Chapter 01

Explain the evolution of the automobile. Discuss the major components of a vehicle. Describe the evolution of engines. List the common components of most vehicles. List eight areas of automotive service . OBJECTIVES: After studying Chapter 1, the reader should be able to:

air filter • body • body-on-frame (BOF) • carbon monoxide (CO) • catalytic converter • chassis • coolant drive shaft • evaporative emission system (EVAP) • exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) • flat head • frames • hydrocarbon (HC) ignition control module (ICM) • inline engine • intake manifold • internal combustion engine malfunction indicator lamp (MIL) • manufacturer’s suggested retail price (MSRP) KEY TERMS: Continued

OBD-II • oil filter • oil galleries • oil pan • oil pump • oil sump • overhead cam (OHC) • overhead valve (OHV) • oxides of nitrogen (NOX) PCV valve • pillars • positive crankcase ventilation (PCV) • propeller shaft radiator • scan tool • self-propelled vehicle thermostat • transaxle • transfer case unibody • universal joints (U-joints) water jackets • water pump KEY TERMS:

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 1876 The OTTO four-stroke cycle engine developed by German engineer, Mikolaus Otto. 1885 First automobile powered by an OTTO engine designed by Karl Frederick Beary. 1892 Rudolf Diesel receives patent for compression ignition engine. First diesel engine built 1897 . For centuries, man walked or used animals for transportation. After the invention of mechanical propulsion systems, people used self- propelled vehicles , which move under their own power. Major milestones in vehicle development include: Continued

1896 Henry Ford (1863-1947) builds his first car, called the Quadricycle. 1900 About 4,200 automobiles were sold, including: 40% steam powered 38% battery/electric 22% gasoline engine powered 1902 Oldsmobile, founded by Ransom E. Olds, produces first large-scale, affordable vehicle. 1908 William Durant forms General Motors. Continued

Figure 1–1 A Ford Quadricycle built by Henry Ford.

1908 Ford Model T introduced. 1912 Electric starter invented by Charles F. Kettering. First used on a Cadillac, the starter was produced by Dayton Electric Laboratories Company (Delco). 1914 First car with 100% steel body made by Budd Corporation for Dodge. 1922 Indianapolis-built Duesenberg is first vehicle with four-wheel hydraulically operated brakes. Continued

1940 First fully automatic transmission introduced by Oldsmobile. 1973 Airbags offered as an option on some GM vehicles. 1985 Lincoln offers first four-wheel antilock braking system. 1997 First vehicle with electronic stability control offered by Cadillac.

BODIES Early motor vehicles used horse-drawn carriages with the engine attached. Most bodies were wood. Bodies evolved until in the 1930s, all-steel-enclosed bodies became the most used type. All bodies depended on a frame of wood or steel to support chassis components. Figure 1–2 Most vehicle bodies were constructed with a wood framework until the 1920s.

The vehicle chassis system includes the following components: Vehicle frame or body , used to provide support for suspension, steering components and powertrain. Suspension system, which provides a smooth ride. Suspension includes springs and control arms which allow the wheel to move up and down, helping keep the tires on the road, even when traveling over rough roads. Braking system, used to slow and stop wheel rotation, which in turn stops the vehicle. The system includes the brake pedal, master cylinder, plus wheelbrakes to each wheel. CHASSIS SYSTEMS OVERVIEW Continued

Disc brakes are typically used on the front of the car. They include a caliper which applies force to brake pads on both sides of a rotating disc or rotor. Drum brakes use brake shoes applied by hydraulic pressure outward against a rotating brake drum attached to the wheels. Drum brakes are used on the rear of most vehicles. Wheels and tires. The wheels are attached to bearing hubs on the axles. Tires provide traction for accelerating, braking and cornering, and a comfortable ride. Wheels are constructed of steel or aluminum alloy. They are mounted to the hubs using lug nuts, which must be tightened to the proper torque. 3 b. Continued

Front and rear suspension Axles and hubs (to support the wheels and tires) Steering mechanism Engine and transmission Final drive differential and axles Often, chassis were so complete they could be driven without a body. Many expensive automakers in the 1920s and 1930s had bodies built by another company. Bodies were eventually made of steel, many without needing frame support for drivetrain and suspension. The chassis components include:

Figure 1–3 A chassis of a 1950s era vehicle showing the engine, drivetrain, frame and suspension.

Body Terms The roof of a vehicle is supported by pillars , labeled A , B , C , and D , from the front to the rear of the vehicle. All vehicles have an A pillar at the windshield. Many, such as hard-tops, do not have a B pillar. Station wagons and SUVs often have a D pillar at the rear of the vehicle. Do not sit on a vehicle. The metal can easily be distorted, which could cost hundreds of dollars to repair. This includes sitting on the hood, roof, and deck (trunk) lid, as well as fenders. Also, do not hang on any opened door as this can distort the hinge area causing the door not to close properly. Treat a Vehicle Body with Respect

FRAMES Frame construction usually consists of channel-shaped steel beams welded and/or fastened together. Vehicles with a separate frame and body are usually called body-on-frame ( BOF ) vehicles. Continued NOTE: A typical vehicle contains about 10,000 separate individual parts.

Figure 1–5 Note the ribbing and the many pieces of sheet metal used in the construction of this body.

Figure 1–6 A Corvette without the body. Notice that the vehicle is complete enough to be driven. This photo was taken at the Corvette Museum in Bowling Green, Kentucky.

Space Frame Construction Formed sheet steel used to construct a framework of an entire vehicle, drivable without the body. Uses plastic or steel panels to cover the steel framework. Unit-Body Construction (Sometimes called unibody) combines the body with the frame structure. The body is composed of individual stamped-steel panels welded together. The strength lies in the shape of the assembly. The typical vehicle uses about 300 separate stamped-steel panels that spot-welded together. Terms used to label or describe the frame of a vehicle include:

ENGINE DESIGN EVOLUTION All gasoline and diesel engines are internal combustion engines , designed to compress an ignitable mixture, and ignite it using a spark (gasoline) or heat of compression (diesel). Early engines used valves in the engine block, which contained round cylinders where pistons were fitted. The pistons connected to a crankshaft, converting the up and down motion of the pistons to rotary force, propelling the vehicle. Continued

Inline versus V-Type Design Early engines used four or six cylinders arranged in line. Called inline engines , they are still produced today. Some engines with 4, 6, 8, 12,or 16 cylinders were arranged with half of the cylinders on each side of a “V ”, connected to a crankshaft in the bottom of the “V.” Continued Valve Location Design The design with valves located in the block is called flat-head design. The cylinder head covers the combustion chamber and includes a hole for the spark plug. The engine block contains passages for coolant as well as lubricating oil and is the support for all other engine systems.

Figure 1–7 A Ford flathead V-8 engine. This engine design was used by Ford Motor Company from 1932 through 1952.

By the 1950s, most designs placed the valves in the cylinder head. This is called an overhead valve or OHV design. Even newer engine designs feature overhead camshafts ( OHC ), which results in better flow of intake air into and exhaust out of the engine.

Electronic ignition systems Electronic fuel injection Computerized engine controls Emission control devices, including the catalytic converter used in the exhaust system to reduce emissions Improved engine oils that help reduce friction and emissions The need for reduced emissions and greater fuel economy led to advances in engine design. These changes included:

What Is the Monroney Label? The Monroney label is the sticker on the vehicle that lists the manufacturer’s suggested retail price , usually abbreviated MSRP . The law that requires this label on all vehicles is called the Monroney Law, named for the congressman who sponsored the bill, Almer S. Monroney (1902–1980), a U.S. farm representative from Oklahoma from 1939–1951 and a U.S. Senator from 1951 to 1969. Before the Monroney label law was passed in 1958, the price of a vehicle was unknown to new vehicle buyers who had to rely on the dealer for pricing. Besides all of the standard an optional equipment on the vehicle, the Monroney label also includes fuel economy and exhaust emission information.

Figure 1–8 A Monroney label as shown on the side window of a new vehicle.

ENGINE SYSTEMS OVERVIEW An engine requires many systems to function correctly. Cooling System Older engines were air cooled. All engines now in production are liquid cooled. Coolant is moved by a water pump through passages in the cylinder block and head called water jackets . The coolant , a mixture of antifreeze and water, provides corrosion and freezing protection. It picks up heat from the engine, flows through a radiator , releases the heat, and cools the coolant. A thermostat located in the coolant passage maintains the coolant temperature by opening and closing to control coolant flow to the radiator. Continued

Lubrication System All engines need lubricating oil to reduce friction and help cool the engine. Most are equipped with an oil pan , also called an oil sump , containing 3 to 7 quarts (liters) of oil. An engine driven oil pump forces the oil through an oil filter , to passages in the block and head called oil galleries , and then to all of the moving parts. Air Intake System All engines draw air from the atmosphere. About 9,000 gallons of air is required for each gallon of gasoline used. The air intake must be where deep water cannot be drawn into the engine. The air is filtered by a replaceable air filter , passes through a throttle valve and into the engine through an intake manifold . Continued

Fuel tank Fuel lines and filter(s) Fuel injectors Electronic control of the fuel pump and fuel injection Engine starting and charging systems, which include the battery, starting (cranking) system and charging system components and circuits. Fuel injectors atomize the liquid gasoline into small droplets to be mixed with the air entering the engine. The mixture of fuel and air is then ignited by the spark plug. Fuel System The fuel system includes the following components and systems: Continued

Ignition System Uses battery voltage and an ignition control module ( ICM ) to create a high-voltage spark that is sent to the spark plugs. The arc across the electrodes of the spark plug ignites the air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber. The resulting pressure pushes the piston down on the power stroke. Emission Control System Control of vehicle emissions includes controlling gasoline vapors released into the atmosphere in addition to reducing exhaust emissions. Continued

Unburned gasoline emissions are hydrocarbon ( HC ) emissions. Exhaust gases that are controlled include carbon monoxide ( CO ) and oxides of nitrogen ( NOX ). The evaporative emission control system , usually called the EVAP system , is designed to prevent the release of gasoline fumes and vapors. Continued

Positive crankcase ventilation (PCV). Uses a valve called a PCV valve to regulate gases created in the crankcase of a running engine. They are routed back to the intake manifold to be drawn into the combustion chamber, where they are burned to help prevent their release into the atmosphere. Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR). System meters about 3% to 7% of the exhaust gases into the intake. The gases reduce peak combustion temperature, preventing atmospheric oxygen (O 2 ) and nitrogen (NO) from combining to form oxides of nitrogen. Catalytic Converter. Unit located in the exhaust system, close to the engine, which causes changes in exhaust gases. Other emission control systems include: Continued

On-board diagnostics, meaning the engine, as well as the engine management systems, can test itself for proper operation and alert the driver if a fault is detected. The warning lamp, called the malfunction indicator light (MIL) is labeled “Check Engine ” or “Service Engine Soon.” The on-board diagnostic system is currently in the second generation, called OBD-II . Electronic hand-held testers, called scan tools , are needed to access (retrieve) stored diagnostic trouble codes (DTCs)and view sensor and system data.

Transmission. In a manually shifted transmission, the drivetrain contains a clutch assembly to allow the driver to disengage engine torque from the transmission. This allows the driver to shift from one gear ratio to another. The transmission contains gears and assemblies to provide high torque output at low speeds for acceleration, and lower torque at higher speeds for better fuel economy at highway speeds. POWERTRAIN OVERVIEW The purpose of the powertrain is to transfer the torque output of the engine to the drive wheels. Rear-Wheel-Drive Powertrain A rear-wheel-drive vehicle uses these components to transfer engine torque to the drive wheels: Continued

Drive Shaft. A drive shaft , also called a propeller shaft , connects and transmits engine torque from the transmission to the rear differential. Universal joints (U-joints) allow the differential to move up and down on the rear suspension and still transmit engine torque. Differential. A differential is used at the rear of the vehicle and performs two functions: The differential increases the torque applied to the rear drive wheels by reducing the speed. The differential also changes the direction of the applied engine torque and uses axle shafts to transfer the torque to the drive wheels. Continued

Front-Wheel-Drive Powertrain A front-wheel-drive vehicle uses a transaxle , a combination transmission/differential in one assembly. Drive axle shafts transfer engine torque to the front drive wheels from the output of the transaxle. Four-Wheel-Drive System There are many methods of powering all four wheels. Many include a transfer case to split engine torque to both the front and the rear wheels. Figure 1–9 A dash control panel used by the driver to control the four-wheel-drive system.

ELECTRICAL / ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS OVERVIEW Early vehicles did not have an electrical system –e ven the ignition did not require a battery. Early engines used a magneto to create a spark instead of using power from a battery as used today. The first electrical components on vehicles were battery-powered lights, for the driver to see the road, and to be seen by an approaching vehicle at night. After 1912, the invention of the self-starter made the use of a battery commonplace. Charles F. Kettering also invented the point-type ignition system about the same time as the self-starter. Continued

Early vehicle batteries were often referred to as SLI batteries, meaning starting, lighting and ignition. From the 1920s to the 1950s other electrical components were added, such as radios, defroster fans, and horns. Not until the 60s did electrical accessories such as air conditioning, power seats and power windows become common. Today’s vehicles need generators (alternators) which can produce more electricity than in the past. Continued

A tire pressure monitoring system for the tires Heated and cooled seats Automatic climate control Power windows Security systems Electric power steering Electronic suspension Figure 1–10 The generator (alternator) is in the heart of the electrical system. The number of electronic components has grown to include every system in the vehicle, including:

Early vehicles did not include heaters or other comforts for driver and passengers. Most were open, with a simple removable top. Some had optional side curtains. In the 30s and 40s, fully enclosed bodies became common, and manufacturers started including heaters, small radiators with engine coolant flowing through them. In the 1950s, the only options on many vehicles were a radio and heater, or R&H. Today, air-conditioning systems are purchased on most vehicles and incorporate defrosters and passenger compartment comfort, often in two zones. Related comfort options today include heated and cooled seats and heated steering wheels. HEATING, VENTILATION AND AIR-CONDITIONING OVERVIEW

EIGHT AREAS OF AUTOMOTIVE SERVICE The non-profit National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence , known as ASE, created a series of eight certification tests in 1972. The tests cover the major vehicle systems. Continued

Engine Repair (A1) This content area includes questions related to engine block and cylinder head diagnosis and service, as well as the lubrication, cooling, fuel, ignition, and exhaust systems inspection and service. Automatic Transmission (A2) This content area includes general automatic transmission/transaxle diagnosis, including hy draulic and electronic related systems. Manual Drive Train and Axles (A3) This content area includes clutch diagnosis and repair, manual transmission diagnosis and repair, as well as drive shaft, universal, and constant velocity joint diagnosis and service. Also included in this content area are rear differential diagnosis and repair, plus four-wheel-drive compo nent diagnosis and repair. Continued

Steering and Suspension (A4) This content area includes steering and suspension system diagnosis and repair, including wheel alignment diagnosis and adjustments, and wheel and tire diagnosis and repair procedures. Brakes (A5) The brake content area includes the diagnosis and repair of the hydraulic system,drum and disc brake systems, plus power assist units, antilock braking, and traction control systems. Electrical/Electronic Systems (A6) This content area includes many systems,including the battery, starting, charging, lighting, gauges, and accessory circuit diagnosis and repair. Continued

Heating and Air Conditioning (A7) This content area includes air-conditioning service, refrigera tion systems, heating and engine cooling systems diagnosis and repair, as well as refrigerant recovery, recycling, handling, and retrofit. Engine Performance (A8) The engine performance content area includes diagnosis and testing of those systems responsible for the proper running and operation of the engine. Included in this area are general engine diagnosis, ignition and fuel systems, as well as emission control and computerized engine control diagnosis and repair. This textbook covers the content of all eight ASE areas plus all of the background and fundamental information needed by technicians.

SUMMARY 1. Major automobile milestones include: OTTO cycle engine (1876), first diesel engine (1892), Ford’s first car (1896) Oldsmobile’s large-scale production (1902), first Model T (1908), first car with four-wheel hydraulic brakes (1922), first automatic transmission (1940), first vehicle to use four- wheel antilock braking system (1985), first vehicle with electronic stability control (1997). 2. The chassis of the vehicle consists of a frame or body which has front and rear suspension, brake system, engine and transmission, and steering system. 3. A vehicle frame is the main structural support for the body. Continued

4. Engine design has changed from inline flathead 4-, 6-, and 8-cylinder engines to new double-overhead camshaft designs, which are computer controlled. 5. The engine consists of the following systems: air intake, cooling, lubrication, fuel, ignition and emission control. 6. Major advances have also been made to electrical systems and controls from no electrical circuits in the early days of self-propelled vehicles to computer-controlled accessory and climate control systems today. SUMMARY Continued ( cont. )

7. The eight areas of automotive service include: engine repair (A1), automatic transmission/transaxle (A2), manual transmission/transaxle (A3), suspension and steering (A4), brakes (A5), electrical and electronic systems (A6), heating and air-conditioning (A7), and engine performance (A8). SUMMARY ( cont. )

Chapter 01

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Chapter 01