Data models
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This document discusses different types of data models, including object based models like entity relationship and object oriented models, physical models that describe how data is stored, and record based logical models. It specifically mentions hierarchical, network, and relational models as examples of record based logical data models. The purpose of data models is to represent and make data understandable by specifying rules for database construction, allowed data operations, and integrity.
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Virtual memoryAnuj Modi The document discusses the concept of virtual memory. Virtual memory allows a program to access more memory than what is physically available in RAM by storing unused portions of the program on disk. When a program requests data that is not currently in RAM, it triggers a page fault that causes the needed page to be swapped from disk into RAM. This allows the illusion of more memory than physically available through swapping pages between RAM and disk as needed by the program during execution.
Timing and-control-unit
Timing and-control-unitAnuj Modi The document discusses the control unit of a CPU. It describes the functions of the control unit, which include generating timing signals, controlling data flow between the processor and memory/peripherals, and directing the computer to carry out instructions. The control unit can be implemented using either a hardwired or microprogrammed design. A hardwired control unit uses logic circuits to generate signals, while a microprogrammed unit executes a stored program of microinstructions.
Synchronous and-asynchronous-data-transfer
Synchronous and-asynchronous-data-transferAnuj Modi Synchronous data transfer involves sharing a common clock between a CPU and I/O interface so that data transfer is coordinated. Asynchronous transfer has independent clocks, so handshaking methods like strobe control and handshaking are used. Strobe control uses a single strobe pulse to indicate valid data. Handshaking adds a second control signal for acknowledgment between units. This ensures the source knows data was received and the destination knows data is available.
Registers and-common-bus
Registers and-common-busAnuj Modi The document describes the basic registers in a computer including the accumulator, program counter, instruction register, data register, address register, and temporary register. It explains that these registers are used to temporarily store and manipulate data and instructions during program execution. A common bus is used to transfer information between the registers and memory unit.
Ram and-rom-chips
Ram and-rom-chipsAnuj Modi RAM is the main memory that allows bidirectional transfer of data via its data bus. It has a capacity of 128 bytes addressed by a 7-bit address. ROM can only read and can store more data than RAM in the same size chip. A memory address map assigns addresses to RAM and ROM chips. RAM uses address lines 1-7 and is selected by address lines 8-9 through a decoder. ROM uses address lines 1-9 and is selected by address line 10.
Memory
MemoryAnuj Modi The document discusses computer memory and its types. It explains that memory is required to store data and instructions before, during, and after processing by the CPU. There are two main types of memory: primary and secondary. Primary memory (RAM and ROM) is high-speed volatile memory that is used for temporary storage and processing. Secondary memory (hard disks, optical disks, magnetic tapes, etc.) is non-volatile storage for long-term storage and retrieval of data. The document provides details about different types of primary and secondary storage, their characteristics, uses, and examples.
Computer instructions
Computer instructionsAnuj Modi An instruction format consists of bits that specify an operation to perform on data in computer memory. The processor fetches instructions from memory and decodes the bits to execute them. Instruction formats have operation codes to define operations like addition and an address field to specify where data is located. Computers may have different instruction sets.
Cache memory
Cache memoryAnuj Modi Cache memory is a small, fast memory located between the CPU and main memory. It stores copies of frequently used instructions and data to accelerate access and improve performance. There are different mapping techniques for cache including direct mapping, associative mapping, and set associative mapping. When the cache is full, replacement algorithms like LRU and FIFO are used to determine which content to remove. The cache can write to main memory using either a write-through or write-back policy.
Introduction to-dbms
Introduction to-dbmsAnuj Modi Data is a collection of raw facts and figures that can be processed by computing machines. Information is data that has been converted into a more useful form to help with decision making. A database is an organized collection of related information that can be easily accessed, managed, and updated. Common database operations include inserting, updating, deleting, and retrieving stored information. Manual databases are less efficient than computerized databases as the number of records increases due to issues like redundancy, inconsistency, isolation, security, speed of access and recovery of data.
DBA
DBAAnuj Modi The document discusses the role and responsibilities of a database administrator (DBA). A DBA has centralized control over the database and is responsible for its creation, modification, and maintenance. Key responsibilities of a DBA include deciding the database's content and storage structure, providing support to users, defining backup and recovery strategies, setting security and integrity checks, and monitoring performance and making adjustments in response to changing requirements.
Architecture of-dbms-and-data-independence
Architecture of-dbms-and-data-independenceAnuj Modi The document discusses the architecture of a database management system (DBMS). It describes the three levels of DBMS architecture: the external, conceptual, and internal views. The external view represents how individual users see the data. The conceptual view presents a common view of data for all users. The internal view describes the physical storage and organization of data. This three-level architecture provides data independence, where each level is isolated from changes in the other levels.
Central Processing Unit User View
Central Processing Unit User ViewAnuj Modi This document summarizes the central processing unit (CPU) and its organization. The CPU has three main parts: the register set, arithmetic logic unit (ALU), and control unit. It describes two common CPU organizations: general register organization and stack organization. General register organization uses multiple registers and a register set with a register file and ALU. The stack organization uses a last-in, first-out stack and stack pointer register. It also discusses addressing modes that provide programming versatility and reduce the number of bits in instruction addresses.
Microprogram Control 
Microprogram Control Anuj Modi A microprogrammed control unit stores control signals for executing instructions in a control memory rather than using dedicated logic. It has four main components: 1) a control memory that stores microinstructions specifying microoperations, 2) a control address register that selects microinstructions, 3) a sequencer that generates the next address, and 4) a pipeline register that holds the selected microinstruction. Microprograms are sequences of microinstructions that are executed to carry out machine-level instructions. Microinstructions can implement conditional branching to alter the control flow.
Graphs In Data Structure
Graphs In Data StructureAnuj Modi A graph G is composed of vertices V connected by edges E. It can be represented using an adjacency matrix or adjacency lists. Graph search algorithms like depth-first search (DFS) and breadth-first search (BFS) are used to traverse the graph and find paths between vertices. DFS recursively explores edges until reaching the end of a branch before backtracking, while BFS explores edges in levels starting from the starting vertex.
Graphs In Data Structure
Graphs In Data StructureAnuj Modi A graph G is composed of vertices V connected by edges E. It can be represented using an adjacency matrix or adjacency lists. Graph search algorithms like depth-first search (DFS) and breadth-first search (BFS) are used to traverse the graph and find paths between vertices. DFS recursively explores edges until reaching the end of a branch before backtracking, while BFS explores all neighbors at each level before moving to the next.
B trees in Data Structure
B trees in Data StructureAnuj Modi B-Trees are tree data structures used to store data on disk storage. They allow for efficient retrieval of data compared to binary trees when using disk storage due to reduced height. B-Trees group data into nodes that can have multiple children, reducing the height needed compared to binary trees. Keys are inserted by adding to leaf nodes or splitting nodes and promoting middle keys. Deletion involves removing from leaf nodes, borrowing/promoting keys, or joining nodes.
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Data models
- 1. Mrs. Maninder Kaur [email protected] Maninder Kaur www.eazynotes.com 1
- 2. MODEL A Model is representation of reality, ’real world’ objects and events and their associations. A database model is an organizing principle that specifies particular mechanism of data storage and retrieval. The model explains, in terms of services available to an interfacing application, how to access a data element when other related elements are known. Maninder Kaur www.eazynotes.com 2
- 3. Components of Data Models Structure Part: Consisting of set of rules according to which databases can be constructed. Manipulative Part: Define the types of operation that are allowed on the data. Set of Integrity Rules: Which ensures that data is accurate. Maninder Kaur www.eazynotes.com 3
- 4. Purpose of Data Model To represent data. To make the data understandable. Maninder Kaur www.eazynotes.com 4
- 5. Types of Data Models Object Based Data Models Physical Data Models Record Based Logical Data Models Maninder Kaur www.eazynotes.com 5
- 6. Object Based Data Models It use concepts such as entities, attributes and relationships. Types of Object Based Data Models: * Entity Relationship * Object Oriented * Semantic *Functional Maninder Kaur www.eazynotes.com 6
- 7. Physical Data Models It describe how data is stored in the computer, representing information such as record structures, record ordering and access paths. Less no. of models are there. Maninder Kaur www.eazynotes.com 7
- 8. Record Based Logical Data Models o It is used to specify the overall logical structure of the database and to provide a higher-level description of the implementation. o Structured database in fixed formats. Maninder Kaur www.eazynotes.com 8
- 9. Types of Record Based Data Models Hierarchical Model Network Model Relational Model Maninder Kaur www.eazynotes.com 9
- 10. Types of Record Based Data Models Hierarchical Model Network Model Relational Model Maninder Kaur www.eazynotes.com 9