Ancient history

THE EARLY MAN
The fossils of the early human being have been found in
Africa about 2.6 million years back, but there are no such evidence
in India. So, it appears that India was inhabited later than Africa.
The evolution of the Earth’s crust shows four stages. The
fourth stage is divided into Pleistocene (most recent) and Holocene
(present).
Man is said to have appeared on the Earth in the Pleistocene.

The early man started to use stone tools for hunting and food
gathering. Hence the period is known as Stone Age.
Stone age is divided into:
The Paleolithic or old stone age
The Mesolithic or middle stone age
The Neolithic or new stone age

THE PALEOLITHIC AGE (500000 BC- 9000 BC)
The Paleolithic culture of India developed in the Pleistocene
period or the ice age.
It seems that Paleolithic men belonged to the Negrito race.
Homo sapiens first appeared towards the end of this phase.

THE MESOLITHIC AGE (9000 BC- 4000 BC)
It intervened as a transitional phase between the
Paleolithic Age and the Neolithic Age.
The Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and
food gathering. At a later stage they also domesticated animals.
The people of Paleolithic and Mesolithic ages practiced
painting. Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh is a striking site pre-
historic painting of Mesolithic age.

THE NEOLITHIC AGE (4000 BC- 1800 BC)
The people of this age are characterized by the use of
polished stone tools. They particularly used stone axes.
The Neolithic settlers were the earliest forming
communities. They produced ragi and horsegram. Neolithic sites in
Allahabad district are noted for the cultivation of rice in the sixth
millennium BC. They domesticated cattle, sheep and goats, they
wove cotton and wool to make clothes.

CHALCOLITHIC CULTURE (1800 BC – 1000 BC)
The end of the Neolithic period saw the use of metals.
Copper was the first metal to be used.
Chalcolithic people were primarily rural communities.
They domesticated animals and practiced agriculture. They were
not acquainted with burnt bricks and lived in thatched houses.
They venerated the mother Goddess and worshipped the bull.

INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION
The Indus Civilization is one of the four earliest civilizations
of the world along with the civilizations of Mesopotamia (Tigris and
Euphrates), Egypt (Nile) and China (Hwang Ho).
The most accepted period is 2500- 1700 BC.
Davaram Sahni first discovered Harappa in 1921.
RD Banerjee discovered Mohenjodaro or Mound of the dead
in 1922.
NOMENCLATURE OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION
Indus Valley Civilization as it flourished along the Indus river.
Saraswati- Sindhu Civilization as most of the sites have been
found at the Hakra- Ghaggar river.

Geographical Spread
West- Sutkagendor
East -Alamgirpur in Uttar Pradesh
North - Manda in Jammu
South -Daimabad in Maharashtra

Town Planning
It was not uniform. A unique feature was the grid system i.e.,
streets cutting across one another at right angles, dividing the town
into large rectangular blocks.
The towns were divided into 2 parts: upper part or citadel and
lower part.
The portified citadel on the western side housed public
buildings and members of ruling class.
Below the citadel on the eastern side, lay the lower town
inhabited by the common people.
The Great Bath (Mohenjodaro) - It was used for religious
bathing. Steps at either end leads to the surface. There were changing
rooms along side.
The Granaries (Harappa) - six granaries in a row were
found in the citadel at Harappa.

Agriculture
Backbone of civilization. The soil was fertile due to
inundation in the river Indus and flooding.
Used wooden plough.
Grains were stored in Granaries.
Crops produced- wheat, barley, dates, peas, sesamum,
mustard, millet, ragi, bajra and jowar.
At Lothal and Rangpur, rice husks were found.
They were the first to produce cotton in the world.
Sugarcane was not known to Indus people.

Domestication of Animals
They domesticated buffaloes, oxen, sheep, asses, goats,
pigs, elephants, dogs, cats, etc.,
Trade
Trade was based on Barter system.
Boats were used for transportation.
Weights and measures were made of limestone, stealite,
etc.,
Foreign trade flourished with Mesopotamia or Sumeria
(Iraq), Central Asia, Persia, Afghanisthan and Bahrain.

Towns Associated with Different Industries
Daimabad Bronze industry
Lothal factory for stone tools and metallic finished goods.
Balakot pearl finished goods, bangle and shell industry.
Chanhudaro beads and bangle factory. It was the only city
without a citadel.

Art and Craft
Harappans used stone tools and were well acquainted with
bronze. Bronze was made by mixing copper with tin.
Both men and women were very fond of ornaments and
dressing up.
Pottery- Both plain (red) or painted (red and black) pottery
was made. Pots were decorated with human figures, plants, animals
and geometrical patterns and ochre was painted over it.
Seals were made of steatite pictures of one horned bull,
buffalo, tiger, rhinoceros, goat and elephant are found on the seals.
Pashupati seal
Metal images- Bronze image of a nude woman dancer
(identified as devadasi) and stone steatite image of a bearded man
(both are obtained from Mohenjo-Daro)
They played dice games. Gambling was their favorite time
pass. No clear evidence of music.

Religious Practices
Chief female deity- A terracotta figure where a plant is
shown growing out of the embryo of a woman, represents mother
Goddess (Goddess of Earth).
Chief male deity- Pashupati Mahadeva (Proto- Shiva)
He is surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhino and a
buffalo and 2 deer.
No temples have been found, though idoltary was practiced.
Indus people believed in ghosts and evil forces and used
amulets for protection against them. Fire altars are found at Lotha;l
and Kalibangan.
Evidence of snake worship is also found.

Script
It was pictographic in nature. Fish symbol is most
represented.
Overlapping of the letters show that it was written from
right to left in the first line and then left to right in the second line.
This style is called Boustrophedon.

THE ARYAN AND THE VEDIC AGE
Original Home And Identity
The word Aryan literally means of high birth. Veda means
Mantra and slokas and also knowledge and conscience.
The location of the original homeland of the Aryans is still
controversial, but the most accepted theory is that they migrated
from Central Asia in several groups between 2000-1500 BC and
settled in Eastern Afghanistan, Modern Pakistan, Punjab and
Western UP.
This region is popularly known as the land of seven rivers or
‘sapta Sindva’ (The Indus, its 5 tributaries Vitasta, Askini, Vipas,
Parushni, Sutudri and the Saraswati)
Aryans came into conflict with the indigenous inhabitants
called Dasas ( early branch of Aryans) and Dasyus ( Original
inhabitants). Dasyuhatya or slaughter of Dasyus is repeatedly
mentioned in the Rig Veda.

Economy
Aryans followed a mixed economy consisting of both
agriculture and pastoralism.
They possessed better knowledge in agriculture ploughshare
is mentioned in Rig Veda. It was made up of wood and was drawn by
the ox.
The reference of cow in the Rig Veda shows that Rigvedic
Aryans were predominantly pastoral people.

Polity
The election of the king was by the tribal assembly called
samiti.
The samiti was the National Assembly of the people, while
the Sabha was council of Elders.
King was assisted by many functionaries. Most important
functionary was the Purohita, the religious advisor of the king,
followed by the Senani, the head of the army.
The voluntary offerings to the chief by the people was
called Bali.

Society
An other term that stands for tribe in the Rig Veda is Vis.
Patriarchial family structure was prevalent.
Four Varnas – Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Sudras.
Rigvedic Gods
Rigvedic people believed in nature worship and not in
erecting temples or idol worship.
Soma was considered to be the god of plants. An
intoxicating drink is named after him.

Important Rituals
Rajasuya - King’s influence was strengthened by rituals.
Asvamedha - unquestioned control over an area
Vajapeya – Chariot race in which royal chariot was made to
win the race against his kinsmen.

LATER VEDIC AGE (1000-600 BC)- Painted greyware phase
Polity
Kingship became hereditary.
Women were no longer permitted to attend assemblies.
There was development of judiciary. Kings administered the
criminal court.
Serious crimes – Killing embryo, homicide, Murdering
Brahmin, Stealing gold, drinking sura.
Society
The fourfold division of society became more clear.
Ashram system – formed to attain 4 purusharthas ( dharma,
adharma, kama, moksha). Jabala Upanishada gives earliest reference
to 4 ashramas- Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Varaprastha and Sanyasa.
Position of women declined.
Maitrayani Samhita mentions 3 evils- liquor, women and dice.
Polygamy became frequent.

Economy
Agriculture became chief economic activity.
new occupational group emerged – fisherman, washerman,
dyers, door- keepers and footmen.
Religion
Prajapati- supreme god. Vishnu- preserver and protector.

The Vedic Literature
The word Veda comes from the word Vid, means to know
or knowledge.
Vedic texts are divided between Sruti and Smriti.
Rig Veda
One of the oldest religious text in the world.
Contains 1028 hymns and is divided into 10 mandalas.
10th mandala contains the famous Purushasuktab hymn
which explains that the four varnas were born from the mouth,
arms, thighs and feet of the creator Brahma.
Sama Veda
Collection of melodies.
It contains Dhrupad Raga

Yajur Veda
Deals with procedures for the performance of sacrifices.
2 texts – Shukla and Krishna
Atharva
Book of magical formulae.
Contains charms and spells toward off evil and disease.
The Upanishadas
Term Upanishadas is the knowledge acquired by sitting
close to teacher (guru).
There are 108 Upanishadas. Period of Upanishadas – 800-
500 BC.

Philosophy
Nyaya – Gautama
Sankhya – Kapila
Purva Mimansa – Jaimini
Vaisesika – Kannada
Yoga – Patanjali
Uttar mimansa – Vyasa
Epic
Mahabharata
Ramayana

PRE- MAURYAN AGE
Use of iron tools in agriculture produced surplus, which
could be taxed by princes to finance their military and
administrative needs.
Thus, many Janapadas sprung up in the 6th century BC, the
larger of which were called Mahajanapadas.
The Mahajanapadas
Non monarchial/ Republican states – Kamboj, Kuru,
Koliyas, Malla, Moriya, Shakya, Vajji, Lichchhavis, Bhaggas,
Kalamas, Videhas, Jnatrikas
Monarchial states – Anga, Avanti, Chedi, Kashi, Kosala,
Gandhara, Magadh, Matsya, Sursena, Vatsa.
Administration
Raja, Uparaja, Senapati, Bhandagarika

MAGADHA EMPIRE
The period from 6th century BC TO 4th century BC saw the
struggle for supremacy amongst the 4 Mahajanapadas- Magadha,
Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti
Magatha emerged as most powerful and prosperous kingdom
in N.India.
Extent former districts of Patna, Gaya and parts of Shahabad.

HARYANKA DYNASTY
Bimbisara(544 BC- 492 BC)
He built capital city Rajgir
Ajatashatru (492 BC – 460 BC)
Son of Chellana and Bimbisara. Occupied throne by killing
his father.
Adopted an aggressive policy of expansion and gained
complete control over Kasi
He patronised the 1st Buddhist council and Buddha died
during his reign.
SHISHUNAGA DYNASTY (412 BC – 344 BC)
Kalashoka (kakavarin)
2nd Buddhist council in Vaishali(383 BC)

FOREIGN INVASIONS
Iranian Invasion
Cyrus of Persia (588-530 BC) was the 1st foreign conqueror,
who penetrated well into India.
Alexander’s Invasion
Alexander, the king of Macedonia destroyed the Iranian
Empire. From Iran, he, marched towards India(Kyber pass)
1st and stronest resistance from Porus
Battle of Hydaspas
He restored to Porus, His Kingdom and made him his ally.
He placed North Western India under Greek Governor
Selucus Nikator.
Impacts of Alexander’s Invasion
Indian learnt from the Greeks in the field of coinage,
astronomy, architecture and sculpture.

JAINISM
Founded by Rishabnath.
24 Tirthankaras (guru), 1st one was Rishabhnath.
23rd Tirthankara – Parsavanath
24th Tirthankara – Vardhaman Mahavira
Life of Mahavira
Vardhaman Mahavira or Jina born to Siddhartha and Trishla in
540 BC at Kundalgram near Vaishali in Bihar.
Death- 468 BC (age 72) at Pavapuri near Rajagriha.
Became head of a sect Nirgranthas, later called as Jinas.
Teachings
Rejected authority of Vedas and did not believe in God
existence.
Non violence, Universal brotherhood, Believed in Karma
Attainment of salvation by believing in [penance and dying of
starvation.

Jaina Philosophy
3 Ratnas- Right faith
Right knowledge
Right conduct
5 Cardinal principles -Non injury
Non- lying
Non stealing
Non possession
Observing Celibacy
Sects of Jainism
Chandragupta Maurya
Digamabaras
Svetambaras
Spread of Jainism
Jainism was later chiefly concentrated in 2 regions:
Gujarat and Rajasthan – Svetambara Sect
Mysore – Digambara sect

BUDDISM
Gautam Buddha
Born- 563 BC at Lumbini
Father Suddhodhana, Mother Mahamaya (died after 7 days
of his birth); Brought up by step mother Gautami.
Married at 16 to Yashodhara.
Nirvana or enlightment at age 35 at Uruvella (Bodh Gaya)
under Pipal tree.
1st Sermon or Dharmachakra Pravartana at Sarnath
Death- 483 BC (age 80) at Kusinagar in UP.

Major event in Buddha life
Event - Symbol
Jamma (Birth) - Lotus and Bull
Mahabhinishkramana - Horse
(Renunciation)
Nirvana/ Sambodhi - Bodhi tree
(enlightnment)
Dharmachakra Pravartana - Wheel
(1st sermon)
Mahaparinirvana (death) - Stupa

Eight fold path
Right understanding
Right thought
Right speech
Right action
Right means of livelihood
Right effort
Right mindfulness awareness
Right concentrations meditation
Belief in Nirvana- Also known as Moksha or salvation
Belief in ahimsa

Sects of Buddhism
Vajrayana
Hinayana
Mahayana
Buddhist councils
Council- year - venue - Royal patron
1st council – 483 BC - Rajgriha – Ajatashatru
2nd council– 383 BC - Vaishali - Kalasoka
3rd council – 250 BC - Patluiputra - Ashoka
4th council– 72 AD - Kundalvan, Kashmir- Kanishka

Importance of Buddhism
Promotion of trade and commerce
Stressed upon the Doctrine of Ahimsa
Improvement in condition of women and down trodden
sections
Spread of Indian culture to other parts of Asia
Promotion of Pali language and education through
Residential Universities
Spread of Buddhism
King Ashoka sent Buddhist missions under his son
Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka.
Kanishka was the patron of Mahayana sect of Buddhism.

Buddhist architecture
Chaitya prayer hall
Vihara residence
Similarities between Buddhism and Jainism
Both opposed Brahmanical domination and caste system,
but upheld the essence of Vedas, preached truth, non violence,
celibacy and detachment from material comforts, believed in karma
and rebirth and were liberal towards women.

THE MAURYAN EMPIRE
Origins of Mauryas
Mudrarakshasa- Mauryas were connected with the Nandas
and were called them Vrishal / Kulhina (of low clan).
Buddist tradition- Chandragupta was a Kshatriya (Sakya
clan). The region was full of peacocks (mors), so became famous as
‘Moriyas’.
Puranas- They belonged to the Moriya clan (low caste).
Junagarh rock inscription of Rudrada- man (AD 150)
suggests that Mauryans might have been of Vaishya origin.
Literary sources
Arthashashtra of Kautliya (Chanakya or Vishnugupta)
written in Sanskrit by Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya, it is
a treatise on state craft and public administration under Mauryas.

Buddhist Literature
Jatakas - Socio- economic conditions of Mauryan period.
Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadatta in Sanskrit, an account of
prevailing socio- economic conditions and about how Chandragupta
overthrew the Nandas with the help of Chanakya.
Indica of Megasthenese - Socio- economic and
administrative structure under Mauryas; Indians free from slavery;
7- castes system and usuary in India.
Epigraphical evidences
In was written in Prakrit language and 3 scripts viz
Kharoshthi in North-West, Greek and Aramaic in West and Brahmi
in Eastern India.

CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (321 BC- 298 BC)
He dethroned the last Nanda ruler Dhanananda and founded
the Mauryan dynasty with the capital at Pataliputra.
Chandragupta defeated Selucus Nikator, the general of
Alexander in North- West India in 305 BC. Selucus surrendered a
vast territory in return for 500 elephants. Hindukush became the
boundary between the two states. There was a matrimonial alliance
between them.
Selucus also sent the Greek Ambassador, Megasthenese, to
the court of Chandragupta Maurya.
Chandragupta embraced Jainism and went to Chandragiri
hills, at Sravanbelagola with Bhadrabahu, where he died of slow
starvation.
Chandragupta was the first Indian ruler to unite the whole
North India. Both trade and agriculture flourished during his reign.
Weights and measures were standardized, money came into use and
sanitation and famine relief measures were undertaken by the states.

BINDUSARA (298 BC- 273 BC)
He extended the kingdom further to the Peninsular region of
India as far South as Mysore.
ASHOKA (273 BC- 232 BC)
He was the greatest Mauryan ruler; Governor of Taxila and
Ujjain previously. His rule extended to the whole of sub-continent
except to the extreme South. It also included Afghanistan,
Baluchistan, Kashmir and valleys of Nepal.
He fought Kalinga war (261 BC) in the 9th year of his rule.
The miseries of war caused deep remorse to Ashoka, and therefore he
abandoned the policy of physical conquest in favour of cultural
conquest.
He embraced Buddhism under Upagupta.
He sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to
Ceylon as Buddhist missionaries with a sapling of original Pipal tree.

Later Mauryas
Brihadratha, the last Mauryan ruler, was assasinated in 184
BC, by his Brahmin commander in- chief, Pushyamitra Shunga, who
established the Shunga dynasty.
Mauryan Administration
The Mauryan state was a welfare state, with highly
centralized government.
Art And Architecture
Pillars represent the masterpiece of Mauryan sculpture. E.g.
•Single lion capital Rampurva and Lauriya Nandangarh.
•Four lion capital at Samath and Sanchi.
•Carved elephant at Dhauli and engraved elephant at Kalsi.

Causes of the fall of the Mauryan Empire
Brahmanical reaction (HP Shastri), financial crisis,
oppressive rule, weak successors; highly centralized administration
(Romila Thapar); Pacific policy of Ashoka (HC Ray Chaudhary);
Partition of the empire are some of the probable causes of decline
of Mauryan empire.
Significance of Mauryan Rule
The emblem of Indian Republic has been adopted from the
lion capital of Ashokan pillar ar Sarnath.

POST MAURYAN PERIOD
Foreign States
The Indo- Greeks
The most famous Indo- Greek ruler was Menander
(165-145 BC) or Milinda. He had his capital at Sakala (modern
Sialkot in Punjab). He invaded the Ganga Yamuna doab. He
was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena. Menander and
Nagasena’s conversation were recorded in the book
Milindapanho or ‘the questions of Milinda’.
They were the first rulers in India to issue coins.
Gandhara art
Sanskrit term for astrology Horshastra is derived from
the Greek term Horoscope.

The Shakas or Scythians (AD 1st to 4th century)
Greeks were followed by Shaka.
A king of Ujjain, who called himself Vikramaditya defeated
Shakas. An era called the Vikram Samvat is recorded from the
event of his victory over the Shakas i.e. 57 BC.
The most famous Shaka ruler in India was Rudradaman
(AD 130-150).
He repaired the Sudarshan lake in the semi arid zone of
Kathiawar and issued the first ever longest inscription in Chaste
Sanskrit at Junagarh.
The Parthians (AD 1st to 3rd Century)
Originally, the Parthians lived in Iran, from where they
moved to India and replaced Shakas.

The Kushanas (AD 1st to 3rd Century)
The Kushanas (Yuechis or Tochanians) replaced the Greeks
and Parthians. They were nomadic people from steppes of North
Central Asia. Their Empire included a good part of Central Asia,
portion of Iran, a portion of Afghanistan, almost the whole of
Pakistan and North India.
Issued gold coins in India. Kanishka founded the 2nd
Kushana dynasty.
Kanishka (AD 78-101)
Kanishka started an era in AD 78, which is now known as
Saka era and is used by Government of India.
He patronised the 4th Buddhist council in Kashmir, where
the doctrine of Mahayana form of the Buddhism was finalised.

Impacts of Central Asian Contact
They introduced better cavalry and tunic, trousers and long
heavy coat and brought cap, helmets and boots which were used
by Warriors. The Kushanas were the 1st rulers in India to issue gold
coins. Kanishka controlled the famous silk route in Central Asia.
The Kushana empire gave rise to Gandhara and Mathura
Schools of art.
Gandhara School of Art
It exhibits the influence of Greek and Roman art;
patronised by Shakas and Kushanas. The school specialized in
Buddha and Bodhi-Sattva images, stupas and monasteries. They
used blue schist stone.
Buddhas of this school of art are gentle, graceful and
compassionate.

Mathura School of Art
The Buddha of the Gandhara school of art were copied
here, but in a refined way.
The majority of creations consisted of nude, seminude
figures of female, Yakshinis or Apsara in an erotic pose.
The image exhibited not only masculinity and energetic
body, but also grace and religious feeling.
Amaravati School of Art
Lord Buddha depicted in the form of a Swastika
mark. Also depicted Buddha in the human form for the first time.
The ornate bull or ‘Nandiswara’, situated in the
Amareswara temple, is also an Amaravati piece of art.
Native States
Last ruler of Mauryan dynasty was killed by his own
commander in chief Pushyamitra Shunga who founded the
Shunga dynasty.

Shunga Dynasty (185 BC-73 BC)
Pushyamitra Shunga ruled from Vidisha (MP). He defeated
Bactrian King, Dematrius and conducted two Ashvamedha Yajnas
(Chief priest- Patanjali). He is considered to be the precursor of
Buddhism.
The famous book on Hindu Law Manusmriti was compiled
during this period.
The Cheti Dynasty Of Kalinga
The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela – the third ruler
of the dynasty, gives information about the Chetis. Kharavela
pushed his kingdom upto Godavari in the South, and recovered the
Jaina image from Magadha.
He was a follower of Jainism. He constructed residential
caves for Jain monks on the Udaygiri hill near Bhubaneswar,
Orissa.

The Satavahana Dynasty
The Satavahanas are considered to be identical with the
Andhra, who are mentioned in the Puranas.
Gautamiputra Satakarni (AD 106-130) was the greatest ruler
of this dynasty.
Assumed the title of Raja-raja and Maharaja.
Important Aspects of Satavahanas
They issued mostly lead coins (apart from copper and
bronze). Satavahanas were the 1st rulers to make land grants to
Brahmins. There is an instance of grants being made to Buddist
monk, which shows they also promoted Buddhism.
Satavahana rulers called themselves Brahmins.
Gautamiputra Satakarni boasted that he was a true Brahmin.

THE AGE OF GUPTAS
The fall of Kushana Empire towards the middle of AD 3rd
century led to the establishment of the empire of the Guptas.
Although the Gupta Empire was not as large as the Mauryas,
it kept North India politically united for more than a century.
Their period is generally regarded as the Golden Age of
Hinduism.
Guptas belonged to the Vaishya caste.
Sri Gupta was the founder of Gupta Dynasty. Sri Gupta was
followed by his son Ghatotkacha and was followed by his son
Chandragupta. Both assumed the title of Maharaja.

Chandragupta I (AD 319- 335)
He greatly raised the power and prestige of his dynasty by his
matrimonial alliances and conquests.
He was the first Gupta king to adopt the title of
Maharajadhiraja. He issued gold coins.
Samudragupta (AD 335- 380)
Son and successor of Chandragupta I.
He was a great conqueror.
The long inscription in the pillar of Allahabad (Prayag
Prasasti) enumerated by his court poet Harisena informs about the
people and the countries that were conquered by Samudragupta.
Because of his bravery and generalship, he came to be called the
Napoleon of India by VA Smith.
Samudragupta’s arms reached as far as Kanchi, Tamil Nadu,
where the Pallavas were compelled to recognise his suzerainty.
He also performed Ashvamedha sacrifices.
He was a Vaishnavite.

Chandragupta II (AD 380- 415)
Ramagupta was a coward. He surrendered his queen
Dhruvadevi to the Saka invader. He was also the only Gupta ruler to
issue copper coins.
Meharauli Iron Pillar Inscription (Delhi) claims his authority
over North-Western India and a good portion of Bengal. It says that
the king defeated the confederacy of Vangas and Vahilkas (Bulkh).
Virasena’s Udaygiri cave inscription refers to his conquest of the
whole world.
He issued silver coins (1st Gupta ruler to issue silver coins)
and adopted the title Vikramaditya and Sakari in memory of his
victory.
The court of Chandragupta II at Ujjain was adorned by 9
scholars known as Navaratna, including Kalidasa and Amarsimha.
Fa Hein- The Chinese pilgrim visited India at his time.
Kumaragupta (AD 415-455)
He founded the Nalanda University.

Reasons of Fall of Gupta Empire
The weak successors of Skandagupta could not check the
growing Huna power.
Rise of feudatories in Bihar, Bengal and Madhya Pradesh.
Gupta Administration
Gupta Administration was highly decentralized and quasi-
feudal in character.
Gupta Empire maintained a large standing army.
Revenue- Land revenue was the chief source of state’s
income. It varied from 1/4th to 1/6th of the produce. The number of
taxes increased.
During the Gupta’s rule, land grants (Agarhara and
Devagrahara grants) also included transfer of royal rights over salt
and mines, which were earlier states monopoly during Mauryas.
Judiciary- For the first time, civil and criminal law were
clearly defined and demarcated.
Coinage- Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins.

Important Officials
Maha Pratihari - Chief usher of Royal Palace
Dandapashika – Chief officer of the Police department
Mahaprajapati – Chief officer of the elephant corps
Vinayasthitisthapak- Chief officer of religious affairs
Mahashvapati- Chief of cavalry
Mahadandanayaka – Minister of justice
Society
The supremacy of the Brahmins continued.
They accumulated wealth on accounts of numerous land
grant and claimed many previlege.
The position of the Shudras improved, and they were
permitted to listen epic, puranas and to worship a new god, Lord
Krishna.
Varna system got strengthened due to the large scale
proliferation of castes.

Position of women declined; The 1st example of immolation of
widow after death of her husband (Sati) appeared in Gupta times.
Polygamy and pre-puberty marriages were common.
Religion
Bhagavad Gita was written in this period.
Idol worship in the temple became a common feature.
The gods were unified with their respective consorts. Thus
Parvati got associated with Shiva and Laxmi with Vishnu.
Economy
Land was classified into 5 groups:
Khila- Waste land
Kshetra Bhoomi – Cultivable land
Vastu Bhoomi – Habitable land
Charagah Bhoomi – Pasture land
Aprahata Bhoomi – Forest land
Trade- There was a decline in trade with the Roman empire
after AD 3rd century, while the South-East Asian trade increased.

Gupta Art
Gupta period is also called the Golden age of Ancient India.
Brahminical image- The Great Boar (Varah) carved in relief at
the entrance of a cave at Udaygiri.
Paintings- Ajanta paintings and paintings at Bagh (Madhya
Pradesh) are of this time. They belong to the Buddhist art.
Gupta Architecture
The Gupta age marks the beginning of main style of temple
architecture in India namely the Nagara and Dravida style (Shikhar
style) with Garbhagriha.
Astronomy (Science)
Aryabhatta, the great Mathematician wrote Aryabhatiyam and
Surya Siddhanta.
Vrahamithra wrote Panchsiddhantika and Brihadsamhita. He
said the moon moves round the earth and earth together with the
moon move round the sun.
Dhanvantri was famous for the knowledge of Ayurveda.

THE HARSHA PERIOD
Pushyabhuti/ Vardhana Dynasty
Harshavardhan (AD 606- 647)
Harsha, also known as Siladitya, ascended the throne in
AD 606 and from this year, Harsha era began.
Harsha made Kannauj his capital
The early history of Harsha’s reign is constructed from a
study of the book Harshacharita.
Harsha is called the last great Hindu emperor of India.
Harsha was defeated in Deccan by Pulakesin II, the
Chalukyan king of Vatapi. Harsha’s administration became
more feudal and decentralized.
The Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang visited India during
Harsha’s period.
Harsha was a Shaivite.

Art And Architecture
Vesara/ Deccan style
It was started by the Chalukyas.
Example- Aihole
Pallava Art/ Dravida Style
The Shikhara had influence of Java, Cambodia and Annam.
Examples- Ratha temple of Mamallapuram and Shore
Temple of Mamallapuram
Rashtrakuta Style
The rock cut temple of Kailash (Shiva) at Ellora, was built by
Krishna I.
Hoyasalas Style
Temple of Hoyasaleshwar at Dwarsamudra.

Other Dynasties And Rulers
Dynasty- Capital - Founder
Palas (Eastern India) - Pataliputra, Gaur - Gopala
Gurjara Pratiharas (SW Rajasthan - AD 733-1019) -
Jodhpur, Malwa – Harichandra
Vakatakas (Deccan and Central India) - Vatsagumla,
Paunar - Vindhyashakti
Eastern Gangas of Orissa – Kalingnagar, Cuttack –
Anantavarman, Chodagong Deva
Western Gangas (AD 350- 999) – Kolar, Talakal,
Konganivarman Madhava
Senas of Bengal – Vikrampura, Vijaypura – Vijaysena
Hoysalas – Dwarasamudra – Vishnu Vardhan
Rashtrakutas (AD 750- 1142) – Manyaket or Malkhed –
Dantidurga (Earlier served the Chalukyas of Badami)

Pallavas (AD 560- 903) of Tondainadu (Land of Creepers) –
Kanchi – Simhavishnu
Chalukyas of Badami – Vatapi (Badami) – Pulakesin I
Chalukyas of Kalyani – Kalyani – Tailap II (defeated the
Parmer king Munj)
Yadavas – Devagiri - Bhillana

Sangam Age (AD 1st to 3rd century)
The land South of Krishna river was divided into 3 kingdoms.
•Chola
Kingdom : Chola (Cholamandalam)
Location : North- East of Pandyas between Pennar and Vellar
rivers.
Capital : Uraiyur (famous for cotton trade and Puhar)
Emblem : Tiger
Famous port : Puhar
Famous rulers :
Elara was the earliest known Chola king. He
conquered Sri Lanka and ruled over it for 50 years.
Karikala founded the capital city Puhar/ Kaveripatnam
and constructed embankment along Cauveri river (Kallanai)
Other Features : The Cholas maintained an efficient Navy.
Their economy was based on trade of cotton cloth. The Chola
kingdom was destroyed by the attack of Pallavas from the North.

Chera
Kingdom : Chera
Location : Part of Kerala and Tamil Nadu
Capital : Vanji or Karur
Emblem : Bow
Famous port : Muzris , Todi, Bandar
Famous rulers :
Udiyangera is one of the earliest known Chera
rulers. The title of Udiyangera was given to him because it is said
that he served both the armies of Kurukshetra War.
Senguttuvan / Red Chera was the greatest Chera
king. He invaded the North and crossed Ganga. He is remembered
for building a temple of ‘kannagi’- The Goddess of Chastity and
founded the famous Pattini cult.
Other Features : It has well established trade with
Romans and also set-up 2 regiments at Muzris to protect their
interests. They built the temple of Augustus at Muzris.

Pandya
Kingdom : Pandya
Location : Southernmost part of India
Capital : Madurai
Emblem : Carp (fish)
Famous port : Korkai, Saliyur
Famous rulers :
Mudukudumi was the earliest known Pandya ruler.
Nedunjelian was the most important king of
pandya. He accused Kovalan of theft. As a result, the city of
Madurai was laid under a curse by Kannagi (Kovalan’s wife)
Other Features : This kingdom was 1st mentioned by
Megasthenese, who says that their kingdom was famous for pearl
and was ruled by a woman. Also finds mention in the Ramayana
and Mahabharata.

Sangam Regions
Panchtinai – Inhabitants - Occupation
Kurinji(Hilly backwoods or montane) – Kuravar, Vetar –
Hunting, Gathering
Palai (Pastoral tract) – Eyinar, Maravar – Cattle lifting,
Highway robbery
Mullai (Pastoral tract) –Ayar, Idaiyar – Shifting agriculture,
Animal husbandry
Marutam (Wetland) – Ulavar, Vellalar – Plough agriculture
Neital (Littoral/ coastal) – Paratavar, Valayar – Fishing, salt
extraction

Sangam Literature
The word Sangam is associated with a college or assembly
of Tamil scholars and poets, flourished under the royal patronage of
the Pandyan kings.
The whole sangam age is called Golden or Augustan age.
According to Tamil sources, the father of Tamil literature is
‘Agathya’
1st Sangam – Ten Madurai – Agastaya
2nd Sangam – Kapatapuram – Agastaya (founder),
Tolkappiyan (Later chairman)
3rd Sangam – North Madurai – Nakkirar

Important Sangam Works
Tolkappiyam by Tolkappiyar (Tamil Grammar)
Tirukkural or Kural by Tiruvalluvar is sometimes called the
5th veda or Bible of the Tamil land. It explains the doctrine of
Dharma, Artha, Karma and Moksha.
Aggatiyam comprises Grammar of letters and life, in 3 parts,
written by Saint Aggatiyar.

Epics
Silappadikaram meaning, the jewelled anklet by Ilango
Adigal is an epic, dealing with love story of Kovalan and Madhavi,
also called Illiyad or Tamil poetry.
Manimekalai is one of the 2 greatest epics and a sequel to
Silappadikaram, written by Seetalai Sattannar.
Sevaga Chintamani (Sivaga Sindamani), a 3rd epic by a
Jaina Tiruttakadeva. It has elements of Jainism.
Bharatman was written by Perundevanar.
Sangam Economy
The land was very fertile with proper irrigation facilities.
The chief local God was Murugan, also called as Subramaniya.

The Cholas
The ancient capital of Cholas was Palayarai.
Vijayalaya revived the Chola empire in the AD 9th century. He
took the title of Narkesari.
Aditya Chola defeated the Pallava king Aparajit, captured
Tondaimandalam and took the title of ‘Maduraikonda’. He built a
Siva temple at Tanjore.
Rajaraja I (AD 985- 1014) attacked Sri Lanka. He permitted
the Shailendra king to build the Churamani Buddhist Vihara at
Nagapattanam. He himself built the Rajarajeshwara temple (Saiva
temple) at Tanjore. He is known as Rajaraja The Great in history.
Rajendra I (AD 1014- 1044) conquered the complete Sri
Lanka and made Anuradhapur as his capital.
He defeated the Pala king Mahipala and took the title of
Gangaikindacholan and he also built the Cholamandalam lake and the
city of Gangaikonda Cholapuram. He won the Java, Sumatra and
Malaya areas from the Shailendra king.
Rajendra II was the last king of the dynasty.

Other Aspects of Cholas
Administration- The Chola empire was divided into
Mandalams and then into Valadus. The most important feats of
Chola administration was local- self government. Each village was
divided into 30 wards. Several committees were constituted under
the Gram Sabha for various purposes.
Cholas maintained a strong Navy. Kasu or Kalanju was their
gold coin.
Architecture- The dancing figure of Shiva called Nataraja
was made during Chola period.
The Chola style of architecture is called Dravida style in the
temples, the vimana or the tall pyramid tower dominated the whole
structure of the shrine. Gopurams and Garbhagriha are the 2 other
important structures.

Chola Temples
Kailashnath temple – Kanchipuram – Built by King
Rajasimha
Brihadeshwar temple –Tanjore - Built by Rajaraja I
Koranganatha temple – Sriniwasanllur - Built by Parantak I
Airawteshwar temple – Darasuram - Built by Rajaraya II
Kampahreshwar temple – Tribhuvan - Built by Kullotung
III
Gangaikonda Cholapuram - Gangaikonda Cholapuram –
Built by Rajendra I

Religious Developments
Vaishnavism
Chandogya Upanishada gives 1st reference to Lord Krishna
as the son of Devaki and student of Rishi Ghor Angiras. Matsya
Purana refers to the 10 incarnation of Vishnu.
The cult emphasised on Bhakti and Ahimsa.
Saivism
Shiva is identified with the Rig Vedic God Rudra. He was
worshipped in form of Linga (Phallus).
Virasiva or Lingayat cult was founded by Basava.
Rashtrakutas built the Kailasa temple of Ellora and the
Kushana kings inscribed Shiva and Nandi on their coins.
Shakti Dharma
It refers to the worship of the female deity. It is 1st
mentioned in the Mahabharata.

Christianity
This religion was founded by Jesus Christ. He was born to
Mother Mary and Joseph in Bethlehem near Jerusalem. His Birthday
(25th December) is celebrated as the holy festival- Christmas.
Bible is the holy book of Christians and the sign of ‘Cross’ is
their holy symbol.
Islam
Hazrat Muhammad Saheb founded the Islamic religion. He
was borm to Amina (mother) and Abdullah (father) at Mecca in AD
570.
The birthday of Muhammad Saheb is celebrated as Eid- mild-
un- Nabi.
Zorastrianism(Parsi)
Parsi religion was founded by Prophet Zoroaster
(Zarathustra).
His teachings are compiled in the holybook- Zend Avesta. His
followers believed in one God – Ahur.

MEDIEVAL INDIA
The Rajputs
They emerged as a powerful force in Northern India in AD 9th
and 10th centuries.
Origin- Four of the Rajput clans claim to have descendant
from a mythical figure that arouse out of a sacrificial fire pit near
Mount Abu, i.e. of Agnikula origin. They are:
Chauhans of East Rajasthan
Pratihara Pariharas of South Rajasthan
Chalukyas/ Solankis of Kathiawar
Parmars/ Pawars of Malwa
The 2 main clans of Rajputs are:
Surya Vamsha (Sun family)
Chandra Vamsha (Moon family)
Some Important Rajput Rulers

Ancient history

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