Data Analysis & Interpretation and Report Writing

UNIT 5
Mr.T.SOMASUNDARAM
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT
KRISTU JAYANTI COLLEGE, BANGALORE

UNIT 5: ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION OF DATA AND
RESEARCH REPORTING
Statistical Methods for Data Analysis
(Only Theory), Meaning of
Interpretation, Technique of
Interpretation, Significance of
Report Writing, Steps, Layout of
Research Report, Types of Research
Reports, Precautions while writing
research reports

Data Analysis:
“Data Analysis is the process of ordering,
categorizing, manipulating and summarizing data to
obtain answers to research questions”.
It is usually the first step taken towards data
interpretation.
Interpretation of data is important and such needs to
be done properly.
Researchers have identified some data interpretation
methods to aid this process.
DATAANALYSIS

Statistical Methods:
The major statistical methods for data analysis
are –
1. Mean
2. Standard Deviation
3. Regression
4. Hypothesis testing
5. Sample Size determination
STATISTICAL METHODS FOR
DATAANALYSIS

1. Mean:
The first method is used to perform the statistical analysis is
mean, which is more commonly referred to as the average.
To calculate the mean, you add up a list of numbers and then
divide that number by the items on the list.
It allows for determining the overall trend of a data set and
also benefit from the simplistic and quick calculation.
The statistical mean is coming up with the central point of
the data that’s being processed. The result is referred to as
the mean of the data provided.
Mean is used in research, academics, and sports, etc.
“An Mean or Average value is a single value within the
range of the data that is used to represent all the values in the
series”.
STATISTICAL METHODS FOR
DATAANALYSIS

How to find the Mean?
To find mean of your data, first add the numbers
together and divide the sum by how many numbers
are within the dataset.
(E.g.) Mean of 6, 18 and 24 would be –
i) First add the given three numbers 6 + 18 + 24 = 48.
ii) Divide the sum of three numbers by 3 = 48 / 3 = 16
Mean is 16
Note:
When your dealing with large number of data or
inaccurate distribution of data, mean doesn’t give
most accurate results in statistical analytics for a
specific decision.

2. Standard Deviation (S.D):
Standard deviation is a method of statistical analysis
that measures the spread of data around the mean.
SD is used when researcher need to determine the
dispersion of data points.
• Standard deviation is extremely used in judging the
uniformity and consistency of the observations.
Lesser the S.D. more will be uniformity (less
variability) and greater the S.D. lesser the uniformity
(more variability).
“Standard deviation (SD) is the square root of the
arithmetic mean of the squared deviations of values
from their arithmetic mean. It is generally denoted by
symbol σ (read as sigma)”.

How to find the SD?
Formula:
σ2 = Σ(x − μ)2/n (or) σ = Sq.root [Σ(x − μ)2/n]
• σ is standard deviation
• Σ stands for the sum of the data
• x stands for the value of the dataset
• μ stands for the mean of the data
• σ2 stands for the variance
• n stands for the number of data points in the
population
(E.g.) SD for 6, 18 and 24 is 7.4833

3. Regression:
Regression is the relationship between a dependent variable
(the data you are looking to measure) and an independent
variable (the data used to predict the dependent variable).
It can also be explained by how one variable affects another
or changes in a variable that trigger changes in another,
basically cause and effect.
Line used in regression analysis graphs and charts signify
whether the relationships between the variables are strong or
weak.
This statistical analysis used to make predictions & forecast
trends.
“Regression analysis is defined as the technique for the
derivation of an equation by which one of the variables, the
dependent variable, may be estimate from the other variable,
the independent variable.”

Regression Formula:
Y = a + b (x)
Where
• a refers to the y-intercept, the value of y when x = 0
• x is the dependent variable
• y is the independent variable
• b refers to the slope, or rise over run
Note:
Regression is not distinctive, insist that although
outliers on a scatter plot (regression analysis graph)
are important.

4. Hypothesis Testing:
Hypothesis testing is also known as ‘T Testing’,
which is a key to testing the two sets of random
variables within the data set.
This method is all about testing if a certain
argument or conclusion is true for the data set.
It allows for comparing the data against various
hypotheses and assumptions.
It determines some quantity under a given
assumption, which is called as null hypothesis or
hypothesis 0.
In hypothesis testing, results of test are significant to
statistics if results are proof that couldn’t happened
by random occurrence or chance.

Hypothesis Testing Formula:
Result of statistical hypothesis test need to be
interpreted to make specific claim, which is referred
to as p – value.
Testing of hypothesis to determine 50% chance of
being correct is –
H0: Null Hypothesis P = 0.5
H1: Alternate Hypothesis P ≠ 0.5

5. Sample Size determination:
While analysing data for statistical analysis,
sometimes dataset is simple too large, making
difficult to collect accurate data for each element of
data set.
In this case, analysing a sample size or smaller size
of data, which is called sample size determination.
Right size of sample to be accurate to do correct
analysis.
To determine sample size, researcher examine
aspects like cost, time or convenience of collecting
data.

Some general tips when determining a Sample Size -
When considering a smaller sample size, conduct a
census.
Use sample size from a study similar to your own
study, where researcher have to look at academic
database to search for a similar study.
For generic study, there may be table that already
exists.
Use a sample size calculator.
Sometimes consider Slovin’s formula and
Cochran’s formula.

Simple Formula for Determination of Sample Size:
n = N / [1+N(α)2]
Where n – required no. of sample, N – total no. of
population.
α – significance level (i.e.) 0.01, 0.05 & 0.10 (99%,
95% & 90%)
(E.g.) If population size is N = 500, then sample size is
n = 500 / [1+500(0.05)2] = 222
Significance level is selected based on the accuracy of
data which is required by researcher (i.e.) 99%
means researcher needs accurate result.

Data Interpretation:
“Data interpretation is the process of reviewing data
through some predefined processes which will help
assign some meaning to the data and arrive at a
relevant conclusion”.
It involves taking result of data analysis, making
inferences on relations studied and using them to
conclude.
There are two methods for Data interpretation
methods –
1. Qualitative Data Interpretation Method.
2. Quantitative Data Interpretation Method.
DATA INTERPRETATION

1. Qualitative Data Interpretation Method:
This method is used to analyse qualitative data,
which is also known as categorical data.
This method uses texts, rather than numbers or
patterns to describe data.
It is gathered using variety of person – to – person
techniques.
There are two main types of qualitative data, namely
nominal and ordinal data.
Both data types are interpreted using same method,
but ordinal data interpretation is easier than nominal
data.

2. Quantitative Data Interpretation Method:
This method is used to analyse quantitative data, which
is also known as numerical data.
This method contains numbers and analysed with use of
numbers and not texts.
There are two main types of quantitative data, namely
discrete and continuous data.
Continuous data divided into interval data and ratio data.
The process of analysing quantitative data involves
statistical modelling techniques like mean, median &
SD.
The other interpretation processes of quantitative data are
Regression analysis, Predictive & Prescriptive analysis
and Cohort analysis.

Techniques of Interpretation:
Interpretation is an art that one learns through practice
and experience. The techniques of interpretation often
involves following steps:
(i) Researcher must give reasonable explanations of
the relations which he has found and he must interpret
the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying
processes and must try to find out the thread of
uniformity that lies under the surface layer of his
diversified research findings. In fact, this is the
technique of how generalization should be done and
concepts be formulated.
(ii) Extraneous information, if collected during the
study, must be considered while interpreting the final
results of research study, for it may prove to be a key
factor in understanding the problem under
consideration.

Techniques of Interpretation:
(iii) It is advisable, before embarking upon final
interpretation, to consult someone having insight into
the study and who is frank and honest and will not
hesitate to point out omissions and errors in logical
argumentation. Such a consultation will result in
correct interpretation and, thus, will enhance the utility
of research results.
(iv) Researcher must accomplish the task of
interpretation only after considering all relevant
factors affecting the problem to avoid false
generalization. He must be in no hurry while
interpreting results, for quite often the conclusions,
which appear to be all right at the beginning, may not at
all be accurate.

Precautions while writing Interpretation:
Researcher must invariably satisfy himself that -
•The data are appropriate.
•Trustworthy.
•Adequate for drawing inferences.
•The data reflect good homogeneity.
•Proper analysis has been done through
statistical methods.
•Remain cautious about the errors, which is
possible in process of interpreting results.

RESEARCH REPORT
Report:
“A report is a written document on a particular
topic, which conveys information and ideas and
may also make recommendations”.
“Research reporting is the oral or written
presentation of evidence and the findings in
such a way that it is readily understood and
assessed by the reader and enables him to verify
the validity of the conclusions”.

Characteristics (features) of good research report:
All points in report should be clear to read.
Report should be concise with necessary information
under proper headings and sub-headings.
All information should be correct & supported by
evidence.
All relevant material should be included.
Purpose of Research Report:
1. Transmission of knowledge.
2. Presentation of findings.
3. Examining the validity of the generalizations.
4. Inspiration for further research.

REPORTWRITING
Research Report Writing:
“Written Research Report is an
authoritative one – way communication, it imposes a special
obligation for maintaining objectivity”.
It is their degree of formality and design in proper format.
Significance of Report Writing:
It is major component of research study for research task
remains incomplete till it is presented.
It gives generalizations and findings of little value.
The purpose of research is not values until it is known to
others.
It is last part of research study & need set of skills for
writing.
It need assistance & guidance from experts. 24

Steps in Writing Report:
1. Logical Analysis of the subject matter:
 It is the development of subject in two ways a) logically –
basis of mental connections and associations between one
thing and another by means of analysis and b)
chronologically – it is based on a connection or sequence in
time or occurrence.
2. Preparation of the final outline:
 It is the framework upon which long written works are
constructed.
3. Preparation of the rough draft:
 It follows logical analysis of subject and preparation of final
outline.
 It include about what researcher done, procedure adopted,
methodology, analysis, limitations & suggestions regarding
the problem. 25

4. Rewriting and Polishing of the rough draft:
 It requires more time than writing of rough draft.
 It is like careful revision and making good piece of writing.
 It check the weakness of report for logical development or
presentation.
 It check whether the material is required or not.
 It exhibit definite pattern.
 It check mechanics of writing – grammar, spelling & usage.
5. Preparation of the final bibliography:
 It includes list of books in pertinent way, contains all those
research work.
 It should arrange alphabetically and divide into two parts.
 It includes first part (name of books and pamphlets), second
part (names of magazine and newspaper articles). 26

Format: (For books & pamphlets)
 Name of author, last name first.
 Title (in italic), place, publisher, date of publication, no.
of volumes.
(E.g.) Kothari, C.R., Quantitative Techniques, New Delhi,
Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., 1978.
For magazines & newspaper:
 Name of author, last name first.
 Title of article in quotation marks.
 Name of periodical (underlined), volume no.
 Date and page no.
(E.g.) Robert V. Roosa, “Coping with Short-term
International Money Flows”, The Banker, London,
September, 1971, p.995.
27

6. Writing the final draft:
 It should be in concise and objective style, simple
language.
 Avoid vague expressions like “it seems”, “there may
be”.
 Avoid abstract terminology and technical jargon.
 Examples must be mentioned.
 It should create enthusiastic among people and
maintain interest.
 It should mention the attempt to solve problem and
contribution of solution for a problem.
28

WRITING STYLES
1. Conservative style:
It is best structural elements for essay writing.
It used to deliberate different sections of answer.
Space is utilized in paragraph (two blank line in between).
2. Key Point style:
Use of headings, underlining, margins, diagrams & tables.
It use indentation and dot points.
It include enormous amount of information.
3. Holistic style:
It aims to answer the question from thematic and
integrative perspective.
It needs strong understanding of course and to see
outcomes.
29

MECHANICS OF WRITING A RESEARCH
REPORT
1. Size and Physical Design:
Manuscript should be written on unruled paper 8 ½” x
11” in size.
It should be written by hand in blue or black ink.
Margin 1 or 1 ½ inches at left & right hand side, 1 inch
margin on top & bottom.
It should be neat, typed on double – spaced.
2. Procedure:
The various steps in writing report as mentioned in the
parts of a research.
3. Layout:
Proper layout should be adopted in the report. 30

4. Treatment of quotations:
It should be placed in quotation marks and double spaced.
Single space at least ½ inch to right to normal text margin.
5. Footnotes:
It serve two purposes, i) identification of materials in reports,
ii) notice of materials but for supplemental value.
It is for cross references, citation of authorities & sources,
acknowledgement.
It is placed at bottom of page for identification.
It should numbered consecutively, beginning with 1 in each
chapter separately & no. should be above line.
Use asterisk (*) symbols to prevent confusion.
It is typed in single space & divided from one another by
double space.
31

6. Documentation Style:
Proper style should be followed in completing the
documentation.
Some of the order followed in documentary footnotes are:
i) Regarding Single – volume reference:
Author’s name in normal order (not begin with last
name).
Title of work (italics), place & date of publication.
Pagination reference (page no).
(E.g.) John Gassner, Masters of the Drama, New York:
Dover Publications, Inc. 1954, p.315.
ii) Regarding multivolumed reference:
Author’s name in normal order.
Title of work (italics), Place & date of publication.
No. of volume & pagination references (page no).
32

iii) Regarding works arranged alphabetically:
This is for works arranged alphabetically such as
encyclopedias & dictionaries.
No pagination reference is needed.
(E.g.) “Salamanca”, Encyclopedia Britannica, 14th Edition.
“Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin”, Dictionary of national
biography.
iv) Regarding periodicals reference:
Name of author in normal order, title with quotation.
Name of periodical (italics), volume no., date & page no.
v) Regarding anthologies and collections reference:
It should acknowledged literary work not only by author
but also name of the collector. 33

vi) Regarding second – hand quotations reference:
Original author & title, quoted or cited in.
Second author work.
(E.g.) J.F. Jones, Life in Ploynesia, p.16, quoted in History
of the Pacific Ocean area, by R.B. Abel, p.191.
vii) Case of multiple authorship:
Documentation should mention with the first author
name and multiple authorship indicated by “et al.” or
“and others”.
Single page referred as p., more than one page referred
as pp.
Roman numerical is used to indicate the no. of volume.
Only for page no. 199 and following page should be
represented by ‘199f’.
34

7. Punctuation and Abbreviations in footnotes:
Author’s name followed by comma.
Title of book with words, “A”, “An” should be
omitted.
Place of publication is stated in abbreviated form (i.e.)
Lond. for London, N.Y. for New York, N.D. for New
Delhi.
Name of the publisher along with copyright and date
enclosed in brackets [c 1978].
All the entry is followed by a comma.
The volume and page references separated by a
comma.
Some of the English and Latin abbreviations are
often used in bibliographies and footnotes to eliminate
tedious repetition. 35

List of common abbreviations used in report-writing:
36

8. Use of Statistics, Charts and Graphs:
It contributes great deal of clarification & simplification of
research results.
It is presented in form of tables, charts, bars & line-graphs.
It should be neat & attractive.
9. The Final Draft:
Revising & rewriting should be done before final draft.
Sentences are clear, grammatically correct, various points fit
together.
10. Bibliography:
It should be prepared & appended to research.
11. Preparation of the Index:
It is prepared both as subject index & author index.
It gives name of subject topics or concepts along with page
no.
It should be arranged alphabetically.
38

WRITING REPORT CONSIDERATIONS
1. Prewriting concerns:
Before writing, it should ask –
* What is the purpose? * Who will read report?
* What are circumstances and limitations for writing?
* Do you need statistics? * How will report be used?
2. The Outline:
After completing analysis, statistical tests, it had to
develop outline.
(i.e.) I. Major Topic Heading
A. Major Subtopic heading
1. Subtopic
a. Minor subtopic and goes on…..
39

* Topic Outline – a keyword or two are used.
- the writer knows its significance & represented by
word or phrase.
* Sentence Outline – it express essential thoughts
associated with specific topic.
- it should improve the readability & deals with two
major components i) what to say & ii) how to say it.
3. The Bibliography:
It is guidelines for section, alphabetical arrangement
& annotation.
It includes end notes & references in the book.
It follows Publication Manual of American
Psychological Association (APA), Manual for
Theses and Dissertations. 40

4. Writing the Draft:
Each writer uses different mechanisms for getting
thoughts into written form.
It translate their prose into word-processed format.
Use advanced computer packages for spelling errors,
avoiding confusion of common words, grammar,
punctuation, transported letters, style problem &
readability level.
5. Readability:
It topic is more interest, then it can obtain high
readership.
It can be measured through readability index.
(i.e.) Flesch Reading Ease score is measured between 0 &
100. If it is lower, then the material is harder to read. If
it is higher, then it is easily read & understandable.
41

6. Comprehensibility:
Research writing is designed to convey information.
Choose right words to convey accurately, clearly &
efficiently.
Words & sentences should be organized & edited.
* Pace – it is the rate at which the printed page
presents information to the reader.
Some of the methods to adjust pace of writing are –
• Use ample white space, wide margins.
• Break large units of text into smaller units.
• Relieve difficult text with visual aids.
• Use exact words for the known concepts.
• Repeat and summarize critical & difficult ideas.42

7. Tone:
Review the writing to ensure the tone is appropriate.
Report prepared for reader conveys sincerity,
warmth and involvement of part of author.
Remove negative phrasing & rewrite positively.
8. Final Proof:
It is helpful to draft the report before doing final
editing.
Writing flow is smoothly or not.
It is apparent to reader, findings & suggestions
adequately meet the problem and research objectives.
Tables & graphs display the proper information in
easy-to-read format.
43

DOs AND DON’Ts OF REPORT
WRITING
1. Font size is not too small or too large. (11 or 12 is
good).
2. Acknowledgement is not be a separate page, it is
altogether for 1st and 2nd page.
3. Paragraphs should not be too large.
4. Figures, equations should taken from some
references.
5. Figure no should ne mentioned like Fig. 4 or Fig.
1.2 (similarly to section, equation also).
6. Cite reference (i.e.) “Threshold voltage is a strong
function of implant dose [1].” 44

7. Follow standard format while writing references.
(IEEE, APA format).
8. Don’t type references entirely in capital letters.
9. Order of references must be cited one by one.
10. Each figure close to the part of text where it is referred.
11. Figures viewed together with caption.
12. Purpose of figure is to state what it is presented in
figure.
13. Resize a plot or figure to make good appearance in
report.
14. It need brief introductions and start sections, sub
sections.
15. Short report is acceptable, if it covers all the work.
45

16. Don’t make one-line paragraphs.
17. Add space after full stop, comma, colon, etc.
18. Don’t use informal language, don’t use “&”.
19. Write ‘and’ instead, don’t write “there’re” for “there are”.
20. It use “list” option which gives clarity of report.
21. Don’t use bullets in report, they are acceptable in
presentation not in formal report.
22. Check grammar and punctuation are correct.
23. Do spell check before taking a print out of report.
24. Always write in simple language in order to may the
reader’s interest.
25. Report must have flow of work as per the report format.
26. Plagiarism is very serious offense. (copy of other material is
not allowed). 46

STRUCTURE OF A REPORT
IMR & D Framework:
47

What do I put in the beginning part?
48

What do I put in the middle part?
What do I put in the end part?
49

What do I put in the end part?
50

Report parts
Prefatory parts
Main body of
the report
Appended parts
ELEMENTS (COMPONENTS) OF A
REPORT
52

Prefatory parts
Title page
Letter of
transmittal
Letter of
authorization
Table of contents
Objectives
Results
Conclusions
Recommendations
Summary
53

Main body of the report
Introduction
Methodology
Area 1
Area 2
Final area
Results Limitations
Conclusions and
recommendations
54

Appended parts
Data collection
forms
Detailed
calculations
General tables
Bibliography
55

CONTENTS (LAYOUT) OF RESEARCH
REPORT
Layout of the report should comprise –
A) Preliminary Pages
B) Main text
C) End matter.
A) Preliminary Pages:
The report should carry a title and date, followed by
acknowledgements in form of ‘Preface’ of
‘Foreword’.
It should have table of contents followed by lists of
tables and illustrations.
It should locate required information in the report.
56

B) Main text:
It is the complete outline of research report along with
all details.
It consists title as first page of main text and follows
other details.
It have following sections –
i) Introduction:
 It is to introduce research projects to readers.
 It should contain clear objectives, research background.
 Brief summary, hypothesis of study.
 The methodology adopted (i.e.) How study carried out?
 What basic design?, Experimental manipulations?
 Scope of study, statistical analysis adopted &
limitations of study. 57

ii) Statement of findings and recommendations:
 It should contain statement of findings and
recommendations, which can be easily understood.
iii) Results:
 Detailed presentation of findings of study with data in
form of tables and charts.
 It should contain statistical summaries and reductions of
data.
 Relevant results should place in report and presented in
logical sequence.
iv) Implications of the results:
 State the implications that flow from results of study.
 It is necessary to finish the report with short conclusions
with summaries.
58

Implications has three main aspects –
a) statement of inferences drawn from present study
may be expected to apply in similar situations.
b) conditions of present study may limit the
generalizations of inferences.
c) relevant questions which are unanswered can be
raised along with suggestions.
v) Summary:
 To conclude the research report with brief summary,
research problem, methodology, major findings and
major conclusions drawn from research results.
C) End Matter:
Appendices, questionnaire, sample information,
mathematical derivations, bibliography, Index should
be given at the end of the report. 59

CHAPTERIZATION OF RESEARCH
REPORT PARTS
Cover Sheet:
• Full title of the report.
• Name of the researcher.
• Name of the unit of which project is a part.
• Name of the institution.
• Date / year.
Title page:
• Full title and your name.
Acknowledgement:
• Thanks giving to the people helped you.
Contents: chapter title and subheadings.
60

List of tables:
• Headings in report should given page numbers.
• Each chapter begin on new page.
• Subdivide the sections and sub-sections (i.e.) 1, 2, 3,
(3.1, 3.2), etc.
Abstract or Summary or Executive summary:
• Overview of whole report.
• What you set out to do, focus on literature review,
methodology based on objectives, summary of findings
and analysis of findings.
Body:
Aims and Purposes or Aims & Objectives:
• Why did you do this work? What problem identified?
• Mention specific research. 61
Mr.T.Somasundaram

Review of Literature:
• It help to put your research in background context and its
importance.
• It include articles & books relevant to topic.
Methodology:
• It deals with methods & principles used in research, sample
size.
• Methods used for research, method of data collection,
measurement used, sampling techniques.
Results or Findings:
• What did you find out the research?
• Presentation of results with calculations, tables, graphs and
charts or figures.
Analysis and Discussion:
• Interpret your results, compare with other research done in this
area.
• Accuracy of measurement is discussed.
62

Conclusions:
• Summarize briefly the main conclusion that discussed on
‘results’.
• Don’t give conclusions without evidence.
Recommendations:
• Suggestions for action or further research.
• Give recommendations, if necessary.
Appendix:
• It include blank copy of questionnaire in appendix.
• It include data calculations, drawings, plans, etc.
• Balance sheet (if research area is finance).
References:
• List of all sources referred for the report.
• Mention in American Psychological Association (APA)
format is recognized internationally. 63

TYPES OF REPORTS
* Research report may differ in length and form.
(E.g.) business firms prefer reports in form of letters.
Types of Reports:
1. Technical Report: It is used whenever a full written
report of the study is required whether for record-
keeping or for public dissemination.
It emphasis on three things –
i) methods employed.
ii) assumptions made in the course of study.
iii) detailed presentation of findings including their
limitations and supporting data.

Outline of a Technical Report:
a) Summary of results – brief review of main findings in 2
or 3 pages.
b) Nature of the study – description of objectives of study,
formulation of problem, working hypothesis, type of
analysis, data required, etc.
c) Methods employed – methods used in study and its
limitations. (E.g.) sample design, sample size, selection,
etc.
d) Data – discussion of data collected, their sources,
limitations.
e) Analysis of data & presentation of findings – data
analysis & its presentation of study with supporting data
in form of tables and charts.
f) Conclusions – detailed summary of findings & results.
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g) Bibliography – various sources should be prepared &
attached.
i) Technical appendices – appendices given for technical
matters relating to questionnaires, mathematical
derivations, etc.
j) Index – it must be prepared & given in report at end.
2. Popular (General) Report: It is used if the research
results have policy implication. (E.g.) “Best B-Schools
survey in Business Magazines”.
• This report emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness.
• It has attractive layout, many subheadings, etc.
• It emphasis on practical aspects.
Outline of a Popular Report:
a) Findings & their implications – emphasis on findings
of practical interest and implication of these findings.
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b) Recommendations for action – it is based on
findings of the study.
c) Objective of the study – general review of how
problem is presented along with objectives of study.
d) Methods employed – brief & non technical
description of methods & techniques used.
e) Results – it is the main body of report & it must be
presented in clear terms with liberal use such as
charts, diagrams.
f) Technical appendices – more detailed information
about method used.
3. Practical Reports: A report conveys an information
and recommendations from a researcher who has
investigated a topic in detail.
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4. Academic Reports: A report written for an academic
course can be thought of as a simulation.
- it deals with theoretical ideas and serve academic and
practical purposes.
Essentials of a Good Report:
1. Style – it is easy to read and understand, sentence are
good and language used is simple & avoid jargon.
2. Layout – good layout should be their, sections,
paragraphs, headings and subheadings, lettering and
bullet points.
3. Accuracy – everything the researcher writes is accurate.
If mislead, then it will destroy your work.
4. Clarity – use simple language to express your point of
view.
5. Revision – report should be read one time, check
spelling and grammatical errors.
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6. Readability – attractive appearance, non technical
subject matter, clear & direct style, short sentences, short
& familiar words.
7. Reinforcement – it gets the message across & used to
get effect in all circumstances.
(E.g.) during presentations – tell what are you going to say.
- Then say it.
- Then tell them what you said.
8. Feedback meeting – it is useful to circulate copies of
report to feedback meeting, which include
recommendations for change in conclusion.
- does the report have impact?
- does introduction encourage?
- have objectives been met? have conclusion clearly
stated?
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PRECAUTIONS FOR WRITING
RESEARCH REPORT
1. Length of the report should be long enough to cover the
subject but short enough to maintain interest.
2. It shouldn’t be dull, it should be sustain reader’s interest.
3. Abstract terminology & technical jargon should be
avoided & convey matter as simply as possible. (avoid
‘there may be’, ‘it seems’).
4. It must provide availability of findings which make
readers interested in acquiring knowledge.
5. Layout of report should be well thought out &
appropriate.
6. It should free from grammatical mistakes and strictly
accordance with quotations, footnotes, punctuations &
use of abbreviations.
70

7. It must present logical analysis of subject matter.
8. It should show originality & necessarily an attempt to
solve intellectual problem.
9. It must state policy implications relating to problem and
kinds of research needs in particular field.
10. Appendices should be enlisted in the report.
11. Bibliography of sources is must for good report.
12. Index is essential part of a good report and prepared and
attached at the end.
13. It must be attractive, neat and clean, typed or printed.
14. Calculated confidence limits must be mentioned in the
report.
15. Objectivity, nature, methods and analysis adopted must
be stated clearly in the report.
71

Data Analysis & Interpretation and Report Writing

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