Basics of computer

Basics of Computer
Submittedby:
Wanghengbam Bembem Devi
Roll No.– 10
Paper: Mlis-204 (b)

Introduction
Nowadays, computers are an integral part of our lives. They
are used for the reservation of tickets for airplanes and railways,
payment of telephone and electricity bills, deposit and withdrawal
of money from banks, processing of business data, forecasting of
weather conditions, diagnosis of diseases, searching for
information on the Internet, etc. Computers are also used
extensively in schools, universities, organizations, music industry,
movie industry, scientific research, law firms, fashion industry, etc.
The term computer is derived from the word compute. The
word compute means to calculate. A computer is an electronic
machine that accepts data from the user, processes the data by
performing calculations and operations on it, and generates the
desired output results. Computer performs both simple and
complex operations, with speed and accuracy.
.

Digital and Analog Computers
A digital computer uses distinct values to represent
the data internally. All information are represented using
the digits 0s and 1s. The computers that we use at our
homes and offices are digital computers.
Analog computer is another kind of a computer that
represents data as variable across a continuous range of
values. The earliest computers were analog computers.
Analog computers are used for measuring of parameters
that vary continuously in real time, such as temperature,
pressure and voltage. Analog computers may be more
flexible but generally less precise than digital computers.
Slide rule is an example of an analog computer.

Characteristics of Computer
Speed, accuracy, diligence, storage capability and versatility are some of the key
characteristics of a computer. A brief overview of these characteristics are—
1. Speed: The computer can process data very fast, at the rate of millions of
instructions per second. Some calculations that would have taken hours and days
to complete otherwise, can be completed in a few seconds using the computer.
2. Accuracy: Computer provides a high degree of accuracy.
3. Diligence: When used for a longer period of time, the computer does not get tired
or fatigued. It can perform long and complex calculations with the same speed and
accuracy from the start till the end.
4. Storage Capability: Large volumes of data and information can be stored in the
computer and also retrieved whenever required.
5. Versatility: Computer is versatile in nature.
Computers have several limitations too. Computer can only perform tasks that it
has been programmed to do. Computer cannot do any work without instructions from
the user. It executes instructions as specified by the user and does not take its own
decisions.

Generations of Computer
The evolution of computer to the current state is defined in terms of the
generations of computer. Each generation of computer is designed based on
a new technological development, resulting in better, cheaper and smaller
computers that are more powerful, faster and efficient than their
predecessors. Currently, there are five generations of computer.
1. First Generation (1940 to 1956): Using Vacuum Tubes
2. Second Generation (1956 to 1963): Using Transistors
3. Third Generation (1964 to 1971): Using Integrated
Circuits
4. Fourth Generation (1971 to present): Using
Microprocessors
5. Fifth Generation (Present and Next): Using Artificial
Intelligence

Classification of Computer
The digital computers that are available nowadays vary in their
sizes and types. The computers are broadly classified into four
categories based on their size and type—(1) Microcomputers, (2)
Minicomputers, (3) Mainframe computers, and (4)
Supercomputer.
Supercomputer
Maniframe
Computer
Minicomputer
Microcomputer
Fast expensive complex large
Slow cheap simple small

The Computer System
Computer is an electronic device that accepts data as input, processes the input data
by performing mathematical and logical operations on it, and gives the desired output. The
computer system consists of four parts—(1) Hardware, (2) Software, (3) Data, and (4)
Users.
Hardware consists of the mechanical parts that make up the computer as a machine.
The hardware consists of physical devices of the computer. The devices are required for
input, output, storage and processing of the data. Keyboard, monitor, hard disk drive,
floppy disk drive, printer, processor and motherboard are some of the hardware devices.
Software is a set of instructions that tells the computer about the tasks to be performed
and how these tasks are to be performed. Program is a set of instructions, written in a
language understood by the computer, to perform a specific task. A set of programs and
documents are collectively called software. The hardware of the computer system cannot
perform any task on its own. The hardware needs to be instructed about the task to be
performed. Software instructs the computer about the task to be performed. The hardware
carries out these tasks. Different software can be loaded on the same hardware to perform
different kinds of tasks.
Data are isolated values or raw facts, which by themselves have no much significance.
For example, the data like 29, January, and 1994 just represent values. The data is provided
as input to the computer, which is processed to generate some meaningful information. For
example, 29, January and 1994 are processed by the computer to give the date of birth of a
person.
Users are people who write computer programs or interact with the computer. They are
also known as skinware, liveware, humanware or peopleware. Programmers, data entry
operators, system analyst and computer hardware engineers fall into this category.The
Computer System

The Input-Process-Output Concept
A computer is an electronic device that (1) accepts data, (2) processes
data, (3) generates output, and (4) stores data. The concept of generating
output information from the input data is also referred to as input-process-
output concept.
The input-process-output concept of the computer is explained as
follows—
Input The computer accepts input data from the user via an input device
like keyboard. The input data can be characters, word, text, sound, images,
document, etc.
Process The computer processes the input data. For this, it performs some
actions on the data by using the instructions or program given by the user of
the data. The action could be an arithmetic or logic calculation, editing,
modifying a document, etc. During processing, the data, instructions and the
output are stored temporarily in the computer’s main memory.
Output The output is the result generated after the processing of data. The
output may be in the form of text, sound, image, document, etc. The computer
may display the output on a monitor, send output to the printer for printing,
play the output, etc.
Storage The input data, instructions and output are stored permanently in
the secondary storage devices like disk or tape. The stored data can be
retrieved later, whenever needed.

Components of Computer Hardware
The computer system hardware comprises of three main components —
1. Input/Output (I/O) Unit, 2. Central Processing Unit (CPU), and
3. Memory Unit.
Input/Output Unit: The user interacts with the computer via the I/O unit. The Input unit accepts
data from the user and the Output unit provides the processed data i.e. the information to the user.
The Input unit converts the data that it accepts from the user, into a form that is understandable by
the computer. Similarly, the Output unit provides the output in a form that is understandable by
the user.
Central Processing Unit: CPU controls, coordinates and supervises the operations of the
computer. It is responsible for processing of the input data. CPU consists of Arithmetic Logic
Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU).
ALU performs all the arithmetic and logic operations on the input data.
CU controls the overall operations of the computer i.e. it checks the sequence of execution of
instructions, and, controls and coordinates the overall functioning of the units of computer.
Additionally, CPU also has a set of registers for temporary storage of data, instructions, addresses
and intermediate results of calculation.
Memory Unit : Memory unit stores the data, instructions, intermediate results and output,
temporarily, during the processing of data. This memory is also called the main memory or
primary memory of the computer. The input data that is to be processed is brought into the main
memory before processing. The instructions required for processing of data and any intermediate
results are also stored in the main memory. The output is stored in memory before being
transferred to the output device. Another kind of storage unit is also referred to as the secondary
memory of the computer. The data, the programs and the output are stored permanently in the
storage unit of the computer. Magnetic disks, optical disks and magnetic tapes are examples of
secondary memory.

Performance of a Computer
There are a number of factors involved that are related to the CPU and have an effect
on the overall speed and performance of the computer. Some of the factors that affect the
performance of the computer include—
Registers: The size of the register (word size) indicates the amount of data with which
the computer can work at any given time. The bigger the size, the more quickly it can
process data. A 32-bit CPU is one in which each register is 32 bits wide.
RAM: It is used to store data and instructions during execution of the instructions.
When the computer is switched on, the operating system, device drivers, the active files
and running programs are loaded into RAM. If RAM is less, then the CPU waits each time
the new information is swapped into memory from the slower devices. Larger the RAM
size, the better it is
System Clock : The clock speed of a CPU is defined as the frequency with which a
processor executes instructions or the data is processed. Higher clock frequencies mean
more clock ticks per second. The computer’s operating speed is linked to the speed of the
system clock. The clock frequency is measured in millions of cycles per second or
megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz) which is billions of cycles per second. A CPU’s
performance is measured by the number of instructions it executes in a second, i.e., MIPS
or BIPS
Bus Data: bus is used for transfering data between CPU and memory.
Cache Memory: Two of the main factors that affect a cache’s performance are its size
(amount of cache memory) and level L1, L2 and L3. Larger the size of cache, the better it
is. PCs nowadays have a L1 cache of 256KB and L2 cache of 1MB.

Inside a Computer Cabinet
The computer cabinet encloses the components that are
required for the running of the computer. The components
inside a computer cabinet include the power supply,
motherboard, memory chips, expansion slots, ports and
interface, processor, cables and storage devices.
1. Motherboard
The computer is built up around a motherboard. The
motherboard is the most important component in the PC. It
is a large Printed Circuit Board (PCB), having many chips,
connectors and other electronics mounted on it. The
motherboard is the hub, which is used to connect all the
essential components of a computer. The RAM, hard drive,
disk drives and optical drives are all plugged into interfaces
on the motherboard. The motherboard contains the
processor, memory chips, interfaces and sockets, etc.

Types of Software
Software can be broadly classified in two categories:
1. System Software, and
2. Application Software.
System Software
System software provides basic functionality to the computer. System software is
required for the working of computer itself. The user of computer does not need to be
aware about the functioning of system software, while using the computer. For example,
when you buy a computer, the system software would also include different device drivers.
When you request for using any of the devices, the corresponding device driver software
interacts with the hardware device to perform the specified request. If the appropriate
device driver for any device, say a particular model of a printer, is installed on the
computer, the user does not need to know about the device driver, while printing on this
printer.
Application Software
The software that a user uses for accomplishing a specific task is the application
software. Application software may be a single program or a set of programs. A set of
programs that are written for a specific purpose and provide the required functionality is
called software package. Application software is written for different kinds of
applications—graphics, word processors, media players, database applications,
telecommunication, accounting purposes etc.

Operating System
Operating system is system software that controls and coordinates the
use of hardware among the different application software and users. OS
intermediates between the user of computer and the computer hardware.
The user gives a command and the OS translates the command into a form
that the machine can understand and execute. OS has two main
objectives—(1) to make the computer system convenient and easy to use,
for the user, and—(2) to use the computer hardware in an efficient way, by
handling the details of the operations of the hardware.
OS hides the working of the hardware from the user and makes it
convenient for the user to use the machine. The application program used
by the user requires the use of the hardware during processing. Some
examples are—display of application’s user interface, loading a program
into memory, using I/O devices, allocating CPU to different processes during
execution, and store or load data from hard disk. When using the machine,
the user gives the command to perform the required actions to the OS and
the OS handles all the operational steps. The user is not bothered about
how these actions will be performed. This is the job of OS. OS provides an
interface to the application programs to interact with the hardware. The user
need not get into the details of this interaction.
At the other end, the different resources of computer hardware have to
be managed and controlled. This includes managing the communication
between different devices, controlling the sequence and execution of
processes, allocating space on hard disk, providing error handling
procedures etc. OS supervises and manages the hardware of the computer.

Types of OS
OS are classified into different types depending on their capability of
processing—(1) Single user, (2) Multiuser, (3) Multitasking, (4) Multiprocessing, (5)
Real time, and (6) Embedded.
Single User and Single Task OS is for use by a single user for a standalone single
computer for performing a single task. Operating system for Personal Computers (PC)
are single-user OS. For example, if the user is editing a document, then a document
cannot be printed on the printer simultaneously. Single user OS are simple operating
system designed to manage one task at a time. MS-DOS is an example of single user
OS.
Multiuser OS is used in computer networks that allow same data and applications to be
accessed by multiple users at the same time. The users can also communicate with each
other. Linux, UNIX, and Windows 7 are examples of multiuser OS.
Multiprocessing OS have two or more processors for a single running process.
Processing takes place in parallel and is also called parallel processing. Each processor
works on different parts of the same task, or, on two or more different tasks. Since
execution takes place in parallel, they are used for high speed execution, and to increase
the power of computer. Linux, UNIX and Windows 7 are examples of multiprocessing
OS.
Real Time OS are designed to respond to an event within a predetermined time. These
operating systems are used to control processes. Processing is done within a time
constraint. OS monitors the events that affect the execution of process and respond
accordingly. They are used to respond to queries in areas like medical imaging system,
industrial control systems etc. LynxOS is an example of real time OS.
Embedded OS is embedded in a device in the ROM. They are specific to a device and
are less resource intensive. They are used in appliances like microwaves, washing
machines, traffic control systems etc.

Application of Computers
Computers have proliferated into various areas of our lives. For a user,
computer is a tool that provides the desired information, whenever needed.
You may use computer to get information about the reservation of tickets
(railways, airplanes and cinema halls), books in a library, medical history
of a person, a place in a map, or the dictionary meaning of a word. The
information may be presented to you in the form of text, images, video
clips, etc.
1. Education
2. Entertainment
3. Sports
4. Advertising
5. Medicine
6. Science and Engineering
7. Government
8. Home
The list of applications of computers is so long that it is not possible to
discuss all of them here. In addition to the applications of the computers
discussed above, computers have also proliferated into areas like banks,
investments, stock trading, accounting, ticket reservation, military
operations, meteorological predictions, social networking, business
organizations, police department, video conferencing, telepresence, book
publishing, web newspapers, and information sharing.

Basics of computer

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Basics of computer