Ch 4 95
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This document summarizes key characteristics of internal memory, including location, capacity, unit of transfer, access methods, performance, physical type, organization, and hierarchy. It discusses the following memory types: registers, cache, main memory, external memory, backing store. Specific topics covered include memory access times, cycle times, transfer rates, physical implementations (semiconductor, magnetic, optical), organization, error correction, cache design principles, mapping functions, and write policies. Newer RAM technologies like SDRAM that improve performance are also overviewed.
Ch 4 95
- 1. William Stallings Computer Organization and Architecture Chapter 4 Internal Memory
- 2. Characteristics Location Capacity Unit of transfer Access method Performance Physical type Physical characteristics Organisation
- 4. Capacity Word size The natural unit of organisation Number of words or Bytes
- 5. Unit of Transfer Internal Usually governed by data bus width External Usually a block which is much larger than a word Addressable unit Smallest location which can be uniquely addressed Word internally Cluster on M$ disks
- 6. Access Methods (1) Sequential Start at the beginning and read through in order Access time depends on location of data and previous location e.g. tape Direct Individual blocks have unique address Access is by jumping to vicinity plus sequential search Access time depends on location and previous location e.g. disk
- 7. Access Methods (2) Random Individual addresses identify locations exactly Access time is independent of location or previous access e.g. RAM Associative Data is located by a comparison with contents of a portion of the store Access time is independent of location or previous access e.g. cache
- 8. Memory Hierarchy Registers In CPU Internal or Main memory May include one or more levels of cache “RAM” External memory Backing store
- 9. Performance Access time Time between presenting the address and getting the valid data Memory Cycle time Time may be required for the memory to “recover” before next access Cycle time is access + recovery Transfer Rate Rate at which data can be moved
- 10. Physical Types Semiconductor RAM Magnetic Disk & Tape Optical CD & DVD Others Bubble Hologram
- 12. Organisation Physical arrangement of bits into words Not always obvious e.g. interleaved
- 13. The Bottom Line How much? Capacity How fast? Time is money How expensive?
- 14. Hierarchy List Registers L1 Cache L2 Cache Main memory Disk cache Disk Optical Tape
- 15. So you want fast? It is possible to build a computer which uses only static RAM (see later) This would be very fast This would need no cache How can you cache cache? This would cost a very large amount
- 16. Locality of Reference During the course of the execution of a program, memory references tend to cluster e.g. loops
- 17. Semiconductor Memory RAM Misnamed as all semiconductor memory is random access Read/Write Volatile Temporary storage Static or dynamic
- 18. Dynamic RAM Bits stored as charge in capacitors Charges leak Need refreshing even when powered Simpler construction Smaller per bit Less expensive Need refresh circuits Slower Main memory
- 19. Static RAM Bits stored as on/off switches No charges to leak No refreshing needed when powered More complex construction Larger per bit More expensive Does not need refresh circuits Faster Cache
- 20. Read Only Memory (ROM) Permanent storage Microprogramming (see later) Library subroutines Systems programs (BIOS) Function tables
- 21. Types of ROM Written during manufacture Very expensive for small runs Programmable (once) PROM Needs special equipment to program Read “mostly” Erasable Programmable (EPROM) Erased by UV Electrically Erasable (EEPROM) Takes much longer to write than read Flash memory Erase whole memory electrically
- 22. Organisation in detail A 16Mbit chip can be organised as 1M of 16 bit words A bit per chip system has 16 lots of 1Mbit chip with bit 1 of each word in chip 1 and so on A 16Mbit chip can be organised as a 2048 x 2048 x 4bit array Reduces number of address pins Multiplex row address and column address 11 pins to address (211 =2048) Adding one more pin doubles range of values so x4 capacity
- 23. Refreshing Refresh circuit included on chip Disable chip Count through rows Read & Write back Takes time Slows down apparent performance
- 24. Typical 16 Mb DRAM (4M x 4)
- 25. Packaging
- 28. Error Correction Hard Failure Permanent defect Soft Error Random, non-destructive No permanent damage to memory Detected using Hamming error correcting code
- 29. Error Correcting Code Function
- 30. Cache Small amount of fast memory Sits between normal main memory and CPU May be located on CPU chip or module
- 31. Cache operation - overview CPU requests contents of memory location Check cache for this data If present, get from cache (fast) If not present, read required block from main memory to cache Then deliver from cache to CPU Cache includes tags to identify which block of main memory is in each cache slot
- 32. Cache Design Size Mapping Function Replacement Algorithm Write Policy Block Size Number of Caches
- 33. Size does matter Cost More cache is expensive Speed More cache is faster (up to a point) Checking cache for data takes time
- 35. Mapping Function Cache of 64kByte Cache block of 4 bytes i.e. cache is 16k (214 ) lines of 4 bytes 16MBytes main memory 24 bit address (224 =16M)
- 36. Direct Mapping Each block of main memory maps to only one cache line i.e. if a block is in cache, it must be in one specific place Address is in two parts Least Significant w bits identify unique word Most Significant s bits specify one memory block The MSBs are split into a cache line field r and a tag of s-r (most significant)
- 37. Direct Mapping Address Structure Tag s-r Line or Slot r Word w 8 14 2 24 bit address 2 bit word identifier (4 byte block) 22 bit block identifier 8 bit tag (=22-14) 14 bit slot or line No two blocks in the same line have the same Tag field Check contents of cache by finding line and checking Tag
- 38. Direct Mapping Cache Line Table Cache line Main Memory blocks held 0 0, m, 2m, 3m…2s -m 1 1,m+1, 2m+1…2s -m+1 m-1 m-1, 2m-1,3m-1…2s -1
- 41. Direct Mapping pros & cons Simple Inexpensive Fixed location for given block If a program accesses 2 blocks that map to the same line repeatedly, cache misses are very high
- 42. Associative Mapping A main memory block can load into any line of cache Memory address is interpreted as tag and word Tag uniquely identifies block of memory Every line’s tag is examined for a match Cache searching gets expensive
- 45. Tag 22 bit Word 2 bit Associative Mapping Address Structure 22 bit tag stored with each 32 bit block of data Compare tag field with tag entry in cache to check for hit Least significant 2 bits of address identify which 16 bit word is required from 32 bit data block e.g. Address Tag Data Cache line FFFFFC FFFFFC 24682468
- 46. Set Associative Mapping Cache is divided into a number of sets Each set contains a number of lines A given block maps to any line in a given set e.g. Block B can be in any line of set i e.g. 2 lines per set 2 way associative mapping A given block can be in one of 2 lines in only one set
- 47. Set Associative Mapping Example 13 bit set number Block number in main memory is modulo 213 000000, 00A000, 00B000, 00C000 … map to same set
- 48. Two Way Set Associative Cache Organization
- 49. Set Associative Mapping Address Structure Use set field to determine cache set to look in Compare tag field to see if we have a hit e.g Address Tag Data Set number 1FF 7FFC 1FF 12345678 1FFF 001 7FFC 001 11223344 1FFF Tag 9 bit Set 13 bit Word 2 bit
- 50. Two Way Set Associative Mapping Example
- 51. Replacement Algorithms (1) Direct mapping No choice Each block only maps to one line Replace that line
- 52. Replacement Algorithms (2) Associative & Set Associative Hardware implemented algorithm (speed) Least Recently used (LRU) e.g. in 2 way set associative Which of the 2 block is lru? First in first out (FIFO) replace block that has been in cache longest Least frequently used replace block which has had fewest hits Random
- 53. Write Policy Must not overwrite a cache block unless main memory is up to date Multiple CPUs may have individual caches I/O may address main memory directly
- 54. Write through All writes go to main memory as well as cache Multiple CPUs can monitor main memory traffic to keep local (to CPU) cache up to date Lots of traffic Slows down writes Remember bogus write through caches!
- 55. Write back Updates initially made in cache only Update bit for cache slot is set when update occurs If block is to be replaced, write to main memory only if update bit is set Other caches get out of sync I/O must access main memory through cache N.B. 15% of memory references are writes
- 56. Pentium Cache Foreground reading Find out detail of Pentium II cache systems NOT just from Stallings!
- 57. Newer RAM Technology (1) Basic DRAM same since first RAM chips Enhanced DRAM Contains small SRAM as well SRAM holds last line read (c.f. Cache!) Cache DRAM Larger SRAM component Use as cache or serial buffer
- 58. Newer RAM Technology (2) Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM) currently on DIMMs Access is synchronized with an external clock Address is presented to RAM RAM finds data (CPU waits in conventional DRAM) Since SDRAM moves data in time with system clock, CPU knows when data will be ready CPU does not have to wait, it can do something else Burst mode allows SDRAM to set up stream of data and fire it out in block
- 59. SDRAM
- 60. Newer RAM Technology (3) Foreground reading Check out any other RAM you can find See Web site: The RAM Guide