Consumers Knowledge About Health Effects of Edible Oils and Fats in Turkey: A Questionnaire Study_Crimson publishers

Consumers Knowledge About Health Effects of
Edible Oils and Fats in Turkey: A Questionnaire
Study
Zeynep Aksoylu Özbek, Kıvılcım Çelik and Pelin Günç Ergönül*
Manisa Celal Bayar University, Engineering Faculty, Department of Food Engineering, Manisa/
Turkey
Introduction
Nutritional habits of human beings have undergone radical changes over time. A number
of studies have shown that there is a relationship between eating habits of people and the
diseases that they encounter. Therefore, especially in developed countries, people who want
to live a healthy life take care of their nutrition. In a balanced diet, carbohydrates, proteins
and fats play an important role. People can obtain their fat needs from vegetable and animal
origin foods.
Fats and oils are carriers of various nutrients and fat-soluble vitamins found in foods
as well as being one of the most important energy sources [1]. Fats, which are one of three
basic nutrients, meet the majority of human organism energy needs and have many other
physiological and biological functions [2]. Lipids have numerous biological functions in the
body and act as the structural material of all cells and organs [1]. Fats are essential because
they contain essential fatty acids and vitamins A,D,E,K and also have flavor-enhancing
properties. They are significant elements in terms of their contribution to human health and
high nutritional value [3,4]. Additionally, they improve textural quality of foods [5,6]. Besides
serving as thermal insulator for human body and protector of internal organs against external
influences, fats also have important roles in hormone synthesis, intelligence and reproductive
organs [3,5,7]. There are two aspects of lipid requirement in human nutrition: qualitative and
quantitative. Firstly; some lipids contain essential fatty acids and fat-soluble vitamins, so there
is a need for health [8]. Then, 25-30% of total daily calorie necessity in a normal diet should
be provided by oils [8,9]. In developed countries, 35-40% for children, 30-35% for young
people and for adults 25-30% of daily consumed calorie is provided by fats. In developing
countries, this rate is as low as 5% [8]. An adult person should consume about 24kg of fat per
year [4]. In 2016, a total of 966.000 tons of vegetable oils (including olive oil) were produced
in Turkey. The amount of vegetable oil per capita was determined as 21.9kg [10,11].
Experts have introduced nutritional guidelines to deal with malnutrition. However,
many countries make effort to prevent chronic illnesses such as heart disease, obesity and
diabetes, and re-prepare these dietary guidelines. Nutritional recommendations continue
to emphasize the low-fat and total fat-free diet to reduce the risk of obesity and the risk of
diabetes and cardiovascular disease [12]. The American Heart Association recommends that
dietary intake of saturated fat should be between 5-6% per day [13]. On the other hand, a
Crimson Publishers
Wings to the Research
Research Article
*1
Corresponding author: Pelin Günç
Ergönül, Department of Food Engineering,
Turkey
Submission: January 24, 2020
Published: February 03, 2020
Volume 4 - Issue 4
How to cite this article: Zeynep Aksoylu
Özbek, Kıvılcım Çelik, Pelin Günç Ergönül.
Consumers Knowledge About Health
Effects of Edible Oils and Fats in Turkey: A
Questionnaire Study. Nov Tech Nutri Food
Sci. 4(5).NTNF.000596.2020.
DOI: 10.31031/NTNF.2020.04.000596
Copyright@ Pelin Günç Ergönül. This
article is distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License, which permits
unrestricted use and redistribution
provided that the original author and
source are credited.
ISSN: 2640-9208
371
Novel Techniques in Nutrition and Food Science
Abstract
The aim of this study is to identify the predictors of edible oil and fat consumption. A questionnaire to
evaluate the attitude of consumers toward various edible oils and fats was administered to 300 individ-
uals in Manisa. Twenty six percent of participants reported olive oil is the healthiest edible oil. Most of
the participants believed that consumption of oils does not lead to health risk if it is not consumed too
much. Margarine was reported as the most cholesterol containing item. Fats were associated with health
concerns by majority of participants. Seventy six percent of participants believed that there was a rela-
tionship between oil and fat consumption and cardiovascular diseases. The findings of this study suggest
that Turkish consumers hold positive attitudes towards edible oils such as olive oil and other vegetable
oils. On the other hand, they are aware of the health risks linked to fat consumption.
Keywords: Consumption; Fat; Health; Oil; Questionnaire; Turkey

372
Nov Tech Nutri Food Sci Copyright © Pelin Günç Ergönül
NTNF.000596. 4(5).2020
daily intake of cholesterol less than 300mg is suggested by FDA
[14]. Excessive consumption of saturated fats and cholesterol is
known to increase the amount of LDL, a low-density lipoprotein,
namely bad cholesterol. This leads to increase of coronary heart
disease risk [5,6,13-15].
Most of the vegetable oils are obtained from seeds such as
sunflower, canola, soybean and cotton. They are also derived from
olives and palm fruits, and 97-99% of its composition consists of
triglycerides [16]. Cooking oils and fats may be of vegetable or
animal origin. Olives in the Mediterranean, rapeseed in Europe,
sesame seeds in India and soybean in China have been used as oil
rich products for centuries. Today; 80% of the world’s oil and fat
production consists of vegetable oils and soybean oil is the most
commonly used as diet oil [5]. In Turkey, the most consumed oils
are sunflower and olive oils [4,17]. Sunflower oil contains very
high proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Among these,
approximately 68-72% of the total fatty acid content is composed
of linoleic acid, which reduces cardiovascular risk and also shows
hypocholesterolemia effect. It also contains vitamins A,D,E,K and
natural antioxidants such as α-tocopherol [18-21]. Olive oil is
composed of 98% triacylglycerol, the majority of them is triolein
(OOO) which is beneficial for health [22].
When the benefits of olive oil are examined; it is known to
be effective in the prevention of cardiovascular, hypertension,
cancer, digestive system and nervous system diseases and has cell
retention and aging retarding effects [22,23]. Up to now a lot of
survey studies have been conducted about edible vegetable oils,
olive oil, animal fat consumption habits and buying attitudes of
individuals [4,24-38]. However, to the best of our knowledge, no
study has been carried out to examine consumers awareness about
the effects of edible vegetable and animal fats on human health.
In Manisa, which was selected as a research area, no survey study
has been found on this subject. Therefore, the aim of this study
is to determine the health criteria of edible oil consumption of
consumers by evaluating different income groups living in Manisa
and to determine consumer attitude towards edible oils in terms
of health.
Materials and Methods
The sample of the study included volunteer and randomly
selected 300 subjects living in the central district of Manisa who
fully completed questionnaire in 2014. Manisa is one of the major
cities of Aegean Region and Turkey with its booming economy
and growing population. Along with the increasing population,
the need for oil consumption, is constantly increasing. Manisa has
two central districts, namely Şehzadeler and Yunusemre. Their
populations were 166.443, and 204.436, respectively in 2014 [39].
The size of the sample was estimated using population proportion
through simple random sampling as follows:
( (1 )) _ 2 (1 ))
(( 1)
N P P
n p P P
N
σ ∧
× −
= + −
−
Here,
N = the actual size of the target population (total of 370.879)
P = estimated proportion of the population (0.5)
σp = desired variance of the population (confidence
interval of 95% and error margin of 0.075, 1.96
σp = 0.075, σp =0.038265) [40].
Asampleof171observationsisneeded.However,questionnaire
was administered to 300 participants to ensure the reliability of the
study. A 17-items questionnaire was developed after administration
of pre-test to 15 individuals to assure its understandability. It
was divided into two parts. In the first part, 6 questions about
sociodemographic characteristics were asked to subject, while
11 questions in the second part were asked to evaluate their
awareness about the health effects of edible oils and fats. The
survey was conducted using face-to-face interview technique. The
questionnaire took approximately 15 minutes to complete. Data
were evaluated using simple statistical methods in Excel.
Result and Discussion
Sociodemographic characteristics of the participants
The sociodemographic characteristics of individuals participat-
ing in the survey are summarized in Table 1. 300 individuals con-
sisting of 150 females and 150 males participated in this study. The
participants had an almost equal age distribution. A little more than
half of the participants hold a bachelor’s degree diploma (51%).
Most of the participants were married (57%), and almost one-third
of participants reported a monthly household income more than
3000 Turkish Lira (28%).
Table 1: Sociodemographic characteristics of participants.
Characteristic n Frequency (%)
Gender
Female 150 50
Male 150 50
Age (years)
18-30 102 34
30-45 99 33
45-60 99 33

373
NTNF.000596. 4(5).2020
Education
Elementary school 63 21
High school 66 22
Undergraduate 153 51
Graduate 18 6
Marital status
Single 99 33
Married 171 57
Divorced or widowed 30 10
Occupation
Full-time labourer and employee 111 37
Student 108 36
Unemployed 36 12
Retiree 21 7
Housewife 21 7
Part-time labourer 3 1
Monthly household income (Turkish Lira)
< 500 3 1
500-1000 48 16
1000-1500 21 7
1500-2000 48 16
2000-2500 51 17
2500-3000 45 15
> 3000 84 28
Consumers’ knowledge about health effects of edible
oils and fats
A total of 26% of the participants stated that olive oil was the
most useful oil in terms of human nutrition (Figure 1). Similar
survey results were obtained in different cities of Turkey. A survey
study carried out in Ankara, the capital of Turkey, showed that 80%
of the 400 participants reported olive oil as the top contributor
to human health [26], Whereas 89.70% of the respondents in
Tekirdağ stated that olive oil was the most healthful oil [37]. Among
all, sunflower oil was ranked second and butter third by Turkish
consumers. The most surprising output of this question is more
than one-tenth of the participants believed that margarine had a
positive effect on human health (12%, n=36). Probably, due to very
limited use of soybean oil in Turkey, any Turkish consumers did not
rank this oil in this question.
Figure 1: Ranking of edible oils and fats regarding health benefits.

374
NTNF.000596. 4(5).2020
Figure 2 shows participants evaluation of each edible oil and fat
in terms of health effects. Butter, olive oil, fish oil, sunflower oil, corn
oil, and hazelnut oil were classified as beneficial oils (92.33%, 89%,
79.70%, 73.67%, 61%, and 58%, respectively), whereas margarine
was reported to be unbeneficial by most of the participants
(93.33%, n=280). Fish oil capsules have been marketed as dietary
supplement in Turkey for many years. So, Turkish individuals are
aware of its health benefits. The opinion of participants about
health effect of margarine seemed confused. In the first question,
12% of the participants reported margarine as useful in terms of
nutrition. However, in the second question, majority of them stated
that margarine was unbeneficial regarding to health effects. It is
very hard to discuss these conflicting results. Finally, the awareness
of the participants about health effects of canola oil was scarce.
A total of 36% and 27% of the participants stated that they had
no idea, or they had never heard before. Contrary to our results, a
survey study carried out in Italy showed that butter was believed
to be unbeneficial by participants [41]. The different attitudes of
various societies may be attributed to different dietary habits. In
Mediterranean culture, olive oil dominates the diet. On the other
hand, butter is as popular as olive oil in Turkish cuisine. Hence, the
perceptions of the consumers may be influenced by social habits.
Figure 2: Participants attitudes towards the health effects of each oil and fat surveyed in the questionnaire.
The percentages of participants who reported their ideas about
health effects of edible oil and fat consumption are summarized in
Table 2. According to findings of this survey, only a little more than
one-tenth of participants stated that the amount of oil in the diet
should be reduced (12%, n=36), while almost half of them believed
amount of fat in the diet should be decreased (43%, n=129). In a
survey dealing with fat consumption habits and attitudes of Dutch
and American individuals, 26.40% of American participants were
willing to adopt a low-fat diet, while positive statement for same
question was reported by only 6.90% of Dutch respondents [30].
Moreover, 75% of the participants reported that consumption of oils
in moderation would not pose a health risk. On the other side, only
one-third of the participants had the same opinion for fats (34%,
n=102). This apparent difference indicates that fats are considered
more harmful than oils in terms of health by the participants.
Table 2: Participants’ thoughts about health effects of edible oils and fats consumption.
Do you think Consumption of Edible Oil/Fat may cause a Health Concern…
Oil Fat
n Frequency (%) n Frequency (%)
Yes, it is harmful due to its cholesterol content 12 4 48 16
Yes, the amount of it in the diet should be reduced 36 12 129 43
It is not harmful if it is not consumed too much 225 75 102 34
No idea 27 9 21 7

375
NTNF.000596. 4(5).2020
Figure 3: The ranking of oil groups in terms of their health risks by participants.
As shown in Figure 4, 210 participants out of 300 reported
margarine to be the richest source of cholesterol. Butter was
ranked second highest cholesterol content by the participants of
this survey. Interestingly, despite its limited use and awareness of
consumers in Turkey, soybean oil was reported as a cholesterol
source by 7% of the participants. Concerning intake of oils and
fats, 52% of the participants indicated that they tried to decrease
their intake. On the other hand, almost one-third of the participants
felt they would not be able to decrease their daily intake (34%,
n=102). 30 participants out of a total of 300 reported that they
tried to decrease butter intake they consumed in the breakfast. The
remaining sample of 12 participants stated that they consumed
only olive oil (3%, n=9) or vegetable oil (1%, n=3).
Regarding the relationship between oil/fat consumption
and cardiovascular diseases, more than half of the participants
believed that cardiovascular diseases were associated with oil/
fat consumption (76%, n=228), while only 5% of them disagreed
(Figure 5). Almost one-tenth of the respondents reported that these
food items were as related as other foods in terms of cardiovascular
diseases formation (11%, n=33). The remaining subjects (8%,
n=24) did not have any idea about this issue. This proportion is in
accordance with the proportions of participants declared no idea
about the possible health effects of oil and fat consumption, 9% and
7%, respectively (Table 2).
Fats including butter and margarine were regarded as the
riskiest item in terms of health by 279 participants out of total
300 (Figure 3). As stated in the previous research question, the
reliability of fruit oils, principally olive oil, in terms of health was
confirmed by the participants. The surprising output of this survey
is majority of Turkish consumers believed fats pose a health risk
as seen in Figure 3 (93%, n=279). However, as shown in Table 2,
less than half of the participants were willing to reduce the amount
of fat in their diet (43%, n=129). This suggests that health risk is
not considered as an important determinant for fat consumption in
the daily diet by Turkish consumers. Individuals commonly prefer
to use fats to improve the palatability of various kinds of foods in
Turkey. This means that palate of consumers clearly outweighs the
health risk of fats.
Figure 4: The ranking of edible oils and fats in terms of cholesterol content by the participants.

376
NTNF.000596. 4(5).2020
Figure 5: Participants thoughts about relationship between oil/fat consumption and cardiovascular diseases formation.
Figure 6: Participants beliefs about cholesterol-raising effect of butter.
According to the data illustrated in Figure 6, the consumers had
completely opposite opinions about cholesterol-raising effect of
butter. Of the participants, 39% indicated that butter consumption
would increase cholesterol levels, while 38% believed butter had
no cholesterol-raising impact. It is noteworthy that substantial
part of the respondents, almost one-fifth of them (23%, n=69), was
unaware about the effect of butter on cholesterol levels. As shown
in Table 1, more than half of the participants of this survey held
at least a high school degree (79%, n=237). Hence, this surprising
high level of unawareness might be attributed to less concerns of
Turkish consumers toward health issues related to diet.
Figure 7 illustrates the comparison of various oil/fat couples in
terms of nutritiousness by 300 participants. In general, olive oil was
considered as the most nutritious item among all. Then, butter was
commonly preferred in different dual comparison groups. However,
65% of the participants preferred olive oil over butter in terms of
nutritiousness. Of the participants, 68.33% and 71% believed corn
oil and sunflower oil were more nutritious than margarine. This
attitude is desirable for consumers to be motivated to decrease
their daily fat intake. Sunflower and corn oils are widely used for
culinary purposes in Turkey. Hence, the proportions of respondents
who preferred corn oil (56.33%, n=169) and sunflower oil (43.67%,
n=131) in dual comparison group (sunflower oil/corn oil) were
close to each other.

377
NTNF.000596. 4(5).2020
Figure 7: Comparison of oil/fat couples regarding nutritiousness by participants (%).
As shown in Figure 8, olive oil was perceived as the most
healthful oil by the participants. In all dual comparison groups,
olive oil prevailed over its all counterparts. Except olive oil-butter
comparison, butter was regarded as more healthful item than its
correspondent in all comparison groups. In contrast to results of
previous question (Figure 7), 62% of the participants reported that
sunflower oil was more healthful than corn oil (Figure 8). Further
survey studies may focus on the perceptions of Turkish consumers
about nutritiousness and healthiness of food items. This survey
study has some limitations. Firstly, sample size (300 participants)
is not enough to generalize the results of this study to all Aegean
region of Turkey. Second, number of participants from each
sociodemographic group should be balanced to reduce variability.
Figure 8: Comparison of oil/fat couples regarding health benefits by participants (%).
Conclusion
In summary, results indicate that tendency of the participants
mainly focused on the popularity and availability of items surveyed
in this study. Olive oil was considered the most popular healthy
oil, whereas margarine was regarded harmful. It is speculated
that the awareness of the participants derived from interviews of
some medical doctors shown in TV shows or found in newspapers/
magazines. Moreover, social media is also responsible for
knowledge sharing. Soybean oil, an uncommon oil commodity for
Turkish consumers, was not generally evaluated or classified by
the participants. Efforts are needed to promote health benefits and
availability of other seed oils in Turkey.
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