasks,
Sender address Sr
142.109.149.46
!142.109.149.46 ,209.202.161.24011 !Thoumapofwoe,I �

Sender address Destination
address
Router address
Router address
Routing table
Address Next Hop
0.0.0.0 127.0.0.1
65.47.242.9
90.124.1.2
Address
208.68.17.3
142.109.149.146
66.37.223.130
Next Hop
140.239.191.1
65.47.242.9
1 66.37 .223.130 I 209.202. 161.240 66.37.223.130
Router address

Address
142.109.149.146
etc.
FIGURE 1.19 Simplified routing tables
Next Hop
142.109.149.146
209.202. 161.240 204. 70.198.182
etc.
etc.
timestamps, distance metrics, and routing algorithms to
supplement or even replace
routing tables; but those are all topics for a network architecture
course.
Once we leave the confines of our own homes, the hardware of
the Internet
becomes much murkier. In Figure 1.18, the various
neighborhood broadband cables
(which are typically using copper, aluminum, or other metals)
are aggregated and
connected to fiber optic cable via fiber connection boxes. Fiber
optic cable (or sim-
ply optical fiber) is a glass-based wire that transmits light and

has significantly
greater bandwidth and speed in comparison to metal wires. In
some cities (or large
buildings), you may have fiber optic cable going directly into
individual buildings;
in such a case the fiber junction box will reside in the building.
These fiber optic cables eventually make their way to an ISP's
head-end, which
is a facility that may contain a cable modem termination system
(CMTS) or a digi-
tal subscriber line access multiplexer (DSLAM) in a DSL-based
system. This is a
special type of very large router that connects and aggregates
subscriber connections
to the larger Internet. These different head-ends may connect
directly to the wider
Internet, or instead be connected to a master head-end, which
provides the connec-
tion to the rest of the Internet.
1.4.2 From the Local Provider to the Ocean's Edge
Eventually your ISP has to pass on your requests for Internet
packets to other net-
works. This intermediate step typically involves one or more
regional network hubs.
Your ISP may have a large national network with optical fiber
connecting most of the
main cities in the country. Some countries have multiple
national or regional net-
works, each with their own optical network. Canada, for
instance, has three national
networks that connect the major cities in the country as well as
connect to a couple
of the major Internet exchange points in the United States, as

well as several provincial
networks that connect smaller cities within one or two
provinces. Alternatively, your
smaller regional ISP may have transit arrangements with a
larger national network
(that is, they lease the use of part of their optical fiber
network's bandwidth).
A general principle in network design is that the fewer the
router hops (and thus
the more direct the path), the quicker the response. Figure 1.20
illustrates some
hypothetical connections between several different networks
spread across four
countries. As you can see, just like in the real world, the
countries in the illustration
differ in their degree of internal and external
interconnectedness.
The networks in Country A are all interconnected, but rely on
Network Al to
connect them to the networks in Country B and C. Network Bl
has many connec-
tions to other countries' networks. The networks within Country
C and D are not
interconnected, and thus rely on connections to international
networks in order to
transfer information between the two domestic networks. For
instance, even though
the actual distance between a node in Network Cl and a node in
C2 might only be
a few miles, those packets might have to travel many hundreds
or even thousands
of miles between networks Al and/or Bl.

FIGURE 1.20 Connecting different networks within and
between countries
Clearly this is an inefficient system, but is a reasonable
approximation of the
state of the Internet in the late 1990s (and in some regions of
the world this is still
the case), when almost all Internet traffic went through a few
Network Access
Points (NAP), most of which were in the United States.
This type of network configuration began to change in the
2000s, as more and
more networks began to interconnect with each other using an
Internet exchange
point (IX or IXP). These IXPs allow different ISPs to peer with
one another (that is,
interconnect) in a shared facility, thereby improving
performance for each partner in
the peer relationship.
Figure 1.21 illustrates how the configuration shown in Figure
1.20 changes with
the use of IXPs.
As you can see, IXPs provide a way for networks within a
country to intercon-
nect. Now networks in Countries C and D no longer need to

make hops out of their
Country A
FIGURE 1.21 National and regional networks using Internet
exchange points
country for domestic communications. Notice as well that for
each of the IXPs,
there are connections not just with networks within their
country, but also with
other countries' networks as well. Multiple paths between IXPs
provide a powerful
way to handle outages and keep packets flowing. Another key
strength of IXPs is
that they provide an easy way for networks to connect to many
other networks at
a single location.11
As you can see in Figure 1.22, different networks connect not
only to other
networks within an IXP, but now large websites such as
Microsoft and
Facebook are also connecting to multiple other networks
simultaneously as a
way of improving the performance of their sites. Real IXPs,
such as at Palo Alto
(PAIX), Amsterdam (AMS-IX), Frankfurt (CE-CIX), and
London (LINX),

allow many hundreds of networks and companies to
interconnect and have
throughput of over 1000 gigabits per second. The scale of
peering in these IXPs
is way beyond that shown in Figure 1.22 (which shows peering
with only five
others); companies within these IXPs use large routers from
Cisco and Brocade
that have hundreds of ports allowing hundreds of simultaneous
peering
relationships.
In recent years, major web companies have joined the network
companies in
making use of IXPs. As shown in Figure 1.23, this sometimes
involves mirroring
(duplicating) a site's infrastructure (i.e., web and data servers)
in a data center
located near the IXP. For instance, Equinix Ashburn IX in
Ashburn, Virginia, is
surrounded by several gigantic data centers just across the street
from the IXP.
FIGURE 1.22 Hypothetical Internet exchange point
FIGURE 1.23 IXPs and data centers
This concrete geography to the digital world encapsulates an
arrangement that

benefits both the networks and the web companies. The website
will have incre-
mental speed enhancements (by reducing the travel distance for
these sites)
across all the networks it is peered with at the IXP, while the
network will have
improved performance for its customers when they visit the
most popular
websites.
1.4.3 Across the Oceans
Eventually, international Internet communication will need to
travel underwater.
The amount of undersea fiber optic cable is quite staggering and
is growing yearly.
As can be seen in Figure 1.24, over 250 undersea fiber optic
cable systems operated
by a variety of different companies span the globe. For places
not serviced by under-
sea cable (such as Antarctica, much of the Canadian Arctic
islands, and other small
islands throughout the world), Internet connectivity is provided
by orbiting satel-
lites. It should be noted that satellite links (which have smaller
bandwidth in com-
parison to fiber optic) account for an exceptionally small
percentage of oversea
Internet communication.

HANDS-ON
EXERCISES
LAB 1 EXERCISE
Name Servers
< >
"" " ..
'
'
"'
, .. . i
, ..
!i<!t'U
.
,o, '� iC '
" - ·'"*'' .... =�·- '" ;11:.� •• .:..----,.,,,, . ..,-,.
.
,c,·�·•�
FIGURE 1.24 Undersea fiber optic cables (courtesy
TeleGeography/www.submarinecablemap.com)
1.5 Domain Name System
Back in Section 1.2, you learned about IP addresses and how

they are an essential
feature of how the Internet works. As elegant as IP addresses
may be, human beings
do not enjoy having to recall long strings of numbers. One can
imagine how
unpleasant the Internet would be if you had to remember IP
addresses instead of
domains. Rather than google.com, you'd have to type
173.194.33.32. If you had to
type in 69.171. 237.24 to visit Facebook, it is quite likely that
social networking
would be a less popular pastime.
Even as far back as the days of ARPANET, researchers assigned
domain names
to IP addresses. In those early days, the number of Internet
hosts was small, so a list
of a few hundred domain and IP addresses could be downloaded
as needed from the
Stanford Research Institute (now SRI International) as a hosts
file (see Pro Tip).
Those key-value pairs of domain names and IP addresses
allowed people to use the
domain name rather than the IP address.12
As the number of computers on the Internet grew, this hosts file
had to be
replaced with a better, more scalable, and distributed system.
This system is called
the Domain Name System (DNS) and is shown in its most
simplified form in

Figure 1.25.
I need to go to
www.funwebdev.com
O What's the
IP address of
www.funwebdev.com?
0 Here it is ...
FIGURE 1.25 DNS overview
1.5 Domain Name System 31
DNS is one of the core systems that make an easy-to-use
Internet possible (DNS
is used for email as well). The DNS system has another benefit
besides ease of use.
By separating the domain name of a server from its IP location,
a site can move to
a different location without changing its name. This means that
sites and email
systems can move to larger and more powerful facilities without
disrupting service.
Since the entire request-response cycle can take less than a
second, it is easy to
forget that DNS requests are happening in all your web and
email applications.
Awareness and understanding of the DNS system is essential for
success in develop-

ing, securing, deploying, troubleshooting, and maintaining web
systems.
A remnant of those earliest days still exists on most modern
computers,
namely the hosts file. Inside that file (in Unix systems typically
at /etc/hosts) you
will see domain name mappings in the following format:
127.0.0.1 Localhost SomelocalDomainName.com
This mechanism will be used in this book to help us develop
websites on our own
computers with real domain names in the address bar.
( continued)
The same hosts file mechanism could also allow a malicious
user to reroute traffic
destined for a particular domain. If a malicious user ran a server
at 123.56.789.1
they could modify a user's hosts to make facebook.com point to
their malicious
server. The end client would then type facebook.com into his
browser and instead
of routing that traffic to the legitimate facebook.com servers, it
would be sent to

the malicious site, where the programmer could phish, or steal
data.
123.456.678.1 facebook.com
For this reason many system administrators and most modern
operating systems
do not allow access to this file without an administrator
password.
1.5.1 Name Levels
A domain name can be broken down into several parts. They
represent a hierarchy,
with the rightmost parts being closest to the root at the "top" of
the Internet naming
hierarchy. All domain names have at least a top-level domain
(TLD) name and a
second-level domain (SLD) name. Most websites also maintain
a third-level WWW
subdomain and perhaps others. Figure 1.26 illustrates a domain
with four levels.
The rightmost portion of the domain name (to the right of the
rightmost period)
is called the top-level domain. For the top level of a domain, we
are limited to two
broad categories, plus a third reserved for other use. They are:
Third-level domain l Top-level d
r

main (TLD)
serverl.www.funwebdev.com
Most general
Most specific
t t
Fourth-level domain Second-level domain (SLD)
Top-level domain (TLD) com
Secon d-level domain (SLD) funwebdev
�
Third-level domain www
I
Fourth-level domain serverl
FIGURE 1.26 Domain levels
Generic top-level domain (gTLD)
o Unrestricted. TLDs include .com, .net, .org, and .info.
o Sponsored. TLDs including .gov, .mil, .edu, and others. These
domains
can have requirements for ownership and thus new second-level
domains
must have permission from the sponsor before acquiring a new

address.
o New. From January to May of 2012, companies and
individuals could
submit applications for new TLDs. TLD application results were
announced
in June 2012, and include a wide range of both contested and
single
applicant domains. These include corporate ones like .apple,
.google, and
.macdonalds, and contested ones like .buy, .news, and .music.13
Country code top-level domain (ccTLD)
o TLDs include .us, .ca, .uk, and .au. At the time of writing,
there were 252
codes registered.14 These codes are under the control of the
countries
which they represent, which is why each is administered
differently. In the
United Kingdom, for example, commercial entities and
businesses must
register subdomains to co.uk rather than second-level domains
directly.
In Canada .ca domains can be obtained by any person, company,
or
organization living or doing business in Canada. Other countries
have
peculiar extensions with commercial viability (such as .tv for
Tuvalu) and
have begun allowing unrestricted use to generate revenue.
o Since some nations use nonwestern characters in their native
languages,
the concept of the internationalized top-level domain name
(TON)

has also been tested with great success in recent y ears. Some
IDNs
include Greek, Japanese, and Arabic domains (among others)
which
have test domains at http://rrapaonyµa.oo1<1µri, http://f�1J�.
TA 1--, and
http:// �.:.IJ. !t.:.iyl.; , respectively.
arpa
o The domain .arpa was the first assigned top-level domain. It is
still
assigned and used for reverse DNS lookups (i.e., finding the
domain name
of an IP address).
In a domain like funwebdev.com, the ".com" is the top-level
domain and fun-
webdev is called the second-level domain. Normally it is the
second-level domains
that one registers.
There are few restrictions on second-level domains aside from
those imposed by
the registrar (defined in the next section below). Except for
internationalized domain
names, we are restricted to the characters A-Z, 0-9, and the "-"
character. Since
domain names are case-insensitive characters, a-z can also be
used interchangeably .
The owner of a second-level domain can elect to have

subdomains if they so
choose, in which case those subdomains are prepended to the
base hostname. For
example, we can create exam-answers.webdevfun.com as a
domain name, where
exam-answers is the subdomain (don't bother checking ... it
doesn't exist).
We could go further creating sub-subdomains if we wanted to.
Each fur-
ther level of subdomain is prepended to the front of the
hostname. This allows
third level, fourth, and so on. This can be used to identify
individual computers
on a network all within a domain.
1.5.2 Name Registration
As we have seen, domain names provide a human-friendly way
to identify comput-
ers on the Internet. How then are domain names assigned?
Special organizations or
companies called domain name registrars manage the
registration of domain names.
These domain name registrars are given permission to do so by
the appropriate
generic top-level domain (gTLD) registry and/or a country code
top-level domain
(ccTLD) registry.
In the 1990s, a single company (Networks

Solution
s Inc.) handled the com, net,
and org registries. By 1999, the name registration system
changed to a market sys-
tem in which multiple companies could compete in the domain
name registration
business. A single organization-the nonprofit Internet
Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers (ICANN)-still oversees the management of
top-level
domains, accredits registrars, and coordinates other aspects of
DNS. At the time of
writing this chapter, there were almost 1000 different !CANN-
accredited registrars
worldwide.
Figure 1.27 illustrates the process involved in registering a
domain name.
1.5.3 Address Resolution

While domain names are certainly an easier way for users to
reference a website,
eventually your browser needs to know the IP address of the
website in order to
request any resources from it. DNS provides a mechanism for
software to discover
this numeric IP address. This process is referred to here as
address resolution.
As shown back in Figure 1.25, when you request a domain
name, a computer
called a domain name server will return the IP address for that
domain. With that
IP address, the browser can then make a request for a resource
from the web server
for that domain.
I want the domain
funwebdev.com

0 Decide on a
top-level
domain (.com)
and a
0 Choose a domain registrar
or a reseller (a company such
as a web host that works
with a registrar).
for domain
to TLD name
server.
C) Enjoy the new domain .
You now have purchased
the rights to use it.
FIGURE 1.27 Domain name registration process
TLD (.com)
registry
C) Complete the registration procedures

which includes WHOIS contact information
(includes DNS information) and payment.
While Figure 1.25 provides a clear overview of the address
resolution process,
it is quite simplified. What actually happens during address
resolution is more com-
plicated, as can be seen in Figure 1.28.
DNS is sometimes referred to as a distributed database system
of name servers .
Each server in this system can answer, or look for the answer to
questions about
domains, caching results along the way. From a client's
perspective, this is like a
phonebook, mapping a unique name to a number .
Figure 1.28 is one of the more complicated ones in this text, so
let's examine
the address resolution process in more detail.
1. The resolution process starts at the user's computer. When the
domain www
.funwebdev.com is requested (perhaps by clicking a link or
typing in a URL),

the browser will begin by seeing if it already has the IP address
for the domain
in its cache. If it does, it can jump to step Gin the diagram.
2. If the browser doesn't know the IP address for the requested
site, it will delegate
the task to the DNS resolver, a software agent that is part of the
operating
',
0 I want to visit www. funwebdev. com
e If IP for this site is not in browser's cache,
it delegates task to operating system's e If the primary DNS
DNS Resolver. e
. . server doesn't have
If not 1n its DNS cache,
the requested domain

resolver makes requ
1
est
in its DNS cache, it
for IP address to ISP s
sends out the request
to the root name
server.
O Root name server
returns IP of name
server for requested
TLD (in this case
the com name server).
FIGURE 1.28 Domain name address resolution process
system. The DNS resolver also keeps a cache of frequently
requested domains;
if the requested domain is in its cache, then the process jumps
to step G.

3. Otherwise, it must ask for outside help, which in this case is
a nearby
DNS server, a special server that processes DNS requests. This
might be a
computer at your Internet service provider (ISP) or at your
university or
corporate IT department. The address of this local DNS server
is usually
stored in the network settings of your computer's operating
system, as can
be seen in Figure 1.9. This server keeps a more substantial
cache of domain
name/IP address pairs. If the requested domain is in its cache,
then the
process jumps to step 0).
4. If the local DNS server doesn't have the IP address for the
domain in its
cache, then it must ask other DNS servers for the answer.
Thankfully, the
domain system has a great deal of redundancy built into it. This
means that
in general there are many servers that have the answers for any
given DNS

request. This redundancy exists not only at the local level (for
instance, in
Figure 1.28, the ISP has a primary DNS server and an
alternative one as
well) but at the global level as well.
5. If the local DNS server cannot find the answer to the request
from an
alternate DNS server, then it must get it from the appropriate
top-level
domain (TLD) name server. For funwebdev.com this is .com.
Our local DNS
server might already have a list of the addresses of the
appropriate TLD
name servers in its cache. In such a case, the process can jump
to step O.
6. If the local DNS server does not already know the address of
the requested
TLD server (for instance, when the local DNS server is first

starting up it
won't have this information), then it must ask a root name
server for that
information. The DNS root name servers store the addresses of
TLD name
servers. JANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority)
authorizes 13 root
servers, so all root requests will go to one of these 13 roots. In
practice,
these 13 machines are mirrored and distributed around the world
(see http://
www.root-servers.org/ for an interactive illustration of the
current root
servers); at the time of writing there are a total of 350 root
server machines.
With the creation of new commercial top-level domains in 2012,
approximately
2000 or so new TLDs will be coming online; this will create a
heavier load on
these root name servers.
7. After receiving the address of the TLD name server for the
requested
domain, the local DNS server can now ask the TLD name server
for the

address of the requested domain. As part of the domain
registration process
(see Figure 1.27), the address of the domain's DNS servers are
sent to the
TLD name servers, so this is the information that is returned to
the local
DNS server in step().
8. The user's local DNS server can now ask the DNS server
(also called a
second-level name server) for the requested domain
(www.funwebdev.com);
it should receive the correct IP address of the web server for
that domain.
This address will be stored in its own cache so that future
requests for this
domain will be speedier. That IP address can finally be returned
to the DNS
resolver in the requesting computer, as shown in step G.
9. The browser will eventually receive the correct IP address for
the requested
domain, as shown in step 4S. Note: If the local DNS server was
unable to
find the IP address, it would return a failed response, which in

turn would
cause the browser to display an error message.
10. Now that it knows the desired IP address, the browser can
finally send out
the request to the web server, which should result in the web
server responding
with the requested resource (step«,).
This process may seem overly complicated, but in practice it
happens very
quickly because DNS servers cache results. Once the server
resolves funwebdev
.com, subsequent requests for resources on funwebdev.com will
be faster, since we
can use the locally stored answer for the IP address rather than
have to start over
again at the root servers.
To facilitate system-wide caching, all DNS records contain a
time to live (TTL)
field, recommending how long to cache the result before
requerying the name

server. Although this mechanism improves the efficiency and
response time of the
DNS system, it has a consequence of delaying propagation of
changes throughout
all servers. This is why administrators, after updating a DNS
entry, must wait for
propagation to all client ISP caches.
For more hands-on practice with the Domain Names System,
please refer to
Chapter 19 on Deployment.
Every web developer should understand the practice of pointing
the name
servers to the web server hosting the site. Quite often, domain
registrars can
convince customers into purchasing hosting together with their

domain. Since
most users are unaware of the distinction, they do not realize
that the company
from which you buy web space does not need to be the same
place you registered
the domain. Those name servers can then be updated at the
registrar to point to
any name servers you use. Within 48 hours, the IP-to-domain
name mapping
should have propagated throughout the DNS system so that
anyone typing the
newly registered domain gets directed to your web server.
1. 6 Uniform. Resource Locators
In order to allow clients to request particular resources from the
server, a naming
mechanism is required so that the client knows how to ask the
server for the file.
For the web that naming mechanism is the Uniform Resource
Locator (URL). As

illustrated in Figure 1.29, it consists of two required
components: the protocol used
to connect, and the domain (or IP address) to connect to.
Optional components of
the URL are the path (which identifies a file or directory to
access on that server),
the port to connect to, a query string, and a fragment identifier.
1.6.l Protocol
The first part of the URL is the protocol that we are using.
Recall that in Section
1.2 we listed several application layer protocols on the TCP/IP
stack. Many of those
protocols can appear in a URL, and define what application
protocols to use.
Requesting ftp://example.com/abc.txt sends out an FTP request
on port 21, while
http://example.com/abc.txt would transmit on port 80.

http://www.funwebdev.com/index.php?page=l7#article
-.- --,-----
Protocol Domain
FIG URE 1.29 URL components
Path Query String Fragment
1.6.2 Domain
1.6 Uniform Resource Locators 39
The domain identifies the server from which we are requesting
resources. Since the
DNS system is case insensitive, this part of the URL is case
insensitive. Alternatively,
an IP address can be used for the domain.
1.6.3 Port

The optional port attribute allows us to specify connections to
ports other than the
defaults defined by the IANA authority. A port is a type of
software connection
point used by the underlying TCP/IP protocol and the
connecting computer. If the
IP address is analogous to a building address, the port number is
analogous to the
door number for the building.
Although the port attribute is not commonly used in production
sites, it can be
used to route requests to a test server, to perform a stress test,
or even to circumvent
Internet filters. If no port is specified, the protocol component
of a URL determines
which port to use.
The syntax for the port is to add a colon after the domain, then
specify an inte-
ger port number. Thus for instance, to connect to our server on

port 888 we would
specify the URL as http://funwebdev.com:888/.
1.6.4 Path
The path is a familiar concept to anyone who has ever used a
computer file system.
The root of a web server corresponds to a folder somewhere on
that server. On
many Linux servers that path is /var/www/html/ or something
similar (for Windows
US machines it is often /inetpub/wwwroot/). The path is case
sensitive, though on
Windows servers it can be case insensitive.
The path is optional. However, when requesting a folder or the
top-level page
of a domain, the web server will decide which file to send you.
On Apache servers
it is generally index.html or index.php. Windows servers
sometimes use Default
.html or Default.aspx. The default names can always be

configured and changed.
1.6.5 Query String
Query strings will be covered in depth when we learn more
about HTML forms and
server-side programming. They are the way of passing
information such as user
form input from the client to the server. In URLs, they are
encoded as key-value
pairs delimited by " & " symbols and preceded by the "?"
symbol. The components
for a query string encoding a username and password are
illustrated in Figure 1.30.
1.6.6 Fragment
The last part of a URL is the optional fragment. This is used as
a way of requesting
a portion of a page. Browsers will see the fragment in the URL,
seek out the

HANDS-ON
EXERCISES
LAB 1 EXERCISE
Seeing HTTP Headers
?username=john&password=abcdefg
L 1d-values _J
Delimiters
FIGURE 1.30 Query string components
fragment tag anchor in the HTML, and scroll the website down
to it. Many early
websites would have one page with links to content within that
page using frag-
ments and "back to top" links in each section.

I. 7 Hypertext Transfer Protocol
There are several layers of protocols in the TCP/IP model, each
one building on the
lower ones until we reach the highest level, the application
layer, which allows for
many different types of services, like Secure Shell (SSH), File
Transfer Protocol
(FTP), and the World Wide Web's protocol, i.e., the Hypertext
Transfer Protocol
(HTTP).
While the details of many of the application layer protocols are
beyond the scope
of this text, some, like HTIP, are an essential part of the web
and hence require a
deep understanding for a developer to build atop them
successfully. We will come
back to the HTTP protocol at various times in this book; each
time we will focus
on a different aspect of it. However, here we will just try to
provide an overview of
its main points.

The HTTP establishes a TCP connection on port 80 (by default).
The server
waits for the request, and then responds with a response code,
headers, and an
optional message (which can include files) as shown in Figure
1.31.
The user experience for a website is unlike a user experience for
traditional
desktop software. Users do not download software; they visit a
URL. While we as
web users might be tempted to think of an entire page being
returned in a single
HTTP response, this is not in fact what happens.
In reality the experience of seeing a single web page is
facilitated by the client's
browser, which requests the initial HTML page, then parses the
returned HTML to
find all the resources referenced from within it, like images,
style sheets, and scripts.
Only when all the files have been retrieved is the page fully
loaded for the user, as

shown in Figure 1.32. A single web page can reference dozens
of files and requires
many HTTP requests and responses.
The fact that a single web page requires multiple resources,
possibly from dif-
ferent domains, is the reality we must work with and be aware
of. Modern browsers
provide the developer with tools that can help us understand the
HTTP traffic for a
HTTP /1. l 200 OK
Date: Mon, 22 Oct 2012 02:43:49 GMT
Server: Apache
Vary: Accept-Encoding
Content-Encoding: gzip
Content-Length: 4538
Connection: close
Content-Type: text/html; charset=UTF-8
<html>
<head> ...

FIGURE 1.31 HTTP illustrated
GET /index.html HTTP/1.l
Host: example.com
1.7 Hypertext Transfer Protocol 41
User-Agent: Mozilla/5.0 (Windows NT 6.1; WOW64;
rv:15.0) Gecko/20100101 Firefox/15.0.1
Accept: text/html,application/xhtml+xml
Accept-Language: en-us,en;q=0.5
Accept-Encoding: gzip, deflate
Connection: keep-alive
Cache-Control: max-age=O
0 GET /vacation.html
For each resource
referenced in the HTML,
the browser makes
additional requests.
Q When all resources have
arrived, the browser can
lay out and display the

page to the user.
FIGURE 1.32 Browser parsing HTML and making subsequent
requests
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FIGURE 1.33 Distribution of load times
f t in fr
·-
p
Ollm,,
given page. Figure 1.33 shows a screen from the Firefox plugin
FireBug (an HTML/
JavaScript debugger), which lists the resources requested for a
current page and the
breakdown of the load times for each component.

1.7.1 Headers
Headers are sent in the request from the client and received in
the response from the
server. These encode the parameters for the HTTP transaction,
meaning they define
what kind of response the server will send. Headers are one of
the most powerful
aspects of HTTP and unfortunately few developers spend any
time learning about
them. Although there are dozens of headers, 15 we will cover a
few of the essential ones
to give you a sense of what type of information is sent with
each and every request.
Request headers include data about the client machine (as in
your personal
computer). Web developers can use this information for analytic
reasons and for site
customization. Some of these include:

Host. The host header was introduced in HTTP 1.1, and it
allows multiple
websites to be hosted off the same IP address. Since requests
for different
domains can arrive at the same IP, the host header tells the
server which
domain at this IP address we are interested in.
User-Agent. The User-Agent string is the most referenced
header in modern
web development. It tells us what kind of operating system and
browser
Browser OS
Additional details (32/ Gecko Browser
64 bit, build versions) Build Date
Firefox version

Mozilla/6.0 (Windows NT 6.2; WOW64; rv:16.0.1)
Gecko/20121011 Firefox/16.0.1
FIGURE 1.34 User-Agent components
the user is running. Figure 1.34 shows a sample string and the
components
encoded within. These strings can be used to switch between
different style
sheets and to record statistical data about the site's visitors.
Accept. The Accept header tells the server what kind of media
types the client
can receive in the response. The server must adhere to these
constraints and
not transmit data types that are not acceptable to the client. A
text browser,
for example, may not accept attachment binaries, whereas a
graphical browser
can do so.

Accept-Encoding. The Accept-Encoding headers specify what
types of
modifications can be done to the data before transmission. This
is where
a browser can specify that it can unzip or "deflate" files
compressed with
certain algorithms. Compressed transmission reduces bandwidth
usage, but
is only useful if the client can actually deflate and see the
content.
Connection. This header specifies whether the server should
keep the
connection open, or close it after response. Although the server
can abide
by the request, a response Connection header can terminate a
session, even
if the client requested it stay open.
Cache-Control. The Cache header allows the client to control
caching mechanisms.
This header can specify, for example, to only download the data

if it is newer
than a certain age, never redownload if cached, or always
redownload. Proper
use of the Cache-Control header can greatly reduce bandwidth.
Response headers have information about the server answering
the request and
the data being sent. Some of these include:
Server. The Server header tells the client about the server. It
can include
what type of operating system the server is running as well as
the web server
software that it is using.
The Server header can provide additional information to hackers
about
your infrastructure. If, for example, you are running a
vulnerable version of a
plugin, and your Server header declares that information to any
client that asks,

you could be scanned, and subsequently attacked based on that
header alone. For
this reason, many administrators limit this field to as little info
as possible.
Last-Modified. Last-Modified contains information about when
the requested
resource last changed. A static file that does not change will
always transmit
the same last modified timestamp associated with the file. This
allows cache
mechanisms (like the Cache-Control request header) to decide
whether to
download a fresh copy of the file or use a locally cached copy.
Content-Length. Content-Length specifies how large the
response body

(message) will be. The requesting browser can then allocate an
appropriate
amount of memory to receive the data. On dynamic websites
where the
Last-Modified header changes each request, this field can also
be used to
determine the "freshness" of a cached copy.
Content-Type. To accompany the request header Accept, the
response
header Content- Type tells the browser what type of data is
attached in the
body of the message. Some media-type values are text/html, i
mage/j peg,
image/png, application/xml, and others. Since the body data
could be
binary, specifying what type of file is attached is essential.
Content-Encoding. Even though a client may be able to gzip
decompress files
and specified so in the Accept-Encoding header, the server may
or may not

choose to encode the file. In any case, the server must specify
to the client
how the content was encoded so that it can be decompressed if
need be.
Although compressing pages before transm1ss1on reduces
bandwidth, it
requires CPU cycles and memory to do so. On busy servers,
sometimes it can be
more efficient to transmit dynamic content uncompressed,
saving those CPU
cycles to respond to requests.
I. 7 .2 Request Methods
The HTTP protocol defines several different types of requests,
each with a different
intent and characteristics. The most common requests are the
GET and POST request,
along with the HEAD request. Other requests, such as PUT,
DELETE, CONNECT, TRACE,
and OPTIONS are seldom used, and are not covered here.

The most common type of HTTP request is the GET request. In
this request one
is asking for a resource located at a specified URL to be
retrieved. Whenever you
click on a link, type in a URL in your browser, or click on a
book mark, you are
usually making a GET request.
Data can also be transmitted through a GET request, something
you will be
learning about more in Chapter 4.
The other common request method is the POST request. This
method is normally
used to transmit data to the server using an HTML form (though
as we will learn in
Chapter 4, a data entry form could use the GET method

instead). In a POST request,
data is transmitted through the header of the request, and as
such is not subject to
length limitations like with GET. Additionally, since the data is
not transmitted in the
URL, it is seen to be a safer way of transmitting data (although
in practice all post data
is transmitted unencrypted, and can be read nearly as easily as
GET data). Figure 1.35
illustrates a GET and a POST request in action.
A HEAD request is similar to a GET except that the response
includes only the
header information, and not the body that would be retrieved in
a full GET. Search
engines, for example, use this request to determine if a page
needs to be reindexed
without making unneeded requests for the body of the resource,
saving bandwidth.

1. 7. 3 Response Codes
Response codes are integer values returned by the server as part
of the response
header. These codes describe the state of the request, including
whether it was suc-
cessful, had errors, requires permission, and more. For a
complete listing, please
refer to the HTTP specification. Some commonly encountered
codes are listed on
the following page to provide a taste of what kind of response
codes exist.
<form method="POST" action="FormProcess.php">
Artist: Picasso
Year: 1906
Nationality: l_�sp_a_in __ �H
POST /FormProcess.php http/1.1
j Submiii:;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;==�===============:::'.

Web server
<a href="SomePage.php">Hyperlink</a>
GET /SomePage.php http/1.1
FIGURE 1.35 GET versus POST requests
Table 1.1 lists the most common response codes. The codes use
the first digit to
indicate the category of response. 2## codes are for successful
responses, 3## are for
redirection-related responses, 4## codes are client errors, while
5## codes are server
errors.
1. 8 Web Servers
A web server is, at a fundamental level, nothing more than a
computer that responds
to HTTP requests. The first web server was hosted on Tim

Berners-Lee's desktop
Code Description
200: OK
301: Moved Permanently
304: Not Modified
307: Temporary redirect
The 200 response code means that the request was successful.
Tells the client that the requested resource has permanently
moved. Codes
like this allow search engines to update their databases to
reflect the new
location of the resource. Normally the new location for that
resource is
returned in the response.

If the client so requested a resource with appropriate Cache-
Contra l
headers, the response might say that the resource on the server
is no
newer than the one in the client cache. A response like this is
just a header,
since we expect the client to use a cached copy of the resource.
This code is similar to 301, except the redirection should be
considered
temporary.
400: Bad Request If something about the headers or HTTP
request in general is not correctly
adhering to HTTP protocol, the 400 response code will inform
the client.
401: Unauthorized Some web resources are protected and
require the user to provide credentials
to access the resource. If the client gets a 401 code, the request

will have
to be resent, and the user will need to provide those credentials.
404: Not found 404 codes are one of the only ones known to
web users. Many browsers
will display an HTML page with the 404 code to them when the
requested
resource was not found.
414: Request URI too long UR Ls have a length limitation,
which varies depending on the server
software in place. A 414 response code likely means too much
data is likely
trying to be submitted via the URL.
500: Internal server error This error provides almost no
information to the client except to say the
server has encountered an error.

TABLE 1.1 HTTP Response Codes
1.8 Web Servers 47
computer; later when you begin PHP development in Chapter 8,
you may find your-
self turning your own computer into a web server.
Real-world web servers are often more powerful than your own
desktop com-
puter, and typically come with additional software to make them
more reliable and
replaceable. And as we saw in Section 1.3.6, real-world
websites typically have
many web servers configured together in web farms.
Regardless of the physical characteristics of the server, one
must choose an
application stack to run a website. This stack will include an
operating system, web

server software, a database, and a scripting language to process
dynamic requests.
Web practitioners often develop an affinity for a particular
stack (often without
rationale). Throughout this textbook we will rely on the LAMP
software stack,
which refers to the Linux operating system, Apache web server,
MySQL database,
and PHP scripting language. Since Apache and MySQL also run
on Windows and
Mac operating systems, variations of the LAMP stack can run
on nearly any com-
puter (which is great for students). The Apple OSX MAMP
software stack is nearly
identical to LAMP, since OSX is a Unix implementation, and
includes all the tools
available in Linux. The W AMP software stack is another
popular variation where
Windows operating system is used.
Despite the wide adoption of the LAMP stack, web developers
need to be aware
of alternate software that could be used to support their

websites. Many corpora-
tions, for instance, make use of the Microsoft WISA software
stack, which refers to
Windows operating system, IIS web server, SQL Server
database, and the ASP.NET
server-side development technologies.
1.8.1 Operating Systems
The choice of operating system will constrain what other
software can be installed
and used on the server. The most common choice for a web
server is a Linux-
based OS, although there is a large business-focused market that
uses Microsoft
Windows IIS.
Linux is the preferred choice for technical reasons like the
higher average
uptime, lower memory requirements, and the easier ability to
remotely administer
the machine from the command line, if required. The free cost

also makes it an
excellent cool for students and professionals alike looking to
save on licensing costs.
Organizations that have already adopted Microsoft solutions
across the organi-
zation are more likely to use a Windows server OS to host their
websites, since they
will have in-house Windows administrators familiar with the
Microsoft suite of
tools.
1.8.2 Web Server Software
If running Linux, the most likely server software is Apache,
which has been ported
to run on Windows, Linux, and Mac, making it platform
agnostic. Apache is also
well suited to textbook discussion since all of its configuration

options can be set
through text files (although graphical interfaces exist).
IIS, the Windows server software, is preferred largely by those
using Windows
in their enterprises already or who prefer the .NET development
framework. The
most compelling reason to choose an IIS server is to get access
to other Microsoft
tools and products, including ASP.NET and SQL Server.
1.8.3 Database Software
The moment you decide your website will be dynamic, and not
just static HTML
pages, you will likely need to make use of relational database
software capable of
running SQL queries.
The open-source DBMS of choice is usually MySQL (though
some prefer
PostgreSQL or SQ Lite), whereas the proprietary choice for web
DBMS includes Oracle,
IBM DB2, and Microsoft SQL Server. All of these database

servers are capable of
managing large amounts of data, maintaining integrity,
responding to many queries,
creating indexes, creating triggers, and more. The differences
between these servers are
real, but are not relevant to the scope of projects we will be
developing in this text.
In this book you will be using the MySQL Server, meaning if
you are developing
on another platform, some queries may have to be altered.
1.8.4 Scripting Software
Finally (or perhaps firstly if you are starting a project from
scratch) is the choice of
server-side development language or platform. This
development platform will be
used to write software that responds to HTTP requests. The
choice for a LAMP
stack is usually PHP or Python or Ruby on Rails. We have
chosen PHP due to its
access to low-level HTTP features, object-oriented support, C-
like syntax, and its

wide proliferation on the web.
Other technologies like ASP.NET are available to those
interested in working
entirely inside the Microsoft platform. Each technology does
have real advantages
and disadvantages, but we will not be addressing them here.
1. 9 Chapter Sum.m.ary
This long chapter has been broad in its coverage of how the
Internet and the web work.
It began with a short history of the Internet and how those early
choices are still affect-
ing the web today. From the design of the Internet suite of
protocols you saw how IP
addresses, and a multilayer stack of protocols guaranteed
transmission and receipt of
data. The chapter also tried to provide a picture of the hardware
component of the web
and the Internet, from your home router, to gigantic web farms,
to the many tentacles
of undersea and overland fiber optic cable. The chapter then
covered some of the key

protocols that make the web work: the DNS, URLs, and the
HTTP protocol.
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Question(s): What options faced American officials in 1945
regarding the dropping of the atomic bomb?
The Demoralization of Free China, 1943-1944
* “The Honan Famine” in Theodore White and Annalee Jacoby
Thunder out of China, 166-178
* “Doomed Men, The Chinese Army” in Theodore White and
Annalee Jacoby Thunder out of China, 132-141

- Finish Cold Nights
April 6: Film: “China in War and Revolution”
* Drafted to the Kobe Shipyards”, “the War Effort” in Under the
Black Umbrella, 123-138
* “Volunteer and “Human Torpedo” Japan at War, 306-319
- Factories of Death, 239-311
The Japanese Home Front and the Struggle Over Ending the
War
*“Thank God for the Atom Bomb” in Paul Fussell, Thank God
for the Atom Bomb and Other Essays, 1-28
-Start Hiroshima
The Atomic Bomb and the Surrender of Japan
*“Mansei” in Under the Black Umbrella, 139-147
*“Shattered Lives” in John Dower Embracing Defeat 48-64
*“Reversals of Fortune” in Japan at War, 407-419
*Matthew Allen, “Wolves at the Back Door: Remembering the
Kumejima Massacres,” in Islands of Discontent, 39-64
- Continue reading Hiroshima
Surrender, Guilt and the American Occupation of Japan

- Finish Hiroshima
Ending One War and Beginning Another in East Asia
* Hideo Kobayashi, “The Postwar Economic Legacy of Japan’s
Wartime Empire” in Japan’s Wartime Empire, 324-334
- Factories of Death, 313-361
*“Victory as Defeat” in Yeh Wen-hsin, ed. Becoming Chinese:
Passages to Modernity and Beyond (Berkeley: University of
California Press) 2000
*“Victory and Civil War” in Theodore White and Annalee
Jacoby, Thunder Out of China, 279-297
THE CAMPAIGN IN BURMA
By Horace S, Sewell
CONSIDERING the size and importance of the Burma
campaign, it hashad very little public attention. Events in
Burma have been overshad-
owed by the dimax of the war against Germany and the great
advances in the

Pacific; and because of this the Allied forces in Burma, more
than a quarter of a
million strong, have not received their fair share of credit.
These men have
been enga^d in the largest and most important ground fighting
yet under-
taken against the Japanese. They have been operating on a front
700 miles
long, second in length only to that in eastern Europe, among the
most in-
hospitable surroundings — malarial, disease-ridden swamps,
impenetrable
jungle and immense mountain ranges.
These operations are of great strategic importance. Burma is the
back door
to China, which Japan has tried to shut. Thanks to the courage
of American
and British pilots, flying from Assam over the most dangerous
air route in the
world, supplies have continued to reach China; and now, thanks
to the Allied
forces of the South East Asia Command, who have done their
duty so well in
Assam and Burma, a land route to China has been opened up.

The official announcement of the opening of the new road to
China was
made by Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten, Supreme
Commander in South
East Asia, on January 24, 1945, in the following Order of the
Day:
The advance southwards of the American, British and Chinese
forces formerly under
the leadership of General Stilwell and now commanded by
Lieutenant-General Sultan
with Lieutenant-General Slim*s Fourteenth Army, fresh from its
victories at ImphaJ
and Kohima on the right flank, has inflicted a crushing defeat
on the enemy and driven
him from north Burma.
Lieutenant-General Sultan's forces and a Chinese expeditionary
force have now
joined hands west of Wanting. From Ledo through Myitkyina
and Bhamo the new road
now sweeps south to join the old Burma Road and !and
communication to China is
open.

The first part of our mission therefore has been completed and it
will not be long
before Brigadier-General Pick's UnitKi States Enginwrs will
have the road ready for
traffic. This has been achieved through a truly inter-Allied,
inter-service effort.
The air supply route to China is assured. With the rapid
development of airfields
at Myitkyina, this route is carrying an ever-increasing volume
of traffic. In addition,
the Allied air forces, by their magnificent support of the army,
contributed to the
advance to Mandalay,
The advance of the Fifteenth Corps under Lieutenant (^neral
Christison, assisted
by the air and navy, on the Arakan coast materially contributed
to the over-all difficul-
ties of the Japanese positions in Burma,
ITie fine fighting qualities and high morale of all the forces
engaged in this great
effort made victory certain. In tlie task still before us — the

utter defeat of Japan — I
am confident the same qualities will be shown by all and that
final success will be
ours.
The victories of Iieutenant-General William SUm's Fourteenth
Anny at
Imphal and Kohima, and the advance of the Fifteenth Army
Corps under
Lkutenant-General Philip Chnsdson in Arakan, to which
Admiral Moiint-
THE CAMPAIGN IN BURMA 497
T I
-28 —26-
-16-
Scale of
50 IQQ
I

miles
50 200 250
498 FOREIGN AFFAIRS
batten refers in his Order of the Day, though only a part of the
campaign, were
main factors in the liberation of northern Burma. Unless the
Japanese Army
had been fully engaged in other directions, the American,
British and Chinese
forces under the leadership of General Stilwell would not have
been able to
move into Burma from the north.
To appreciate how the battles that were fought by the
Fourteenth Army and
the Fifteenth Army Corps set the pattern for the campaign, the
situation of
the opposing forces in the winter of 1943-1944 and the
peculiarities of the
country should be considered. Topography influenced the

planning and conduct
of the campaign in Burma to a greater extent than in any other
theater of war.
The Japanese, in their central position, had good road, rail and
river com-
munications. The Allies had to rely on the Assam railway for
their main opera-
tions, and on the railhead of the Eastern Bengal railway 18
miles south of
Chittagong for the operations in Arakan. Supplies for General
Stilwell's forces
also had to be sent by the Assam railway, which runs parallel to
the front and
too close behind it for safety. This strategical weakness in the
Allied position
during the battle in Assam, though never exploited by the
Japanese, necessi-
tated leaving some fighting troops along the railway in a
defensive role.
Local and seasonal variations of climate and rainfall aifected
the planning
and timing of operations. High mountains covered with thick
jungle separate
Burma from Assam and the Arakan shores of the Bay of Bengal.

For five
months of the year — May to September — the southwest
monsoon blows in
from the Indian Ocean across the Bay of Bengal, and during this
period the
rainfall is very heavy. In Arakan the annual rainfall varies from
100 to 240
inches according to locality; in many places in the mountains on
the Assam-
Burma border it is more than 100 inches. Most of this rain falls
during the
monsoon seaman. The Allies had one great advantage over the
Japanese in
Burma. They had air superiority, and the greatest possible use
was made of it.
All Allied plans were based on supplying large forces from the
air and on the
rapid transfer of reserve formations by air over long distances,
whereas the
Japanese were denied the use of this method of moving supplies
and men.
The plans for the 1943-1944 Burma campaign approved at the
Ottawa Con-
ference, when Admiral Mountbatten's appointment to the South

East Asia
Command was announced, included amplwbious operations.
These, however,
had to be cancelled, for the vessels and material intended for
southeast Asia
were wanted in Europe and were actually used at Anzio and in
Normandy.
New plans had to be framed on a less ambitious scale, and to
conform with
these the following tasks were laid down for the Fourteenth
Army by General
Sir George GiiFard, who was then commanding the Eleventh
Army Group,
which comprised all Allied land forces of the South East Asia
Command: (1)
Hold the frontiers of Bengal and Assam. (2) Advance in north
Burma to the
line Mogaung-Myitkyina. (3) Advance in Arakan to the
Buthidaung-Maung-
daw road.
For these tasks General Slim had available the Fifteenth Army
Corps in
Arakan, the Fourth Corps in Assam, and General Stilwell's
Chinese-American

forces in the Ledo area. These Chinese-American troops had
been placed under
the operational command of the Fourteenth Army and were to
remain so until
they had occupied Kamaing, when it was planned that they
would combine
with the Chinese forces operating on the Salween River.
General StilwelFs
forces (five Chinese divisions, one American brigade and the
British Fort Hertz
detachment) wouid carry out the advance to the line Mogaung-
Myitkyina.
To enable these forces to achieve their objective the Japanese
Army had to be
occupied elsewhere, and some direct assistance in the way of
cutting the lines of
communication to the Japanese i8th Division at Myitkyina was
necessary.
For this purpose three operations were set on foot:

(1) The Fourth Army Corps, composed of three divisions, the
17th, 20th and
23rd Indian Divisions, was ordered to operate offensively from
Assam to draw
off and occupy the main Japanese forces. If necessary to
achieve its object,
the Fourth Corps offensive was to be carried on up to and
beyond the Chindwin
River and the Chin Hills.
(2) In Arakan, the Fifteenth Army Corps, composed of two
divisions,
the 5th and 7th Indian Divisions and two brigades of the 8ist
West African
Division, was ordered to advance with the 5th and 7th Divisions
direct on
Maungdaw-Buthidaungj while the 8ist Division protected the
left flank of the
Corps against a possible Japanese counterattack up the Kaladan
River.
(3) The 3rd Indian Division, Wingate's Force, was to move into
the Indaw
area and operate from there to cut the main road and rail
communications

behind the i8th Japanese Division in the Myitkyina area.
The Japanese had increased the size of their army in Burma
during the
summer of 1943, and in November enemy forces were
distributed approxi-
mately as foDows: in Arakan, two divisions with corps troops
and other forma-
tions; in the Mogaung-Myitkyina area in the north, one division;
on the Sal-
ween near the Chinese frontier, one division; in the Chindwin
area, three
divisions with corps and army troops, and two to three divisions
in reserve.
II
In December 1943, the Fifteenth Corps advanced in Arakan
against the
55th Japanese Division, near the coast, and in the Kaladan
valley against ele-
ments of the 54th and 55th Divisions. The 5th Indian Division
fought its way
down the Mayu Range, running north and south parallel with the
coast,

through which the Maungdaw-Buthidaung road is tunnelled. I t
also fought
its way down the Naaf River Valley, which empties into the Bay
of Bengal
at Maungdaw, and secured the Nechadauk Pass, five miles north
of the
Maungdaw-Buthidaung road. The 7th Indian Division moved
through the
Pass into the Kalapanzin valley, east of the range. The 5th
Division remained
on the west of the range, between it and the sea. Maungdaw was
captured
January 8j 1944, and by that time there were indications that the
Japanese
would counterattack before the Maungdaw-Buthidaung road
could be reached.
Preparations were made for meeting the Japanese counterattack
by arrang-
ing to have air supplies ready to be flown to any portion of the
force that might
be cut off. Orders were issued that formations or units that
might be isolated
would hold their ground. In addition, marine operations were
started against

the coast line behind the enemy to pin down his reserves. The
26th Indian
Division from army reserve was warned to be ready to move up
from Chitta-
gong to support the Fifteenth Corps.
d n February 3, the Japanese made their attack with about 8,000
men from
the 55th Division, under the command of Colonel Tanahashi, an
officer who
had distinguished himself in the previous Arakan campaign. The
first object
of the attack was to reoccupy the Nechadauk Pass and so
separate the 5 th
and 7th Divisions, Another detached force went further north to
block the
5OO FOREIGN AFFAIRS
BawlUMaungdaw road behind the 5th Division. Tanahashi
accomplished
both these objectives, and at the same time the main Japanese
forces launched

a frontal assault against the 7th Division to force it back on the
Nechadauk
Pass. Had this succeeded, the division would have been
annihilated in the
Pass, and the enemy would then have gone on to deal with the
5th Division
in much the same way by forcing it back onto the road-block,
south of Bawli.
The Japanese then intended to march on Chittagong; and when
British
reserves had been drawn to that area, their main attack from the
Chindwin
against Assam was to start. However, the 7th Division stood
firm and even
took the oflFensive, and the 5th Division, holding its front with
minimum
forces, reopened communications with the 7th. During this
action both divi-
sions were supplied from the air.
The 26th Division moved up to Bawli ready to counterattack, if
needed,
and the 36th British Division from India replaced the 26th in
army reserve.
As a result of these movements, the attacking force was caught

between the
5th and 7th Divisions in the south and the 26th and 36th
Divisions in the
north. After bitter fighting, much of which was with bomb and
bayonet in the
hills, the enemy force was completely defeated, broken up and
dispersed into
small parties trying to escape through the jungle. More than
5,coo dead were
counted on the ground. The Fifteenth Corps at once passed to
the offensive
and took the tunnel area of the Mayu Range which was defended
by the enemy
to the last. The capture of Buthidaung followed and the task
allotted to
General Christison's Corps was completed.
Everyone took part in the fighting which went on for many days
during the
Japanese counterattack, in and around the area occupied by the
5 th and 7th
Divisions. Transport and supply personnel defended the rear
organization with
the same tenacity that British and Indian infantry held the "box"
defenses in

front. (Each Indian Infantry Division consists of three British
and six Indian
or Gurkha battalions. The f^rsonnel of the divisional artillery is
largely
British.) During this period, there were examples of deliberate,
cold-blooded
slaughter of wounded and non-combatants by the Japanese. A
7th Division
field dressing station, containing more than 80 wounded, was
overrun at night
and occupied by the Japanese. Forty-eight hours later, a senior
Japanese
officer arrived and ordered the massacre of the doctors, medical
orderlies and
wounded. Six doctors were lined up and dispatched with a bullet
through the
ear, the orderlies were butchered, and Japanese soldiers went
from stretcher to
stretcher bayoneting the wounded.
Ill
In the north. General Stilwell's forces covering the construction
of the Ledo
road had crossed the mountains and reached the Hukawng valley

early in
January 1944. The American-trained 22nd and 38th Chinese
Divisions led the
advance, dieir flanks covered by Bngadier-General Frank
Merrill's Marauders.
In their first action the Chinese divisions inflicted very heavy
losses on the i8th
Japanese Division, which fell back to a strong position astride
the Hukawng
valley near Kamaing. The Fort Hertz detachment which
advanced on a parallel
route further to the east was also opposed by elements of the
i8th Diviŝ ion.
Early in March, the 3rd Indian Division {Wingate's Force) was
moved into
the Indaw area, ioo mil^ south of Kamaing, behind the i8th
Japanese Divi-
sion. One of Wingate's brigades had started its march to Indaw
from Ledo and

the rest of the envision was flown in. Indaw was ^ e c t e d as
the most suitable
locality for a force to land and cut Japanese communications.
Three landing
places for gliders had been chosen: Piccadilly, Broadway and
Chowringhee.
Their suitability had been noted by General Wingate in 1943,
during his first
expedition behind the Japanese lines, and in March 1944 it was
uncertain what
state they were in. If Allied planes had visited the area enemy
suspicions would
have been aroused; one plane was sent to reconnoitre, however,
just before the
division was to be flown in, and found Piccadilly obstructed by
large logs.
The whole of the advance glider force of Wingate's Division,
towed by
Dakotas, was then directed to Broadway, Fortunately that site
was neither
Scale cf miles
c 10 30 ^0 eo &c 100

I Kalernyori-^^aiewa
r J CHfNp
I HILLS
blocked nor guarded by the Japanese, though the ground
surface, which looked
level in reconnaissance photographs, was found to be
intersected with large
trenches overgrown with elephant grass. Many gliders crashed
and almost all
were d a m a ^ d or destroyed, but sufficient men and material
were landed to
guard and prepare a good landing place, and during the
following days the rest
of the division — less Brigadier-General Mike Calvert*s
brigade which was
marching through enemy-held country from Ledo, 250 miles to
the north —
was landed in the Indaw area.
Wingate started operations at once; the railway and road to
Mogaung and
the road from Bhamo to Myitkyina were cut and kept cut for
some time. The

Japanese at first did not perceive how strong a force had l ^ n
landed behind
them and it was some time before they brought a portion of the
53rd Division
5O2 F O R E I G N A F F A I R S
to reinforce the lines-of-communicadon troops who had lost
very heavily in
thdr attempts to interfere with the 3rd Division.
In Assam the Fourth Army Corps, under die command of
lieutenant-
General GeoflFrey Scoones, acting on General Slim*s
instructions, advanced in
the Tiddim area and the Kabaw valley to occupy the main
Japanese forces.
But when it b«:ame obvious that the Japanese themselves, in
spite of their
defeat in Arakan and the presence of the 3rd Indian Division in
the Indaw
area, were preparing for a lai^-scale offensive against Assam,
General Slim

decided to withdraw the Fourth Corps toward Imphal and fight
the decisive
battle in that area. By retiring to Imphal he shortened his own
communications
and|forced the Japanese to lengthen theirs, an important
consideration with
the approach of the monsoon. Plans were made for the 20th and
23rd Indian
Divisions to cover Imphal on the east and south, and for the
17th Indian
Division to withdraw from Tiddim to Imphal. The Kohima
garrison was
strengthen^ and the evacuation of non-combatants from lmphal
commenced.
The 5th Indian Division was moved back from Arakan into army
reserve at
Chittagong, and arrangements were made for the air transport
and supply
service, which later played such an important part in the defense
of Imphal.
On March 16, the three leading divisions of General
Mutaguchi's Fifteenth
Army crossed the Chindwin River and sent columns forward on
a broad front.

They were very lightly equipped and marched silently and
swiftly, hidden by
the jungle. Their intention was to reach Imphal and Kohima
before Allied re-
inforcements could arrive, and then to break into the
Brahmaputra valley, cut
the communications to General Stilwell's forces and overrun the
airfields from
which supplies were being flown to China. Success depended on
the rapid
occupation of Imphal, which Mutaguchi expected to capture
before March 27.
On die right of the attack the 31st Japanese Division reached the
Kohima
area. It was not expected that the enemy would be able to move
so large a force
through such country and the strength of the attack at Kohima
was a surprise.
The outnumbered garrison was forced back gradually toward the
town and
the situation was serious. In the center the 15th Japanese
Division suffered
very heavy casualties at Ukhrul, where the garrison held out
until greatly
reduced in numbers before drawing back toward Imphal. The

Japanese in-
tention in the center was to break through by Palel with guns
and armor for
the attack on Imphal, but the 20th Indian Division prevented
any such move-
ment by a series of counterattacks in the Tamu-Palel area,
though the enemy
did succeed in cutting the road between Imphal and Kohima,
with columns
moving through the jungle. Imphal thus was isolated except by
air.
On the left of the attack, the 33rd Japanese Division, which had
moved
very fast, reached the Tiddim-Imphal road before the 17th
Indian Division
had been withdrawn to Imphal. The Japanese object was to
annihilate the
17th Division while on the mountain road. The 23rd Indian
Division had to be
sent from its position in reserve at Imphal to meet the i7th and
help it in its
withdrawal. The 17th fought its way up to Imphal with great
skill and courage
and brought all its guns, transport and wounded with it, but the

fighting on
this side of Imphal had occupied nearly the whole strength of
two divisions
and there was no reserve left on the Imphal Plain.
The Jth Indian Division was flown up from Chittagong and two
brigades
were landed at Imphal, where they provided the needed reserve.
One brigade
h d Dimapxir and, after %hting its way up the mountains, was
able to get
reinforcements through to the hard-pressed garrison at Kohima.
Headqiiarters
of the Thirty-Third Anny C o r p from India was moved to
Dimapur to take
over control of operations in the Dimapur-Kohima area under
the direction
of General Slim. Lieutenant-General Montagu Stopford,
commanding the

Thirty-Thiiti Corps, had with him the 2nd British Division from
India.
From the start of the campaign. General Slim's strategical
objective had
l«en to draw ofF the Japanese while General Stilwell advanced;
but he was
also responsible for holding the frontier of Bengal and Assam,
and when the
Japanese attacked his first thoughts were for the line of
communications by the
Assam railway to General Stilwell's forces. The two generals
met, and Stilwell
offered one of his two best Chinee divisions to protect the
railway, pointing
out, however, that the withdrawal of this division from the Ledo
road exten-
sion would compel him to abandon or postpone his operations in
the Hukawng
valley. This oiFer was refused by Slim who was reluctant to
give up operations
in the north at the moment when the whole of the Japanese
Army was com-
mitted to battle. Slim took the responsibility of directing
Stilwell to continue

his advance to Myitkyina with all possible vigor. H e
guaranteed that the
lines of communication would not be interrupted for more than
ten days.
Stilwell willingly accepted this and continued his advance with
characteristic
energy.
General Slim also decided that the 3rd Indian Division should
continue to
operate against the rear of the 18 th Japanese Division in the
north, and that it
should come directly under General Stilweli's command as soon
as it had ad-
vanced north of Hopin. Slim made this decision during the crisis
of the battle
in Assam, when the 3rd Division was in a good position to
strike at the rear of
the Fifteenth Japanese Army.
The battle round ImphaJ was fought out between the three
(^visions of
the Fourth Corps reinforced by the two brigades of the 5th
Division and the
15th and 33rd J^apanese Divisions, reinforced by elements of

two more Japa-
nese and one Indian National Army Division. Kohima was
relieved after bitter
fighting during which the British and Division and two brigades
of the 7th
Indian Division stormed the Kohima Hills and defeated and
destroyed the
31st Japanese Division. This division attacked bravely but
showed very little
enterprise. I t had made no attempt to send a detachment to cut
the Assam
railway when it was in a position to do so.
During the final stages of the Japanese attack on Imphal,
General Muta-
guchi ordered the reinforced 33rd Division to carry out the last
desperate
assaialt. " T h e fate of the Empire depends on the results of this
battle," he said.
"Imphal will be taken at all costs." The commander of the 33rd
Division
passed this on to his troops, adding: "You will take Imphal, but
the envision
will be annihilated." With its accustomed fierceness this
division delivered a

series of fanatical attacks, all of which, after bloody fighting,
were held and
smashed by the 17th Division, reinforced by a brigade of the
20th Division.
There was no pause after the defeat of the Japanese at Kohima
and Imphal;
the pursuit was kept up through the worst of the monsoon rains.
The 33rd
Division was driven south, first by the 17th Division and then
by the 5th
Division, while the Lushai Brigade, supplied from the air,
operated against the
enemy's flanks and rear and inflicted heavy casualties. The
remnants of the
31st and 15th Divisions were driven back across the Chindwin
by the Thirty-
Third Corps.
5O4 FOREIGN AFFAIRS
IV
In north Burma, meanwhile. General Stilwell had planned a bold

flank move
to slip past the i8th Japanese Division with three columjis, each
composed of
one American and two Chinese battalions, to seize the
Myitkyina airfield.
The operation was pushed with determination, the force
marching by secret
paths and appearing on the field suddenly, on May 17. Chinese
reinforcements
were fiown in to occupy the town, and though they just failed to
do so, the
airfield was firmly held.
By June 1944, the Fourteenth Army had carried out the tasks
assigned to it.
In seven months — December 1943 to June 1944 — four
Japanese divisions
(the 15th, 31st, 33rd and 55th) and other troops amounting to
more than a di-
vision in strength^ were destroyed as effective fighting
formations. Two more
Japanese dî ^sions had suffered considerably, A fifth Japanese
division, the 18th,
was destroyed by the combined operations of Stilwell's force

and the Fourteenth
Army. On the Fourteenth Army front 50,000 Japanese dead had
been counted,
not including enemy casualties on General Stilwell's front. Most
of the guns,
tznks and vehicles that the enemy brought into Assam were lost
and 600 Japa-
nese prisoners were taken. Battle casualties in the Fourteenth
Army (not
counting American and Chinese casualties) amounted to 40,000.
The success of the campaign was due to foresight and to good
leadership
in the field, particularly to the bold and confident leadership of
Generals Slim
and Stilweli. A great contributing factor was the magnificent
support which
the Commander-in-Chief in India gave to the Fourteenth Army,
through the
provision of men and matenal and in the control of movements
in India. The
Eastern Air Command destroyed the Japanese air forces and
provided the
transport and supply on wluch all the army's plans were based
and without

which success would have been impossible. The efficiency of
the administra-
tive, supply and health sendees made it possible for the troops
to live and fight
in one of the worst malarial countries of the world. Above all,
the success of the
Fourteenth Army was due to the course and endurance of the
troops engaged
— British, American, Indian, Gurkha, Burman, African and
Chinese.
The Japanese Army has been given no time to recover from its
defeat. The
pursuit of the broken divisions into the Chindwin valley and
down the Irra-
waddy has been followed by an Allied oflFensive along the
whole front. On the
right, amphibious forces working down the shores of the Bay of
Bengal have
by-passed and isolated enemy units in the Arakan mountains. In
the center, the
junction of the Chindwin and the Irrawaddy has been reached
and Mandalay
is threatened. On the left, General Sultan's forces, working in
cooperation with

the First Chinese Army, are heading toward the Mandalay-
Lashio road.
The enemy continues to resist with his customary ferocity and
there is no
sign of a general withdrawal. As long as there is a Japanese
Army in Burma its
destruction must be the first consideration of Adiniral
Mountbatten's forces.
Allied occupation of Rangoon is also desii^ble to make possible
increasing aid
to China by the use of the old Burma Road. It would, however,
be pure specula-
tion to consider how and when Burma will be liberated.
Decisions on these
matters must already have been made by die Allied leaders
through their plan-
ning staffs, and by now the Erection to be taken in the next
move by Admiral
Moiintbatten's forces has probably been settled. It is certain that
Admiral
Mountbatten's veteran ground and air forces and his powerful
East Indies Fleet
will participate in the utter defeat of Japan.

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